THE ASSYRIANS
The bas-reliefs of Assyria afford us ample materials for becoming
acquainted with the arms and armour of that great and warlike empire,
and our own national collection probably contains the richest store of
detail.
_The Tunic._--This appears to have been of thick quilted linen or
of leather, as sometimes long hair is shown upon it. It reached to
the knees and had half-sleeves: at times a pectoral is shown of
large proportions. Another, and much more military style, consisted
of rope fastened side by side, and so bound round the body that it
had the appearance of a tight-fitting cuirass. This would be much
more efficacious against the sword and the arrow than the tunic. It
generally terminated at the waist. In the earlier sculptures there
are no indications of the metal cuirass or of greaves, but the latter
subsequently came into vogue; they were of metal and reached to the
knees.
In the invasion of Greece by Xerxes the Assyrians are described as
having defensive tunics of flax, which were stuck together surface to
surface by a soft mucilage to the number of over a dozen, and formed an
excellent defence against a sword-cut. All the varieties of armour are
faithfully shown upon the sculptures, some exhibiting the scale-like
nature of a few cuirasses, from which we may infer that mascled armour
was known to them as to most Oriental nations.
_The Helmet._--This was generally the hemispherical skull cap so much
affected by Asiatic races then and now; it was made either in iron or
leather, furnished with a chin-strap, and decorated at times with a
horse-hair crest. A design is sometimes seen which strongly approaches
the Phrygian in shape, having a portion of the crest curving over
towards the front, while another variety is that of a truncated cone
curved backwards. Defences for the neck and sides of the neck are
common.
At Marathon the helmets worn were “interlaced or interwoven,” from
which we may infer that chain mail was not unknown to the Assyrians; it
may, however, refer to bands of metal plaited together.
_The Shield._--This was circular and concave and, if we may credit
Herodotus, made of cane. The representations of this defence bear
out the assertion, however, for the front is generally marked out in
concentric circles, and wherever the back is exhibited the same circles
invariably appear. The light and tough nature of the material would
strongly commend itself for this purpose. Occasionally shields are
shown covered with leather, or one plate of metal, while others have
a surface covered with lozenges, which doubtless represents a kind of
pourpoint or quilted material stretched over the framework.
_The Sword._--The Assyrian sword as delineated upon the sculptures was
slung at the left side, and passed through two notches in the belt so
as to make it assume a horizontal position.
The sculptures in the British Museum show the general character of the
sword (or rather of the scabbard, for they are all sheathed) with great
minuteness. The pommel is very elegant in form and generally carved;
the grip is of peculiar formation, and there is no guard; from actual
examples which have been found we know that the broad blade has two
edges and terminates in a point. The scabbard is extremely artistic in
form, and the whole weapon partakes more of the nature of the dagger or
anelace than of the sword.
_The Bow_ was a favourite weapon and of the usual Oriental pattern,
being composed of horn, wood, and the large sinews of certain animals
firmly glued together. It was carried partly unstrung over the shoulder
when not in use; the total unstringing was not advisable because of the
time occupied in getting it ready, most Asiatic bows bending backwards
into an oval shape when unstrung, and requiring much physical exertion
and time to replace the string. The quiver was also suspended in the
same position, containing arrows of some length made of cane.
_The Lance_ was of short proportions, with oblong and leaf-shaped
heads, often unbarbed; it could be thrown, if desired, like a javelin.
The mace is also shown upon the sculptures, but rarely.
THE EGYPTIANS
_The Tunic._--This was invariably of a quilted material, thickly
padded, and generally composed of linen several times folded; it could
resist a cutting weapon but not the point of a sword or lance. Over
it was placed the pectoral, which covered the shoulders as well as the
chest, and was very similar to the mediæval camail.
_The Helmet_ was of the semi-globular form as a basis with various
additions, none, however, of a distinctive national character. The
material used was quilted linen of many thicknesses glued together.
_The Shield_ was used only by the spearmen, and was about a yard in
height; it was of peculiar shape, being rectangular in the lower part
and semi-circular in the upper, where a round opening was pierced,
through which the approach of the enemy could be viewed with safety.
The outer parts were covered with leather strengthened with rings and
studs.
_The Bow._--The main strength of the Egyptian armies lay in their
bowmen, who fought from chariots or on foot. English pattern than the
Oriental, as also did the arrow, which was at times over 30 inches in
length. The latter was made of cane or reed, feathered and barbed, the
heads being of bronze.
