LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER LINDAU, PAUL
LIGHTHOUSE LINDAU
LIGHTING LINDEN
LIGHTNING LINDESAY, ROBERT
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT
LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF LINDLEY, JOHN
LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY
LIGNITE LINDLEY, WILLIAM
LIGONIER, JOHN LIGONIER LINDO, MARK PRAGER
LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI LINDSAY (family)
LIGURES BAEBIANI LINDSAY (town of Canada)
LIGURIA LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS
LI HUNG CHANG LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF
LILAC LINDUS
LILBURNE, JOHN LINE
LILIACEAE LINE ENGRAVING
LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON LINEN and LINEN MANUFACTURES
LILITH LINEN-PRESS
LILLE LINER
LILLEBONNE LING, PER HENRIK
LILLIBULLERO LING
LILLO, GEORGE LINGARD, JOHN
LILLY, WILLIAM LINGAYAT
LILOAN LINGAYEN
LILY LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN
LILYE, WILLIAM LINGEN
LIMA (Ohio, U.S.A.) LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI
LIMA (department of Peru) LINK
LIMA (capital of Peru) LINKÖPING
LIMAÇON LINLEY, THOMAS
LIMASOL LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE
LIMB LINLITHGOW
LIMBACH LINLITHGOWSHIRE
LIMBER LINNAEUS
LIMBORCH, PHILIPP VAN LINNELL, JOHN
LIMBURG (feudal state) LINNET
LIMBURG (province of Belgium) LINSANG
LIMBURG (town of Germany) LINSEED
LIMBURG (province of Holland) LINSTOCK
LIMBURG CHRONICLE LINT
LIMBURGITE LINTEL
LIMBUS LINTH
LIME (exudation of holly-tree) LINTON, ELIZA LYNN
LIME (tree) LINTON, WILLIAM JAMES
LIMERICK (county of Ireland) LINTOT, BARNABY BERNARD
LIMERICK (city of Ireland) LINUS (Gregorian saint)
LIMERICK (form of verse) LINUS (Greek heroic figure)
LIMES GERMANICUS LINZ
LIMESTONE LION
LIMINA APOSTOLORUM LIONNE, HUGUES DE
LIMITATION, STATUTES OF LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE
LIMOGES LIP
LIMON LIPA
LIMONITE LIPAN
LIMOUSIN, LÉONARD LIPARI ISLANDS
LIMOUSIN LIPETSK
LIMPOPO LIPPE (river of Germany)
LINACRE, THOMAS LIPPE (principality of Germany)
LINARES (province of Chile) LIPPI
LINARES (town of Spain) LIPPSPRINGE
LINCOLN, EARLS OF LIPPSTADT
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM LIPSIUS, JUSTUS
LINCOLN (England) LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT
LINCOLN (Illinois, U.S.A.) LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE
LINCOLN (Nebraska, U.S.A.) LIQUEURS
LINCOLN JUDGMENT, THE LIQUIDAMBAR
LINCOLNSHIRE LIQUIDATION
LIND, JENNY
LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889), English theologian and bishop of
Durham, was born at Liverpool on the 13th of April 1828. His father was
a Liverpool accountant. He was educated at King Edward's school,
Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop of Manchester, and
had as contemporaries B. F. Westcott and E. W. Benson. In 1847 Lightfoot
went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there read for his degree
with Westcott. He graduated senior classic and 30th wrangler, and was
elected a fellow of his college. From 1854 to 1859 he edited the
_Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology_. In 1857 he became tutor and
his fame as a scholar grew rapidly. He was made Hulsean professor in
1861, and shortly afterwards chaplain to the Prince Consort and honorary
chaplain in ordinary to the queen. In 1866 he was Whitehall preacher,
and in 1871 he became canon of St Paul's. His sermons were not
remarkable for eloquence, but a certain solidity and balance of
judgment, an absence of partisanship, a sobriety of expression combined
with clearness and force of diction, attracted hearers and inspired them
with confidence. As was written of him in _The Times_ after his death,
"his personal character carried immense weight, but his great position
depended still more on the universally recognized fact that his belief
in Christian truth and his defence of it were supported by learning as
solid and comprehensive as could be found anywhere in Europe, and by a
temper not only of the utmost candour but of the highest scientific
capacity. The days in which his university influence was asserted were a
time of much shaking of old beliefs. The disintegrating speculations of
an influential school of criticism in Germany were making their way
among English men of culture just about the time, as is usually the
case, when the tide was turning against them in their own country. The
peculiar service which was rendered at this juncture by the 'Cambridge
School' was that, instead of opposing a mere dogmatic opposition to the
Tübingen critics, they met them frankly on their own ground; and instead
of arguing that their conclusions ought not to be and could not be true,
they simply proved that their facts and their premisses were wrong. It
was a characteristic of equal importance that Dr Lightfoot, like Dr
Westcott, never discussed these subjects in the mere spirit of
controversy. It was always patent that what he was chiefly concerned
with was the substance and the life of Christian truth, and that his
whole energies were employed in this inquiry because his whole heart was
engaged in the truths and facts which were at stake. He was not diverted
by controversy to side-issues; and his labour was devoted to the
positive elucidation of the sacred documents in which the Christian
truth is enshrined."
