Non-Christian religions.
The ceremonial use of lights in the Christian Church, with which this
article is mainly concerned, probably has a double origin: in a very
natural symbolism, and in the adaptation of certain pagan and Jewish
rites and customs of which the symbolic meaning was Christianized. Light
is everywhere the symbol of joy and of life-giving power, as darkness is
of death and destruction. Fire, the most mysterious and impressive of
the elements, the giver of light and of all the good things of life, is
a thing sacred and adorable in primitive religions, and fire-worship
still has its place in two at least of the great religions of the world.
The Parsis adore fire as the visible expression of Ahura-Mazda, the
eternal principle of light and righteousness; the Brahmans worship it as
divine and omniscient.[1] The Hindu festival of Dewali (Diyawali, from
_diya_, light), when temples and houses are illuminated with countless
lamps, is held every November to celebrate Lakhshmi, the goddess of
prosperity. In the ritual of the Jewish temple fire and light played a
conspicuous part. In the Holy of Holies was a "cloud of light"
(_shekinah_), symbolical of the presence of Yahweh, and before it stood
the candlestick with six branches, on each of which and on the central
stem was a lamp eternally burning; while in the forecourt was an altar
on which the sacred fire was never allowed to go out. Similarly the
Jewish synagogues have each their eternal lamp; while in the religion of
Islam lighted lamps mark things and places specially holy; thus the
Ka'ba at Mecca is illuminated by thousands of lamps hanging from the
gold and silver rods that connect the columns of the surrounding
colonnade.
Greece and Rome.
The Greeks and Romans, too, had their sacred fire and their ceremonial
lights. In Greece the _Lampadedromia_ or _Lampadephoria_ (torch-race)
had its origin in ceremonies connected with the relighting of the sacred
fire. Pausanias (i. 26, § 6) mentions the golden lamp made by
Callimachus which burned night and day in the sanctuary of Athena Polias
on the Acropolis, and (vii. 22, §§ 2 and 3) tells of a statue of Hermes
Agoraios, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea, before which lamps
were lighted. Among the Romans lighted candles and lamps formed part of
the cult of the domestic tutelary deities; on all festivals doors were
garlanded and lamps lighted (Juvenal, _Sat._ xii. 92; Tertullian,
_Apol._ xxxv.). In the cult of Isis lamps were lighted by day. In the
ordinary temples were candelabra, e.g. that in the temple of Apollo
Palatinus at Rome, originally taken by Alexander from Thebes, which was
in the form of a tree from the branches of which lights hung like fruit.
In comparing pagan with Christian usage it is important to remember that
the lamps in the pagan temples were not symbolical, but votive offerings
to the gods. Torches and lamps were also carried in religious
processions.
Funeral lamps.
The pagan custom of burying lamps with the dead conveyed no such
symbolical meaning as was implied in the late Christian custom of
placing lights on and about the tombs of martyrs and saints. Its object
was to provide the dead with the means of obtaining light in the next
world, a wholly material conception; and the lamps were for the most
part unlighted. It was of Asiatic origin, traces of it having been
observed in Phoenicia and in the Punic colonies, but not in Egypt or
Greece. In Europe it was confined to the countries under the domination
of Rome.[2]
Christian symbolism of light.
In Christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived as
symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature and the
divine presence. Christ is "the true Light" (John i. 9), and at his
transfiguration "the fashion of his countenance was altered, and his
raiment was white and glistering" (Luke ix. 29); when the Holy Ghost
descended upon the apostles, "there appeared unto them cloven tongues of
fire, and it sat upon each of them" (Acts ii. 3); at the conversion of
St Paul "there shined round him a great light from heaven" (Acts ix. 3);
while the glorified Christ is represented as standing "in the midst of
seven candlesticks ... his head and hairs white like wool, as white as
snow; and his eyes as a flame of fire" (Rev. i. 14, 15). Christians are
"children of Light" at perpetual war with "the powers of darkness."
The early Church.
Tertullian and Lactantius.
2nd and 3rd centuries.
All this might very early, without the incentive of Jewish and pagan
example, have affected the symbolic ritual of the primitive Church.