_The Spearmen_ or heavily-armed troops were accoutred in cuirasses of
bronze scales overlapping, and supported on the shoulders by straps;
or else in short tunics of heavily-quilted material with bronze plates
sewn on in a pattern. Their helmets were quilted like the tunics.
Various weapons appear to have been used by the Egyptians, but they
were all secondary to the bow and spear. The sword was straight,
double-edged, tapering from the hilt to the point, and constructed
of bronze. Scimitars, daggers, battle-axes of various shapes, and
slings were in use, while a speciality seems to have been made of the
javelin, which was hurled by means of a stick.
THE GREEKS
For the better understanding of the arms of the Greeks it is desirable
to consider those of the two distinct ages into which their history
naturally falls, viz. the Heroic and the Historic.
THE HEROIC AGE
This period is approximately 1000 years B.C., of the time of Homer,
from whom we obtain all, or nearly all, of the particulars respecting
arms and armour.
_The Cuirass._--This was made of bronze, as was the whole of the
defensive armour at that time. It was worn over a linen tunic, and
apparently consisted of a breastplate guarded round the arms and neck
with lames. That of Agamemnon is stated to have had ten bands of
bronze, twelve of gold, twenty of tin, and six of bronze round the
neck. We have mention of the defensive equipment of Menelaus which was
pierced by the arrow of Pandarus. It first passed through the golden
clasps of the waist-belt, then the breastplate, and finally through
a coat of mail which was worn underneath. The cuirass was often very
highly ornamented by repoussé work and also inlaid with gold.
_The Helmet._--The most elaborate helms were those fitting lightly to
the head and adorned with a crest which projected before and behind,
and was also furnished with plumes. The simpler forms were of leather
or bronze, fitting closely to the head, and without peak or plume.
[Illustration: PLATE II of Philip II.
_A. F. Calvert_]
[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Greek greaves (front and back view).]
_The Greaves_ covered the legs from the knee to the instep, and
from their form must have been constructed of bronze or some alloy
possessing a large amount of pliability, inasmuch as they were in one
piece, and yet nearly met behind the legs, where they were fastened
with clasps. Homer frequently alludes to the excellent way in which
these defences were made, whereby they in no way hindered the wearer
(Fig. 31). It is conjectured that the bronze used in the construction
of the greaves resembled in some respects the hardened brass or
“latten” of the mediæval ages, and that they were carefully moulded to
the limbs of the wearer.
_The Shield_, by far the most important part of the defence, was either
round or oval in form and made of bronze, protected at the back with
hide, and at times covered with it. Strengthening discs of metal,
bosses, and rings of metal were also added (Figs. 32, 33). It appears
to have been of very great weight, even Ajax on one occasion being
embarrassed by the weight of his own shield, which we are told was of
bronze backed by seven tough bulls’ hides. They reached from the neck
to the ankle, and were often elaborately decorated. A guige appears to
have been fitted at times, which passed over the right shoulder.
[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Greek shield.]
[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Greek shield (front and back).]
[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Greek sword in scabbard.]
_The Sword._--Homer applies the terms “long, large, sharp, trenchant,
and two-edged” to the sword, and it is evident that it was of the same
description as that characteristic of the Bronze Age (Fig. 34). It
was ornamented with studs of gold or silver, and the sword-belt was
apparently worn over the shoulder.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Greek bow.]
_The Lance or Javelin._--This was by far the most important weapon in
the Grecian armoury, and plays the chief part in all Homeric combats,
which commence by the spear being poised in the hand and hurled as a
javelin. It decided the contest as a rule, and it was only upon its
failing to do so that the combatants had recourse to the sword. The
lance was made of ash--long, tough, and ponderous; the head was of
bronze and unbarbed.
_The Bow._--Only one description of a bow is given to us--that of
Pandarus, which is said to be of ibex horn, strung with sinews (Fig.
35). The arrow-head is of iron; the only mention of that metal in the
warrior’s equipment, and the arrows were kept in a quiver fitted with
a lid. The sling appears to have been relegated to the lowest order of
combatants, who occupied the rear of the army, and sent their missiles
over the heads of those in front. The great chiefs and the spearmen
did not disdain to use the stone upon occasion, and we have graphic
descriptions of the huge rocky pieces the combatants hurled at one
another.
