THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE
The old-fashioned Don, accustomed to ox-carts, wooden ploughs, and a
horde of men ready to serve him, no doubt views with dismay the changes
being wrought by steam and electricity. The younger generation has been
educated abroad, or in the States, and rather welcomes the innovations.
The spirit of revolution and political unrest that prevailed for the
first sixty years of the republic has lessened, even if it has not
entirely passed away. Education and immigration have worked wonders
in the country; and, above all, the establishment of a government
that for almost a third of a century commanded obedience at home and
respect abroad is responsible for the mutation in Mexico. It was an
absolute republic and under a strong controlling hand. It was the family
government applied to the state, for it was very paternal in its rule.
[Illustration: PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION]
Mexico is a human country and is not without its faults. The greatest
of these are, however, the result of conditions for which the present
generation of nation-builders are not responsible. A transformation
can not be wrought in a decade, nor in a generation. And yet the real
accomplishments of the past twenty-five years in Mexico are marvellous.
Americans who have lived there during that time wax eloquent in
describing the great change for the better. Whereas formerly people
hesitated to invest money for fear of political changes, investments in
that country are now looked upon as safe, and Mexican securities are
given a fixed value on the bourses of the world.
Modern luxuries and conveniences are being introduced everywhere. The
people are simply installing in a hurry the things that other countries
have been acquiring for the half of a century. Every city is bestirring
herself, and electric light plants, modern sewerage systems and water
works are being constructed as rapidly as things can move in this land
of procrastination. Old and crude methods of power are being replaced
by up-to-date machinery in mines and manufactures. Electric railways
are replacing the mule tram lines, and the merry hum of the trolley is
fast succeeding the bray of the long-eared motor just mentioned. Mexico
lagged behind so long that she has had quite a distance to go, and it
will be a long while before she can entirely catch up with the head of
the procession. Material wealth is increasing. Better wages are paid,
and the surplus is being expended for more and better goods. The wants
of the great bulk of the people are so few, that it must be a long time
before there will be a great change in their method of living; but their
children are being educated, and that in itself works wonders in their
uplifting.
For more than twenty years the finances of the government have shown a
surplus. What a contrast to all the years of the republic before that
time. In 1876 the total revenue of the government was but $19,000,000
silver. For the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1910, this had increased to
$53,164,242 United States gold. From a yearly deficit a surplus has been
evolved which annually amounts to several million dollars. The total cash
in the treasury at the date of the above report amounted to $37,042,857
gold. This statement shows a healthy condition of affairs. The government
now finds willing buyers for its bonds, and all its obligations have been
met promptly for a number of years.
Finance Minister Limantour, who held that position for many years, proved
himself to be a Napoleon of finance, and his reputation extended to every
financial centre in the world. Establishing the gold standard was a great
achievement. Just a few years ago Mexican silver varied from $2.05 to
$2.40 for a gold dollar, and all business was unsettled as a result.
Now the government has established a rate of exchange of two silver
dollars for one of gold, and all this was done without any friction or
disturbance. It is to be hoped that the new administration will maintain
the same high standard of financial integrity that has been handed down
by its immediate predecessor.
The foreign trade of Mexico runs into big figures. The total
extra-territorial trade of the republic for the year ending June 30th,
1910, amounted to $227,456,025 in United States gold. Of this amount
$130,023,135 represented exports and $97,432,890, imports. Of the exports
$78,260,037 were of mineral products, while vegetable products were
less than half that amount. An analysis of the imports shows by far
the largest items were included under manufactured articles, such as
machinery, textiles, chemical products, etc. Arms and explosives imported
exceeded a million and a half dollars in value, thus showing that the
government and people were even then preparing for the struggle to
follow. By far the largest proportion of exports and imports was with the
United States. Imports from the United States amounted to the tidy sum
of $56,421,551, an increase of twelve million dollars over the preceding
year, and the exports to the United States were $98,432,859, an increase
of almost an equal amount. The United Kingdom is the nearest competitor
in the foreign trade with our neighbouring republic. While the imports
from the United States showed an increase of twenty-four per cent. over
the preceding year, the increase from the United Kingdom and Germany was
only twelve and eighteen per cent. respectively. Imports from the mother
country, Spain, were less than three per cent. of the whole.