In 1872 the anonymous publication of _Supernatural Religion_ created
considerable sensation. In a series of masterly papers in the
_Contemporary Review_, between December 1874 and May 1877, Lightfoot
successfully undertook the defence of the New Testament canon. The
articles were published in collected form in 1889. About the same time
he was engaged in contributions to W. Smith's _Dictionary of Christian
Biography_ and _Dictionary of the Bible_, and he also joined the
committee for revising the translation of the New Testament. In 1875 he
became Lady Margaret professor of divinity in succession to William
Selwyn. He had previously written his commentaries on the epistles to
the Galatians (1865), Philippians (1868) and Colossians (1875), the
notes to which were distinguished by sound judgment and enriched from
his large store of patristic and classical learning. These commentaries
may be described as to a certain extent a new departure in New Testament
exegesis. Before Lightfoot's time commentaries, especially on the
epistles, had not infrequently consisted either of short homilies on
particular portions of the text, or of endeavours to enforce foregone
conclusions, or of attempts to decide with infinite industry and
ingenuity between the interpretations of former commentators. Lightfoot,
on the contrary, endeavoured to make his author interpret himself, and
by considering the general drift of his argument to discover his meaning
where it appeared doubtful. Thus he was able often to recover the
meaning of a passage which had long been buried under a heap of
contradictory glosses, and he founded a school in which sobriety and
common sense were added to the industry and ingenuity of former
commentators. In 1879 Lightfoot was consecrated bishop of Durham in
succession to C. Baring. His moderation, good sense, wisdom, temper,
firmness and erudition made him as successful in this position as he had
been when professor of theology, and he speedily surrounded himself with
a band of scholarly young men. He endeavoured to combine his habits of
theological study with the practical work of administration. He
exercised a large liberality and did much to further the work of
temperance and purity organizations. He continued to work at his
editions of the _Apostolic Fathers_, and in 1885 published an edition of
the Epistles of Ignatius and Polycarp, collecting also a large store of
valuable materials for a second edition of Clement of Rome, which was
published after his death (1st ed., 1869). His defence of the
authenticity of the Epistles of Ignatius is one of the most important
contributions to that very difficult controversy. His unremitting
labours impaired his health and shortened his splendid career at Durham.
He was never married. He died at Bournemouth on the 21st of December
1889, and was succeeded in the episcopate by Westcott, his schoolfellow
and lifelong friend.
Four volumes of his _Sermons_ were published in 1890.
LIGHTHOUSE, a form of building erected to carry a light for the purpose
of warning or guidance, especially at sea.
1. EARLY HISTORY.--The earliest lighthouses, of which records exist,
were the towers built by the Libyans and Cushites in Lower Egypt, beacon
fires being maintained in some of them by the priests. Lesches, a Greek
poet (c. 660 B.C.) mentions a lighthouse at Sigeum (now Cape
Incihisari) in the Troad. This appears to have been the first light
regularly maintained for the guidance of mariners. The famous Pharos[1]
of Alexandria, built by Sostratus of Cnidus in the reign of Ptolemy II.
(283-247 B.C.) was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. The
tower, which took its name from that of the small island on which it was
built, is said to have been 600 ft. in height, but the evidence in
support of this statement is doubtful. It was destroyed by an earthquake
in the 13th century, but remains are said to have been visible as late
as 1350. The name Pharos became the general term for all lighthouses,
and the term "pharology" has been used for the science of lighthouse
construction.