THE HISTORIC AGE
The equipment described by Homer had not particularly altered in the
Iron Age except in certain details and modifications necessitated by
the changed order of combat. The heavily-armed soldier, having already
a tunic as a _just-au-corps_, put on greaves, cuirass, sword (hung upon
the left side by a belt passing over the right shoulder); the large
round shield, supported in the same manner, helmet, and spear, or two
spears, as occasion required. Men thus equipped were termed Hoplites,
the term “hopla” more especially denoting the defensive armour, the
shield and breastplate, or cuirass. The mode of combat by the Greek
phalanx necessitated the adoption of a long and heavy spear; the ranks
were sixteen deep, and each rank consisted of the men standing close
together with shield touching shield, while the spears or pikes, each
24 feet in length, reached 18 feet in front of the nearest rank when
couched. As a space of about 2 feet was allowed between each rank,
the spears of the five files behind him projected in advance of each
front-rank man.
The sword continued to be of the leaf-like form which prevailed in
the Bronze Age, and was longer than the Roman sword of the following
era. At the same time a sword was in use which was the prototype of
the subsequent weapon: it had a long, straight blade slightly tapering
from the hilt to the point, where it was cut to an acute angle for
thrusting. A central ridge traversed both sides of the blade, and it
was double-edged. Upon these swords and their scabbards a wealth of
decoration was lavished by the Greeks. The great shield of the Heroic
Age gave place to a round or oblong shield reaching only to the knee;
it was concave to the body, and appears to have been decorated as a
general rule: one invariable ornament was a flat band or border round
the circumference. This shield was the true battle-shield of the
heavily-armed hoplites. A much smaller and lighter one was used by the
cavalry and the light infantry, being made of hide with the hair on. A
cross-piece was affixed at the back for a handle, and a cord was looped
round the inside of the shield, which afforded a grasp for the hand.
[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Greek helmet with cheek-guards.]
[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Greek helmet.]
[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Greek helmets of the Bœotian shape.]
[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Helm, breastplate, and backplate from Cumæ.
(Tower of London.)]
The helms all appear with characteristic neck-guards and pendent guards
for the face, which were free to move upon simple attachments at the
side; the front is shown to be protected by a more or less ornamental
visor or nasal. The crest, of which three distinct varieties are
shown, assumed many modifications of those varieties, but the general
arrangement was to lengthen it so as to extend from the front portion
of the helmet to the neck-guard, and the upper portion spreading
like a fan. The body of the helm in nearly every instance was made
the ground for elaborate decoration. To the crest was added at times
one or two plumes, the whole producing a striking military effect
(Figs. 36 and 37). The true Greek war-helm, however, had very little
exterior ornamentation, but was in every respect a most serviceable
and business-like headpiece. It was known as the Bœotian helm (Fig.
38), and the general shape may be gathered from an examination of the
Italian “barbuta” of the fourteenth century, its lineal descendant.
A fine helmet of this character is preserved in Case 24 at the Tower
of London; it is of bronze, and was excavated at Cumæ, an ancient
Greek colony near Naples. It is shown in Fig. 39. Fitting closely
to the head and neck, the lower part reached to the shoulders; in
front two openings for the eyes, with a drooping nasal between and a
narrow vertical opening opposite the chin and neck, gave a general
protection which was most effectual, and only exposed the absolute
minimum to chance of injury. Its efficacy was soon recognised, and it
was eagerly assumed by the hoplites and the leading Greek warriors. The
greaves now appear without straps behind, and were retained in their
place solely by the elasticity of the metal; they are represented as
adhering closely to the limb, and were probably moulded from casts
taken direct from the wearer. About 400 B.C. the heavy bronze cuirass
of the Greek soldier, which had been transmitted from the Heroic
Period, gave way to a lighter but equally efficacious defence, made
of linen crossed many times in folds and glued together, such as we
have seen used by the Egyptians, and, in fact, by nearly all Asiatic
races. The mounted soldiers wore a shorter cuirass than the hoplites;
it was moulded to the figure, and from the lower edge pendent straps
of leather were affixed for the protection of the lower part of the
body and the thighs. These “lambrequins,” as they were termed, were
very numerous, and at times ornamented with metal plaques; they were
longer than the Roman lambrequins of a subsequent period by reason
of the Greek cuirass terminating at the waist (Figs. 40 and 41). The
javelin or throwing-spear of the light-armed troops was furnished with
a strap to aid in propelling it. A pair of Greek greaves are preserved
in Case 24, Tower of London, which are probably of the Heroic Age, as
they are furnished with rings for the attachment of fastening straps.