In the matter of trade, as is shown by the trade statistics, the
United States is easily the predominant factor. The proximity of the
country has probably been the cause of this, as it has led Americans to
investigate the natural resources and invest money in railroads, mines,
public works and many other enterprises. The same influence can be seen
in the banking interests. There are a number of very strong banks in
Mexico, of which the Banco Nacional, or National Bank of Mexico, is the
most influential. This bank was established in 1881, at a time when the
financial condition of the country was anything but prosperous, and its
growth has been continuous and at times almost phenomenal. This bank and
one other are the only institutions that have the privilege of issuing
bank notes in the Federal District, although some banks in other parts
of the country have the same privilege. The Bank of London and Mexico,
originally a British concern, but now owned by French capital, ranks
next in importance, although it is very closely followed by the United
States Banking Company, an American enterprise with a number of branches
throughout the republic. There are many other banks, some of them under
the banking laws of the republic, and others private enterprises, which
gives Mexico very good facilities for the transaction of all kinds of
banking and commercial business. In 1893 there were only eight banks
in the entire republic, but now there are more than sixty. They have a
circulation of nearly $100,000,000, and a capital in excess of that sum.
The American influence, and the banks controlled by Americans, have aided
greatly in the development of business between the two countries, and it
is the writer’s belief that similar establishments throughout the rest
of Latin America would be one of the greatest aids to the extension of
American influence and commerce that could be devised.
The increase of manufacturing has been quite noticeable in recent
years, and eventually will cause a diminution in the imports of certain
articles. Quite a number of cotton factories have been established in
certain sections of the country, and the labour has been found quite
well adapted to that class of manufacturing. Establishments for the
preparation and curing of meats have also been built under government
concessions, while tobacco factories, which work up the very excellent
tobacco grown in the country, and breweries have been established in many
sections of the country. The Mexican tobacco is said by those who pose
as experts to have a very excellent flavour, and by many is claimed to
be superior even to the Cuban article. The product grown in the state
of Vera Cruz has the best flavour, but a number of other states produce
large quantities of the weed.
The greatest enterprise now operating in Mexico, excepting only
the railroads, is the Mexico Light and Power Company, a Canadian
corporation. This group of men own the electric light and gas plants and
the tramways of the City of Mexico, Puebla and a number of other cities.
As a part of their enterprise they have built a great dam by means of
which the waters of the Necaxa River are utilized for the production
of the electricity. This is distant ninety-six miles to the northeast
of the capital. Fed by springs this river becomes a good sized stream
before it plunges over a precipice of four hundred and sixty feet, and
a short distance beyond is one of a still greater fall. The main dam is
one hundred and ninety-four feet high and about thirteen hundred feet
wide, and contains an immense amount of material. It is built of stone
and concrete. By means of this and the auxiliary dams a valley has been
made into an immense reservoir, so that the dry season might be provided
for when the natural flow of water would be insufficient. It is claimed
that enough water can be stored to run the power plant through two years
of continual drouth. The water is carried to the turbines by means of
pipes which pierce the mountain, bringing to each turbine a stream of
water six feet in diameter and carrying all the force of a drop exceeding
one thousand feet. The total transmission lines reach a length of more
than two hundred miles, and the capacity of the plant is two hundred and
fifty thousand horse power. At the present time this company supplies all
the electric power in the capital, as well as several mining enterprises,
and as soon as the plant is wholly completed, will supply Puebla and
other cities. Its franchise is from the Mexican government and is in
perpetuity. This simply gives an indication of what can be done in the
development of the natural resources of Mexico. In a country where fuel
is scarce and high priced, the value of the water power is accordingly
increased. There are many other waterfalls awaiting development, and it
only needs the necessary capital, and a combination of far-sighted men,
such as those who compose the Canadian corporation above mentioned, to
supply the great need of Mexico for cheap and satisfactory power.