The tower at Ostia was built by the emperor Claudius (A.D. 50). Other
famous Roman lighthouses were those at Ravenna, Pozzuoli and Messina.
The ancient Pharos at Dover and that at Boulogne, later known as _la
Tour d'Ordre_, were built by the Romans and were probably the earliest
lighthouses erected in western Europe. Both are now demolished.
The light of Cordouan, on a rock in the sea at the mouth of the Gironde,
is the earliest example now existing of a wave-swept tower. Earlier
towers on the same rock are attributed the first to Louis le Debonnaire
(c. A.D. 805) and the second to Edward the Black Prince. The existing
structure was begun in 1584 during the reign of Henri II. of France and
completed in 1611. The upper part of the beautiful Renaissance building
was removed towards the end of the 18th century and replaced by a
loftier cylindrical structure rising to a height of 207 ft. above the
rock and with the focal plane of the light 196 ft. above high water
(fig. 1). Until the 18th century the light exhibited from the tower was
from an oak log fire, and subsequently a coal fire was in use for many
years. The ancient tower at Corunna, known as the Pillar of Hercules, is
supposed to have been a Roman Pharos. The Torre del Capo at Genoa
originally stood on the promontory of San Berrique. It was built in 1139
and first used as a lighthouse in 1326. It was rebuilt on its present
site in 1643. This beautiful tower rises 236 ft. above the cliff, the
light being elevated 384 ft. above sea-level. A lens light was first
installed in 1841. The Pharos of Meloria was constructed by the Pisans
in 1154 and was several times rebuilt until finally destroyed in 1290.
On the abandonment of Meloria by the Pisans, they erected the still
existing tower at Leghorn in 1304.
In the 17th and 18th centuries numerous towers, on which were erected
braziers or grates containing wood or coal fires, were established in
various positions on the coasts of Europe. Among such stations in the
United Kingdom were Tynemouth (c. 1608), the Isle of May (1636), St
Agnes (1680), St Bees (1718) and the Lizard (1751). The oldest
lighthouse in the United States is believed to be the Boston light
situated on Little Brewster Island on the south side of the main
entrance to Boston Harbour, Mass. It was established in 1716, the
present structure dating from 1859. During the American War of
Independence the lighthouse suffered many vicissitudes and was
successively destroyed and rebuilt three times by the American or
British forces. At the third rebuilding in 1783 a stone tower 68 ft. in
height was erected, the illuminant consisting of four oil lamps. Other
early lighthouse structures on the New England coast were those at
Beaver Tail, near the entrance to Newport Harbour (1740), and the Brant
at the entrance to Nantucket Harbour (1754). A watch-house and beacon
appear to have been erected on Beacon or Lighthouse Island as well as on
Point Allerton Hill near Boston, prior to 1673, but these structures
would seem to have been in the nature of look-out stations in time of
war rather than lighthouses for the guidance of mariners.
2. LIGHTHOUSE STRUCTURES.--The structures of lighthouses may be divided
into two classes, (a) those on rocks, shoals or in other situations
exposed to the force of the sea, and (b) the more numerous class of land
structures.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Cordouan Lighthouse.]
_Wave-swept Towers._--In determining the design of a lighthouse tower to
be erected in a wave-swept position consideration must be given to the
physical features of the site and its surroundings. Towers of this
description are classified as follows: (1) Masonry and concrete
structures; (2) Openwork steel and iron-framed erections on pile or
other foundations; (3) Cast iron plated towers; (4) Structures erected
on cylinder foundations.
(1) _Masonry Towers._--Masonry or concrete towers are generally
preferred for erection on wave-swept rocks affording good foundation,
and have also been constructed in other situations where adequate
foundations have been made by sinking caissons into a soft sea bed.
Smeaton's tower on the Eddystone Rock is the model upon which most later
designs of masonry towers have been based, although many improvements in
detail have since been made. In situations of great exposure the
following requirements in design should be observed: (a) The centre of
gravity of the tower structure should be as low as possible. (b) The
mass of the structure superimposed at any horizontal section must be
sufficient to prevent its displacement by the combined forces of wind
and waves without dependence on the adhesion at horizontal joint faces
or on the dovetailing of stones introduced as an additional safeguard.