From the same case we have examples of the bronze cuirass, backplate,
and breastplate, with a bronze attachment at one shoulder for fastening
the two together. An outline of the chief muscles and prominences upon
the human form are crudely imitated in repoussé work, and indications
exist upon the backplate of the fastenings by which it was attached to
the front (Fig. 39). The bronze belt or zone which was worn by many
warriors below the cuirass is also exemplified and shown in Fig. 42.
The fastenings in front show a considerable amount of artistic skill.
To this zone were attached the lower defences for body and limbs.
[Illustration: FIGS. 40 and 41.--Greek cuirasses.]
[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Spear-head, dagger and sheath, and bronze belt
from Cumæ. (Tower of London.)]
[Illustration: PLATE III*
German Shield, Sixteenth Century, by Desiderius Colman
_A. F. Calvert_]
The shape of the spear-head is similar to that shown in Fig. 42. It has
a central ridge strengthening the blade, and is furnished with a hollow
socket for receiving the head of the shaft.
[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Greek parazonium.]
[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Greek quiver bow-case.]
[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Greek quiver.]
[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Greek bow in case.]
The Greek dagger was termed the “parazonium,” and was common to all the
troops (Fig. 43): it was broad in the blade and came to an acute point,
the general shape of the blade being of a leaf-like outline similar to
the sword. This shape was subsequently adopted by the Romans. A dagger
and sheath from Cumæ differs in form from the foregoing (Fig. 42), and
partakes more of the character of the anelace of the mediæval period.
The holes are shown for rivets by which the wooden or bone handle was
fastened, and the sheath, which is very plain, terminates in a small
knob. The dagger had a small shoulder-strap of its own, by which it
was suspended at the right side in a sloping position much higher than
the waist.
The bow was of the short form, and made of the same materials as those
used in the Heroic Age. A quiver was in general use by the Greek
archers, which contained both bow and arrows, as in Fig. 44, which is
shown with its accompanying strap. This, however, was not always the
case, as quivers are shown for arrows alone, as in Fig. 45, and also
bow-cases which are not adapted for arrows as well (Fig. 46).
THE ETRUSCANS
[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Etruscan helmet.]
With regard to the arms and armour of the Etruscans we find but little
difference existing from those of the Greeks, but certain developments
occurred which distinguished them from those of the parent country and
were subsequently adopted by the Romans, thus laying the foundation
for a separate and distinct style of equipment. The helmet in general
followed the Greek lines but had a tendency towards the formation of
a deep bowl-shape for the head; also wings were adopted, at times,
which projected to a considerable extent and gave a distinctly Asiatic
character to the headpiece (Fig. 47). For the ordinary soldier a
skull-cap was in use with a truncated point upon the summit, and
ornamented bosses round the rim (Fig. 48).
[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Etruscan soldier’s helmet.]
The cuirass with its dependent lambrequins was formed, like that of
the Greeks, by joining a back- and breast-plate, but the overlapping
shoulder-guards, with a tendency to meet in front, so often observed
upon Etruscan pottery, are quite distinct from the Greek model (Fig.
49). Cuirasses are also shown made of overlapping plates of metal (Fig.
50); of discs or lames of plate sewn on a padded base (Fig. 51); and
one quilted throughout apparently without any metallic defence (Fig.
52). It has the thorax attached to it, and being viewed from behind
exhibits that protection, as is also the case in Fig. 51. As a rule
greaves were not worn, the limbs being entirely unprotected. The
archers had a cap similar to Fig. 48, together with a tunic of leather.
The bow in use was of a very simple form, as shown in Fig. 53. The
shield was circular, and similar in outline to that of the Greek, but
differed in its great convexity; the one shown in Fig. 54 exhibits the
interior, with the method of affixing the handle.
[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Etruscan cuirass.]
[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Scaled Etruscan cuirass.]
[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Etruscan cuirass with thorax.]
[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Etruscan cuirass with thorax.]
[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Etruscan bow.]
[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Etruscan shield. (Inside.)]