[Illustration: PRIMITIVE PLOUGHING NEAR OAXACA]
It is unfortunate for Mexico that mining has absorbed almost all of her
energies, and agriculture has been allowed to drop into a secondary
position. One cause for this has been the Spanish characteristic,
as represented by the original conquerors, of seeking quick wealth
instead of attempting to coax out of mother earth the treasure that
she possesses. There are labourers in plenty, if they are properly
instructed, but the _hacendados_, as well as labourers, adhere to the
most primitive methods. It has been said that “earth is here so kind
that just tickle her with a hoe and she laughs with a harvest.” This
is not true of all parts of the country, of course, for much of it is
mountainous and of a broken character, but the statement will apply to
large portions of the republic.
The government of Mexico has endeavoured to improve agricultural
conditions by disseminating information as to scientific methods of
cultivation, irrigation and fertilization, but very little of it has had
a noticeable effect. The government has also distributed large quantities
of seeds and plants with little effect. In most parts of the republic the
land is tilled just as it was four centuries ago. It is really surprising
that, in spite of these antiquated methods, the results have been so good
as they are. As mentioned heretofore the wooden plough with a small iron
shoe, which merely scratches the surface of the earth, is still used; men
may be seen cutting wheat with the sickle, and much of the threshing is
done by driving horses and mules around a ring covered with grain, just
as it was done in the old Biblical days. The winnowing is accomplished
by tossing the wheat and the chaff into the air, and then the grain is
hauled to the _haciendas_ or markets in clumsy and ponderous two-wheeled
carts.
A _hacienda_ run upon modern American methods would certainly be a much
more profitable enterprise than when conducted after this style. In a
few sections of the country, one will find a plantation here and there
where some new methods have been introduced and American machinery
employed, but these are rare. Even in the Valley of Mexico, not far from
the City of Mexico, the most antiquated methods will be seen employed
at all times. The richness of the land and its cheapness has caused the
floating of many land companies in the United States. They can show
great prospects on paper, but the trouble is that many of them have
been floated by unscrupulous men, who care nothing for the interests of
the stockholders, but are looking simply for promoters’ profits. When
the real buyers reach the land they discover that things are not as
represented, do not find conditions of living to their liking, and in
a very short time the whole enterprise is dropped. Many have probably
lost practically all of their savings. These things, of course, cannot be
entirely guarded against, and they certainly fail to prove that Mexico is
not a rich agricultural country. They simply demonstrate what fraud can
be perpetrated upon people in a country where the land is teeming with
fertility. Land values have undoubtedly advanced in the past few years,
and some enormous tracts have been purchased by Americans, which are
already showing profits for the owners.
There has been much criticism heaped upon the Mexican courts, and a great
deal of it has been deserved. The judicial system of Mexico is copied
rather after the French and Spanish than the Anglo-Saxon system. In
recent years the procedure has been improved greatly, but it still needs
other changes in order to bring it up to the twentieth century standards.
In years past American railroad engineers, who were unfortunate enough
to run over some one, received harsh treatment in Mexican jails. The law
of _incommunicado_, by which an accused person is locked up for three
days, is still in force. It used to be that a wounded person could not
be touched or moved before the arrival of the authorities, which caused
much suffering; but this at least has been abolished. The judicial
system, which includes supreme courts, district courts, circuit courts,
police courts and other minor courts, is intended to give justice to
the defendant in a criminal action, and to both parties in a civil
action, but in many cases—to an American—the result does not seem to be
satisfactory.
The jury system is in use in Mexico, and nine persons compose a jury.