(c) The structure should be circular in plan throughout, this form
affording the least resistance to wave stroke and wind pressure in any
direction. (d) The lower portion of the tower exposed to the direct
horizontal stroke of the waves should, for preference, be constructed
with vertical face. The upper portion to be either straight with uniform
batter or continuously curved in the vertical plane. External
projections from the face of the tower, except in the case of a gallery
under the lantern, should be avoided, the surface throughout being
smooth. (e) The height from sea-level to the top of the tower should be
sufficient to avoid the obscuration of the light by broken water or
dense spray driving over the lantern. (f) The foundation of the tower
should be carried well into the solid rock. (g) The materials of which
the tower is built should be of high density and of resistant nature.
(h) The stones used in the construction of the tower, at any rate those
on the outer face, should be dovetailed or joggled one to the other in
order to prevent their being dislodged by the sea during the process of
construction and as an additional safeguard of stability. Of late years,
cement concrete has been used to a considerable extent for maritime
structures, including lighthouses, either alone or faced with masonry.
(2) _Openwork Structures._--Many examples of openwork steel and iron
lighthouses exist. Some typical examples are described hereafter. This
form of design is suitable for situations where the tower has to be
carried on a foundation of iron or steel piles driven or screwed into an
insecure or sandy bottom, such as on shoals, coral reefs and sand banks
or in places where other materials of construction are exceptionally
costly and where facility of erection is a desideratum.
(3) _Cast iron Towers._--Cast iron plated towers have been erected in
many situations where the cost of stone or scarcity of labour would have
made the erection of a masonry tower excessively expensive.
(4) _Caisson Foundations._--Cylinder or caisson foundations have been
used for lighthouse towers in numerous cases where such structures have
been erected on sand banks or shoals. A remarkable instance is the
Rothersand Tower. Two attempts have been made to sink a caisson in the
outer Diamond Shoal off Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic coast of the
United States, but these have proved futile.
The following are brief descriptions of the more important wave-swept
towers in various parts of the world.
_Eddystone_ (_Winstanley's Tower_).--The Eddystone rocks, which lie
about 14 m. off Plymouth, are fully exposed to south-west seas. The
reef is submerged at high water of spring tides. Four towers have been
constructed on the reef. The first lighthouse (fig. 2) was polygonal
in plan and highly ornamented with galleries and projections which
offered considerable resistance to the sea stroke. The work was begun
by Henry Winstanley, a gentleman of Essex, in 1695. In 1698 it was
finished to a height of 80 ft. to the wind vane and the light
exhibited, but in the following year, in consequence of damage by
storms, the tower was increased in diameter from 16 ft. to 24 ft. by
the addition of an outer ring of masonry and made solid to a height of
20 ft. above the rock, the tower being raised to nearly 120 ft. The
work was completed in the year 1700. The lower part of the structure
appears to have been of stone, the upper part and lantern of timber.
During the great storm of the 20th of November 1703 the tower was
swept away, those in it at the time, including the builder, being
drowned.
_Eddystone_ (_Rudyerd's Tower_, fig. 3).--This structure was begun in
1706 and completed in 1709. It was a frustum of a cone 22 ft. 8 in. in
diameter at the base and 14 ft. 3 in. at the top. The tower was 92 ft.
in height to the top of the lantern. The work consisted principally of
oak timbers securely bolted and cramped together, the lower part being
filled in solid with stone to add weight to the structure. The
simplicity of the design and the absence of projections from the outer
face rendered the tower very suitable to withstand the onslaught of
the waves. The lighthouse was destroyed by fire in 1755.
_Eddystone_ (_Smeaton's Tower_, fig. 4).--This famous work, which
consisted entirely of stone, was begun in 1756, the light being first
exhibited in 1759. John Smeaton was the first engineer to use
dovetailed joints for the stones in a lighthouse structure. The
stones, which averaged 1 ton in weight, were fastened to each other by
means of dovetailed vertical joint faces, oak key wedges, and by oak
tree-nails wedged top and bottom, extending vertically from every
course into the stones beneath it. During the 19th century the tower
was strengthened on two occasions by the addition of heavy wrought
iron ties, and the overhanging cornice was reduced in diameter to
prevent the waves from lifting the stones from their beds. In 1877,
owing partly to the undermining of the rock on which the tower was
built and the insufficient height of the structure, the Corporation
of Trinity House determined on the erection of a new lighthouse in
place of Smeaton's tower.
[Illustration: FIG. 2. Winstanley 1699