There is, however, no evidence of any ceremonial use of lights in
Christian worship during the first two centuries. It is recorded, indeed
(Acts xx. 7, 8), that on the occasion of St Paul's preaching at
Alexandria in Troas "there were many lights in the upper chamber"; but
this was at night, and the most that can be hazarded is that a specially
large number were lighted as a festive illumination, as in modern Church
festivals (Martigny, _Dict. des antiqu. Chrét._). As to a purely
ceremonial use, such early evidence as exists is all the other way. A
single sentence of Tertullian (_Apol._ xxxv.) sufficiently illuminates
Christian practice during the 2nd century. "On days of rejoicing," he
says, "we do not shade our door-posts with laurels nor encroach upon the
day-light with lamps" (_die laeto non laureis postes obumbramus nec
lucernis diem infringimus_). Lactantius, writing early in the 4th
century, is even more sarcastic in his references to the heathen
practice. "They kindle lights," he says, "as though to one who is in
darkness. Can he be thought sane who offers the light of lamps and
candles to the Author and Giver of all light?" (_Div. Inst. vi. de vero
cultu_, cap. 2, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ vi. 637).[3] This is primarily an
attack on votive lights, and does not necessarily exclude their
ceremonial use in other ways. There is, indeed, evidence that they were
so used before Lactantius wrote. The 34th canon of the synod of Elvira
(305), which was contemporary with him, forbade candles to be lighted in
cemeteries during the day-time, which points to an established custom as
well as to an objection to it; and in the Roman catacombs lamps have
been found of the 2nd and 3rd centuries which seem to have been
ceremonial or symbolical.[4] Again, according to the _Acta_ of St
Cyprian (d. 258), his body was borne to the grave _praelucentibus
cereis_, and Prudentius, in his hymn on the martyrdom of St Lawrence
(_Peristeph._ ii. 71, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ lx. 300), says that in the
time of St Laurentius, i.e. the middle of the 3rd century, candles stood
in the churches of Rome on golden candelabra. The gift, mentioned by
Anastasius (_in Sylv._), made by Constantine to the Vatican basilica, of
a _pharum_ of gold, garnished with 500 dolphins each holding a lamp, to
burn before St Peter's tomb, points also to a custom well established
before Christianity became the state religion.
Jerome and Vigilantius.
Whatever previous custom may have been--and for the earliest ages it is
difficult to determine absolutely owing to the fact that the Christians
held their services at night--by the close of the 4th century the
ceremonial use of lights had become firmly and universally established
in the Church. This is clear, to pass by much other evidence, from the
controversy of St Jerome with Vigilantius.
Vigilantius, a presbyter of Barcelona, still occupied the position of
Tertullian and Lactantius in this matter. "We see," he wrote, "a rite
peculiar to the pagans introduced into the churches on pretext of
religion, and, while the sun is still shining, a mass of wax tapers
lighted.... A great honour to the blessed martyrs, whom they think to
illustrate with contemptible little candles (_de vilissimis
cereolis_)!" Jerome, the most influential theologian of the day, took
up the cudgels against Vigilantius (he "ought to be called
Dormitantius"), who, in spite of his fatherly admonition, had dared
again "to open his foul mouth and send forth a filthy stink against
the relics of the holy martyrs" (_Hier. Ep._ cix. al. 53--_ad
Ripuarium Presbyt._, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ p. 906). If candles are
lit before their tombs, are these the ensigns of idolatry? In his
treatise _contra Vigilantium_ (_Patr. lat._ t. xxiii.) he answers the
question with much common sense. There can be no harm if ignorant and
simple people, or religious women, light candles in honour of the
martyrs. "We are not born, but reborn, Christians," and that which
when done for idols was detestable is acceptable when done for the
martyrs. As in the case of the woman with the precious box of
ointment, it is not the gift that merits reward, but the faith that
inspires it. As for lights in the churches, he adds that "in all the
churches of the East, whenever the gospel is to be read, lights are
lit, though the sun be rising (_jam sole rutilante_), not in order to
disperse the darkness, but as a visible sign of gladness (_ad signum
laetitiae demonstrandum_)." Taken in connexion with a statement which
almost immediately precedes this--"Cereos autem non clara luce
accendimus, sicut frustra calumniaris: sed ut noctis tenebras hoc
solatio temperemus" (§ 7)--this seems to point to the fact that the
ritual use of lights in the church services, so far as already
established, arose from the same conservative habit as determined the
development of liturgical vestments, i.e. the lights which had been
necessary at the nocturnal meetings were retained, after the hours of
service had been altered, and invested with a symbolical meaning.
Practice in the 4th century.
Eastern Church.