The jurymen may consist of both natives and foreigners, but the members
must have some occupation, education or independent means. The law
provides that the accused must be acquainted with the names and number
of his accusers, and must be confronted with the witnesses who testify
against him. The testimony is all taken down in longhand writing, which
is a tedious process, as followed out in Mexican courts. In criminal
cases it is generally read over to the witness and signed by him, which
method, although it is cumbersome, sometimes gives a degree of certainty
and correctness to the testimony. It is true that in many cases the
points that are raised by the accused are treated with very little
consideration. This is not the fault of the law, but is the result of its
maladministration by the officials, just as similar instances are the
world over. Arrests of natives are made for all sorts of offences, many
of which are trivial, and they are generally kept in jail for several
days before they are finally given a hearing. Foreigners are usually
treated with great consideration and substantial justice is done them. It
probably is not good policy for citizens of another country to criticise
Mexico, when there are so many blots upon the administration of justice
in every civilized country, and the United States is not an exception.
Local conditions, public clamour and other things influence the action of
courts in Mexico, just as they do in every other country.
In addition to the railroad connections the steamship lines form a very
important part in the national transportation of Mexico. The long coast
line on both the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico provides many ports.
The national traffic between these ports is quite a considerable item,
but the foreign commerce is still greater. At the present time Mexico has
direct steamship connection with the United States, Canada, Europe, South
America, Central America, the West Indies and the Orient. The principal
ports are Tampico, Puerto Mexico (formerly Coatzacoalcos) and Progresso
on the Gulf, and Salina Cruz, Acapulco, Manzanillo, and Mazatlan on the
Pacific. There are in all more than twenty steamship lines that have
contracts with the government for carrying the mails, and nearly all
of these enjoy subsidies of large or small amounts or enjoy certain
privileges or concessions.
The most important company operating is the one known as the Ward
Line, which conducts a weekly service between several Mexican ports,
Havana and New York. This company has some very good boats, and does
a large business between all of those ports. The Mallory Line, the
Mexican-American Line and the Munson Line have regular service between
Mexican ports, Galveston and New Orleans. There are also several
companies that make regular trips between Vera Cruz, Tampico and European
ports. On the Pacific coast the Kosmos Line, operated by the Hamburg
American Company, have a regular service from Seattle down the west
coast of the United States, Mexico, Central America and South America
to Europe by the way of the Straits of Magellan. The Pacific Mail
Steamship Company operate about three boats a month from San Francisco
to Panama, where connections are made for New York and West Coast ports
of South America. The American-Hawaiian Company have boats which sail
between Hawaii and Salina Cruz. There are also, in addition to these
mentioned, a number of coast lines on both the Pacific and Atlantic
side, which do a considerable traffic between the various ports. The
Canadian-Mexican Pacific Steamship Company recently began to operate
boats between Victoria, British Columbia and Salina Cruz, and gives a
monthly service between those ports. In order to develop and facilitate
this coast traffic the Mexican government has spent a great deal of money
in providing harbours and docks at a number of the smaller ports, in
addition to the larger enterprises that have heretofore been described.
Mexico has not a great number of navigable rivers. On the Pacific side
the Mayo, the Yaqui, the Balsas, the Rio Grande de Santiago and one or
two others are classed as navigable streams, but because of bars and
other obstructions they can be used only by boats of comparatively light
draft. On the Atlantic side, just below the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, is
the Grigalva River, which is a broad and imposing stream. Large boats
ply regularly up this stream to San Juan Bautista, a distance of about
seventy-five miles. Small boats go up still farther, the boat traffic
extending clear to the mountains. The Usumasinta River is an affluent of
this stream, and is navigable for small boats even beyond the Guatemala
border. The Coatzacoalcos River, which flows into the Gulf at the town
of the same name, is quite an important stream, and furnishes an outlet
to a considerable territory. The Papaloapan River, which flows into the
Gulf of Mexico near Vera Cruz, has been dredged and made navigable for a
considerable distance into the interior. It has proved a great benefit to
many small towns and plantations there situated.
North of Vera Cruz are the Soto La Marina, the Tuxpan and the Panuco
Rivers, all of which are navigable for a hundred miles or more. As an
adjunct to the navigable streams and the deep water ports the government
is now building an intercoastal canal, which is similar to the one
proposed along the Gulf coast of Louisiana and Texas to connect the
Mississippi and Rio Grande Rivers. There are a series of lagoons and
small lakes that lie just a short distance within the coast line, and
which can be connected and deepened. They will then form a convenient and
safe waterway for navigation. The government is spending several million
dollars on the first link of this system, which will connect the ports of
Tampico and Tuxpan, a distance of about a hundred miles. Half of this
section is already finished and in operation, and it is estimated that in
three or four years more this part of the canal will be finished. This
waterway has a width of seventy-five feet and a uniform depth of ten and
one-half feet, and will connect the mouths of the Panuco and the Tuxpan
Rivers. The Panuco, near Tampico, is fifty feet deep, and the deepest
draft ocean vessels can come in and unload at the docks of Tampico. The
section of the canal already opened is constantly filled with long and
narrow boats, manned by natives, which are propelled by means of long
poles when the wind fails.
The opening of this section of the canal has worked wonders in the
development of this part of the coast land, because it places the
products of the plantations and ranches within easy reach of the
markets. It has also served to drain thousands of acres of land, which
were formerly considered to be of no use whatever. On this route the
canal passes through Lake Tamiahua, which is seventy-nine miles long
and from five to twenty miles wide. Lake Tampamachoco, a much smaller
lake, will also be traversed by this canal. The water in these lakes
is comparatively shallow, and it has been necessary to deepen them
considerably in order to make the canal of uniform depth with the other
portion. The distance between Tampico and the mouth of the Rio Grande
is about three hundred miles, but a number of salt water lagoons, which
lie near the coast, can be utilized as a portion of the canal. If this
project, and the similar one planned by the United States, are completed,
it will furnish a very long inland waterway for the coast region. It
will serve the double purpose of draining and making more healthful that
portion of the country, and likewise giving an outlet for the development
that will surely follow. The land when once drained has been proved to be
of unusual fertility.
The influence of the Anglo-Saxon in Mexico has been very marked. What the
English have done in Argentina and many parts of the world, the Americans
have done in our neighbouring republic. It is a significant fact that
the Spanish influences have been perceptibly disappearing, while that of
the Anglo-Saxon has been in the ascendency. This change can be noted in
a great many ways, both in thought, customs and foreign relations. This
transition has not been promptly recognized, and in some quarters it has
been strongly objected to by the extreme conservative elements; but,
nevertheless, it has been steadily marching on. Many of the Mexicans
prominent in the political and business life recognize this trend and
encourage it, for they feel that Mexico needs Anglo-Saxon methods and
ideas in order to develop the country, and give it the prestige that its
importance deserves. There are perhaps twenty or twenty-five thousand
Americans who permanently reside in Mexico, and, in addition, there
is the effect of the many millions of American money invested in the
country, and the thousands of tourists and business men who annually
cross the borders.
There is, doubtless, a strong prejudice against the American and his
methods in many parts of Mexico, and this feeling seems to have been
somewhat intensified in the recent revolution. It is not to be wondered
at that such a feeling exists. From first to last Mexico has ceded to
the United States almost one million square miles of territory, which is
almost one-third more than the present size of the republic. First came
the separation of Texas, which was undoubtedly due to the intriguing
of Americans who had crossed over into that section of Mexico. These
pioneers and adventurers brought about the declaration of independence by
the Lone Star State. A few years later that territory was admitted into
the United States as one of its integral parts. Then came the Mexican
War, which most of us admit was an unjust war, and which resulted in the
cession of more than half a million of square miles of territory. A few
years later, by the Gadsden Purchase, which was due to disputes over the
boundary line, another block of territory, as large as the state of Ohio,
was added to the domain of the United States.