Already they were used at most of the conspicuous functions of the
Church. Paulinus, bishop of Nola (d. 431), describes the altar at the
eucharist as "crowned with crowded lights,"[5] and even mentions the
"eternal lamp."[6] For their use at baptisms we have, among much other
evidence, that of Zeno of Verona for the West,[7] and that of Gregory of
Nazianzus for the East.[8] Their use at funerals is illustrated by
Eusebius's description of the burial of Constantine,[9] and Jerome's
account of that of St Paula.[10] At ordinations they were used, as is
shown by the 6th canon of the council of Carthage (398), which decrees
that the acolyte is to hand to the newly ordained deacon _ceroferarium
cum cereo_. As to the blessing of candles, according to the _Liber
pontificalis_ Pope Zosimus in 417 ordered these to be blessed,[11] and
the Gallican and Mozarabic rituals also provided for this ceremony.[12]
The Feast of the Purification of the Virgin, known as Candlemas (q.v.),
because on this day the candles for the whole year are blessed, was
established--according to some authorities--by Pope Gelasius I. about
492. As to the question of "altar lights," however, it must be borne in
mind that these were not placed upon the altar, or on a retable behind
it, until the 12th century. These were originally the candles carried by
the deacons, according to the _Ordo Romanus_ (i. 8; ii. 5; iii. 7) seven
in number, which were set down either on the steps of the altar, or,
later, behind it. In the Eastern Church, to this day, there are no
lights on the high altar; the lighted candles stand on a small altar
beside it, and at various parts of the service are carried by the
lectors or acolytes before the officiating priest or deacon. The "crowd
of lights" described by Paulinus as crowning the altar were either
grouped round it or suspended in front of it; they are represented by
the sanctuary lamps of the Latin Church and by the crown of lights
suspended in front of the altar in the Greek.
Development of the use.
To trace the gradual elaboration of the symbolism and use of ceremonial
lights in the Church, until its full development and systematization in
the middle ages, would be impossible here. It must suffice to note a few
stages in the process. The burning of lights before the tombs of martyrs
led naturally to their being burned also before relics and lastly before
images and pictures. This latter practice, hotly denounced as idolatry
during the iconoclastic controversy (see ICONOCLASM), was finally
established as orthodox by the second general council of Nicaea (787),
which restored the worship of images. A later development, however, by
which certain lights themselves came to be regarded as objects of
worship and to have other lights burned before _them_, was condemned as
idolatrous by the synod of Noyon in 1344.[13] The passion for symbolism
extracted ever new meanings out of the candles and their use. Early in
the 6th century Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, pointed out the three-fold
elements of a wax-candle (_Opusc._ ix. and x.), each of which would make
it an offering acceptable to God; the rush-wick is the product of pure
water, the wax is the offspring of virgin bees,[14] the flame is sent
from heaven.[15] Clearly, wax was a symbol of the Blessed Virgin and the
holy humanity of Christ. The later middle ages developed the idea.
Durandus, in his _Rationale_, interprets the wax as the body of Christ,
the wick as his soul, the flame as his divine nature; and the consuming
candle as symbolizing his passion and death.
In the Roman Catholic Church.
Dedication of a church.
At Mass and choir services.
Sanctuary lamps.
Symbol of the Real Presence.
In the completed ritual system of the medieval Church, as still
preserved in the Roman Catholic communion, the use of ceremonial
lights falls under three heads. (1) They may be symbolical of the
light of God's presence, of Christ as "Light of Light," or of "the
children of Light" in conflict with the powers of darkness; they may
even be no more than expressions of joy on the occasion of great
festivals. (2) They may be votive, i.e. offered as an act of worship
(_latria_) to God. (3) They are, in virtue of their benediction by the
Church, _sacramentalia_, i.e. efficacious for the good of men's souls
and bodies, and for the confusion of the powers of darkness.[16] With
one or more of these implications, they are employed in all the public
functions of the Church. At the consecration of a church twelve lights
are placed round the walls at the twelve spots where these are
anointed by the bishop with holy oil, and on every anniversary these
are relighted; at the dedication of an altar tapers are lighted and
censed at each place where the table is anointed (_Pontificale Rom._
p. ii. _De eccl. dedicat. seu consecrat._). At every liturgical
service, and especially at Mass and at choir services, there must be
at least two lighted tapers on the altar,[17] as symbols of the
presence of God and tributes of adoration. For the Mass the rule is
that there are six lights at High Mass, four at a _missa cantata_, and
two at private masses. At a Pontifical High Mass (i.e. when the bishop
celebrates) the lights are seven, because seven golden candlesticks
surround the risen Saviour, the chief bishop of the Church (see Rev.
i. 12). At most pontifical functions, moreover, the bishop--as the
representative of Christ--is preceded by an acolyte with a burning
candle (_bugia_) on a candlestick. The _Ceremoniale Episcoporum_ (i.