In the revolution of 1910 many Americans crossed the border, joined
the forces of the revolutionists, and aided in the troubles of the
then existing government. Furthermore, very many American tourists who
visit Mexico make themselves disagreeable by their actions and their
criticisms, which also add to the anti-American feeling. So many include
all Mexicans under the general title of “greasers,” and can see no good
in anything that is not American. It is a fortunate thing that the good
people of Mexico understand very little English; otherwise they would
frequently be excited to anger, if they could hear the remarks that are
made by Americans in visiting their churches, battle fields and other
places surrounded by sacred associations. They are not fools, however,
and even if they do not understand the words they can catch the trend
of remarks by the gesture and laugh that accompanies them. As the
Spanish race are exceedingly sensitive this lack of sympathy and almost
open contempt cannot result otherwise than do injury to a general good
feeling. Some Americans grumble at everything, get mad because all the
waiters and porters do not understand English, complain about the hotels
because they cannot obtain everything just like they would in a Fifth
Avenue hotel, and, in fact, find fault with everything that they see. As
a contrast to this one might consider the attitude of Mexicans. It is
difficult to do justice to the innate courtesy of officials and people
when Americans show them so little. You can murder his beloved Spanish
in attempting to address a Mexican, and he will listen with infinite
patience and never a smile of amusement or expression of vexation on his
face. The Mexican is polite not only to his superiors and equals, but to
his servants as well.
The republic of Mexico has passed through dark days. It has suffered from
the evil government of foreigners and from the reckless ambitions of
its own rulers. The burdens of former mistakes still remain, and there
is a lingering distrust of the powerful republic to the north in many
places. This distrust has been fanned into greater intensity by recent
political agitators. The good sense of the leaders will quickly reassert
itself, however, and a more perfect understanding will surely result.
American intelligence and capital have done too much in bringing about
the material prosperity of the country for such conditions to exist
permanently. Mexico needs capital for the development of her resources,
and American capital is most available for that purpose. Americans
will even be interested in the moral and material advancement of their
neighbours across the Rio Grande.
To the reader who has followed this narrative to the end, I give my
valediction, _a la Mexicana_:
_Adios! Vaya usted con Dios._
THE END.
FOOTNOTES
[1] “Wonderful, Mysterious Mexico,” by Madge Morris.
[2] Mrs. Gooch in “Face to Face with the Mexicans.”
[3] Mexican statistics of public instruction show that the state of
Jalisco has one school for every 2,354 inhabitants; Aguascalientes, one
for every 3,103; Campeche, one for every 1,236; Coahuila, one for every
2,090; Chihuahua, one for every 2,731; Durango, one for every 2,468;
Guanajuato, one for every 4,596; Hidalgo, one for every 1,020; Michoacan,
one for every 2,888; Morelos, one for every 687; Nuevo Leon, one for
every 1,158; Puebla, one for every 886; Queretaro, one for every 1,444;
San Luis Potosi, one for every 2,592; Sinaloa, one for every 1,041;
Sonora, one for every 1,092; Tabasco, one for every 1,018; Tamaulipas,
one for every 1,777; Tlaxcala, one for every 700; Vera Cruz, one for
every 1,268; Yucatan, one for every 792; Zacatecas, one for every 1,316,
and Mexico, one for every 936.—_Modern Mexico._
[4] F. A. Ober in “Travels in Mexico.”
[5] This citation and some of the other quotations in this chapter, as
well as a number of the historical facts, are from the “Story of Mexico,”
by Susan Hale, published by G. P. Putnam’s Sons of London and New York.
[6] “Mexico in Transition” by William Butler.
APPENDICES
I
The following table gives the area and population of the various states,
territories of Tepic, Quintana Roo and Lower California, and the Federal
District; also the name of the capital and number of its inhabitants, the
figures being for the year 1900:—
State. Sq. Miles. Population. Capital. Inhabitants.
Aguas Calientes, 2,950 101,910 Aguas Calientes, 35,052
Campeche, 20,087 84,218 Campeche, 17,109
Coahuila, 63,569 280,899 Saltillo, 23,936
Colima, 2,700 65,026 Colima, 20,698
Chiapas, 29,600 363,216 Tuxtla, 10,982
Chihuahua, 87,802 327,004 Chihuahua, 30,405
Durango, 42,200 371,274 Durango, 31,092
Guanajuato, 12,300 1,065,317 Guanajuato, 41,486
Guerrero, 24,996 474,594 Chilpanzingo, 7,497
Hidalgo, 8,917 603,074 Pachuca, 37,487
Jalisco, 31,846 1,137,311 Guadalajara, 101,208
Mexico, 9,247 924,457 Toluca, 25,904
Michoacan, 22,874 935,849 Morelia, 37,278
Morelos, 2,773 161,697 Cuernavaca, 9,584
Nuevo Leon, 23,592 326,940 Monterey, 62,266
Oaxaca, 35,382 947,910 Oaxaca, 35,049
Puebla, 12,204 1,024,446 Puebla, 93,521
Queretaro, 3,556 228,489 Queretaro, 33,152
San Luis Potosi, 25,316 582,486 San Luis Potosi, 61,019
Sinaloa, 33,671 296,109 Culiacan, 10,380
Sonora, 76,900 220,553 Hermosillo, 10,613
Tabasco, 10,072 158,107 San Juan Bautista, 10,543
Tamaulipas, 32,128 220,253 Victoria, 10,086
Tlaxcala, 1,595 172,217 Tlaxcala, 2,847
Vera Cruz, 29,201 960,570 Jalapa, 20,388
Yucatan, 20,203 227,264 Merida, 43,630
Zacatecas, 24,757 496,810 Zacatecas, 32,856
Tepic, 11,257 149,677 Tepic, 15,488
Lower California, 58,328 47,082 La Paz, 5,046
Federal District, 463 530,723 City of Mexico, 344,721
Quintana Roo, 15,000 85,000 Santa Cruz de Bravo, 2,000
II
The broken character of the surface of Mexico is shown by the many high
mountain peaks which are scattered over the country. Most of these peaks
are extinct volcanoes, although one of them, Colima, is in constant
eruption. The following table gives the name, location and height of all
the peaks over ten thousand feet in height:—
Mountain. State. Elevation.
Popocatepetl, Mexico, 17,782 ft.
Orizaba, Vera Cruz, 17,362 ft.
Ixtaccihuatl, Puebla, 16,060 ft.
Toluca, Mexico, 15,019 ft.
Colima, Jalisco, 14,263 ft.
Ajusco, Federal District, 13,660 ft.
Cofre de Perote, Vera Cruz, 13,641 ft.
Zapotlan, Jalisco, 12,743 ft.
Tancitaro, Michoacan, 12,653 ft.
Zempoaltepec, Oaxaca, 11,141 ft.
Pico de Quinco, Michoacan, 10,900 ft.
III
SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS
The visitor to Mexico will find few inconveniences in the way of railway
travel. The coaches are, with only occasional exceptions, of American
manufacture, and the through trains on most of the railroads have Pullman
coaches at fares that are considerably lower than in the United States.
It is well to make the trip going and coming to the capital by different
routes, choosing the El Paso route for one trip and the Laredo gateway
for the other. If the visitor is from the eastern part of the United
States, a sea voyage from either New York or New Orleans to Vera Cruz
makes a pleasant variation to the monotony of railroad travel. If bound
for San Francisco one can travel through the republic to Salina Cruz,
and there embark for that city. When the Southern Pacific extension is
completed to Guadalajara this will also furnish another good way either
to enter or leave Mexico.
The Mexican customs examination is a very formal affair and causes very
little inconvenience to the traveller, for the officials are usually very
courteous. An ignorance of the Spanish language will not cause a great
deal of trouble to the experienced traveller in the cities, as it is a
very easy matter to find some one who can speak English. In the remoter
districts more trouble will be encountered, so that one should have at
least a few stock phrases to use.
The money of Mexico is easy for one to familiarize himself with, as the
peso is equal to fifty cents in American money. The only inconvenience at
times is the trouble of carrying so many of these pesos, each of which is
the size of one of our American silver dollars. The minor coins are all
on the decimal system, the peso counting as one hundred centavos.
Hotel accommodation in the cities is fair, although it will take
the traveller some time to get used to the large rooms that he will
oftentimes be placed in. The charges are generally based on the European
plan, but occasionally one will find a hotel on the American plan, and
the charges are reasonable. On arriving at a hotel the guest is usually
shown a room, and, if it is accepted, he may then register and his name
is written on a blackboard with his room number. The cab charges are
usually reasonable. In the City of Mexico there are three classes of
cabs, indicated respectively by blue, red and yellow flags, the latter
being the cheapest class. The driver always expects a small fee in
addition to the regular fare.