12) further orders that a burning lamp is to hang at all times before
each altar, three in front of the high altar, and five before the
reserved Sacrament, as symbols of the eternal Presence. In practice,
however, it is usual to have only one lamp lighted before the
tabernacle in which the Host is reserved. The special symbol of the
real presence of Christ is the _Sanctus_ candle, which is lighted at
the moment of consecration and kept burning until the communion. The
same symbolism is intended by the lighted tapers which must accompany
the Host whenever it is carried in procession, or to the sick and
dying.
As symbols of light and joy a candle is held on each side of the
deacon when reading the Gospel at Mass; and the same symbolism
underlies the multiplication of lights on festivals, their number
varying with the importance of the occasion. As to the number of these
latter no rule is laid down. They differ from liturgical lights in
that, whereas these must be tapers of pure beeswax or lamps fed with
pure olive oil (except by special dispensation under certain
circumstances), those used merely to add splendour to the celebration
may be of any material; the only exception being, that in the
decoration of the altar gas-lights are forbidden.
Tenebrae.
In general the ceremonial use of lights in the Roman Catholic Church
is conceived as a dramatic representation in fire of the life of
Christ and of the whole scheme of salvation. On Easter Eve the new
fire, symbol of the light of the newly risen Christ, is produced, and
from this are kindled all the lights used throughout the Christian
year until, in the gathering darkness (_tenebrae_) of the Passion,
they are gradually extinguished. This quenching of the light of the
world is symbolized at the service of _Tenebrae_ in Holy Week by the
placing on a stand before the altar of thirteen lighted tapers
arranged pyramidally, the rest of the church being in darkness. The
penitential psalms are sung, and at the end of each a candle is
extinguished. When only the central one is left it is taken down and
carried behind the altar, thus symbolizing the betrayal and the death
and burial of Christ. This ceremony can be traced to the 8th century
at Rome.
The Paschal Candle.
On Easter Eve new fire is made[18] with a flint and steel, and
blessed; from this three candles are lighted, the _lumen Christi_, and
from these again the Paschal Candle.[19] This is the symbol of the
risen and victorious Christ, and burns at every solemn service until
Ascension Day, when it is extinguished and removed after the reading
of the Gospel at High Mass. This, of course, symbolizes the Ascension;
but meanwhile the other lamps in the church have received their light
from the Paschal Candle, and so symbolize throughout the year the
continued presence of the light of Christ.
Baptism.
Ordination, etc.
Funeral lights.
At the consecration of the baptismal water the burning Paschal Candle
is dipped into the font "so that the power of the Holy Ghost may
descend into it and make it an effective instrument of regeneration."
This is the symbol of baptism as rebirth as children of Light. Lighted
tapers are also placed in the hands of the newly-baptized, or of their
god-parents, with the admonition "to preserve their baptism inviolate,
so that they may go to meet the Lord when he comes to the wedding."
Thus, too, as "children of Light," candidates for ordination and
novices about to take the vows carry lights when they come before the
bishop; and the same idea underlies the custom of carrying lights at
weddings, at the first communion, and by priests going to their first
mass, though none of these are liturgically prescribed. Finally,
lights are placed round the bodies of the dead and carried beside them
to the grave, partly as symbols that they still live in the light of
Christ, partly to frighten away the powers of darkness.
Excommunication.
Conversely, the extinction of lights is part of the ceremony of
excommunication (_Pontificale Rom._ pars iii.). Regino, abbot of Prum,
describes the ceremony as it was carried out in his day, when its
terrors were yet unabated (_De eccles. disciplina_, ii. 409). "Twelve
priests should stand about the bishop, holding in their hands lighted
torches, which at the conclusion of the anathema or excommunication
they should cast down and trample under foot." When the
excommunication is removed, the symbol of reconciliation is the
handing to the penitent of a burning taper.
Protestant Churches.
As a result of the Reformation the use of ceremonial lights was either
greatly modified, or totally abolished in the Protestant Churches. In
the Reformed (Calvinistic) Churches altar lights were, with the rest,
done away with entirely as popish and superstitious. In the Lutheran
Churches they were retained, and in Evangelical Germany have even
survived most of the other medieval rites and ceremonies (e.g. the use
of vestments) which were not abolished at the Reformation itself.
Church of England.