Good stores will be found in the cities, and the prices are not
excessive. Most people are interested in things that may be purchased as
souvenirs of the country. The famous drawn work can be bought to the best
advantage in northern Mexico, and especially at Aguas Calientes. Mexico
is also noted for her onyx, opals and the turquoise.
The proper clothing to be worn is that used in the United States for
spring or fall in the higher altitudes, and a light coat should be a
part of the wardrobe. In the lower levels lightweight summer clothing
can be worn at all seasons of the year. Most people visit Mexico during
the winter months, but summer, which is the rainy season, is likewise
delightful.
IV
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BALLOU, M. M.: Aztec Land. Boston, 1890.
BANCROFT, H. H.: History of Mexico. 6 vols. San Francisco, 1888.
BANDELIER, A. F.: Report of an Archeological Tour. Boston, 1885.
BEART, LUCIEN: The Aztecs, their History, Manners and Customs.
From the French. Chicago, 1900.
BISHOP, W. H.: Old Mexico and Her Lost Provinces. New York,
1883.
BROOKS, N. C.: History of the Mexican War. Philadelphia, 1849.
CHARNAY, DESIRÉ: Ancient Cities of the New World. Translated
from French. New York, 1887.
CONKLIN, HOWARD: Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, 1883.
CREELMAN, JAMES: Diaz: Master of Mexico. New York, 1910.
DIAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL: The True History of the Conquest of
Mexico. Written in 1568. Translation. New York, 1803.
EDWARDS, WILLIAM SEYMOUR: On the Mexican Highlands. Cincinnati,
1906.
FLANDRAU, C. M.: Viva Mexico. New York, 1908.
GADNOW, HANS: Through Southern Mexico. New York, 1908.
GOOCH, FANNIE C.: Face to Face with the Mexicans. New York,
1887.
GRIFFIN, S. B.: Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886.
HALE, SUSAN: Story of Mexico. New York, 1889.
HAVEN, GILBERT: Our Next Door Neighbor: A Winter in Mexico. New
York, 1875.
HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON: Political Essay on the Kingdom of New
Spain. London, 1822.
KIRKHAM, STANTON DAVIS: Mexican Trials. Boston, 1909.
LUMHOLTZ, CARL: Unknown Mexico. 2 vols. New York, 1902.
LUMMIS, CHARLES F.: The Awakening of a Nation. New York, 1899.
MARTIN, PERCY F.: Mexico of the Twentieth Century. London, 1907.
MAYER, BRANTZ: Mexico as It Was and Is. London, 1844.
NOLL, A. H.: A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1903.
OBER, FREDERICK A.: Travels in Mexico. Boston, 1885.
PRESCOTT, W. H.: Conquest of Mexico. 1843.
ROMERO, MATIAS: Mexico and the United States. New York, 1898.
SMITH, F. H.: A White Umbrella in Mexico. Boston. 1889.
STARR, FREDERICK: In Indian Mexico. Chicago, 1908.
STEPHENS, JOHN L.: Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. New York,
1843.
STEVENSON, SARA: Maximilian in Mexico. New York, 1899.
TWEEDIE, MRS. ALEC: The Maker of Modern Mexico: Porfirio Diaz.
London, 1906.
WALLACE, DILLON: Beyond the Mexican Sierras. Chicago, 1910.
INDEX
Acapulco, 99, 299, 382.
Agriculture, 464-467.
Agave Americana, 41.
Aguador (water carrier), 221.
Agua miel (honey-water), 43.
Aguas Calientes, 36, 219, 298.
Aqueduct of Oaxaca, 116;
of Querétero, 35.
Ahuehuete (cypress) of Chapultepec, 86;
of Popotla, 78;
of Tule, 153.
Alameda, The, 56, 69.
Alamo, Battle of the, 360.
Alcabales, Abolishment of, 293.
Alhondiga de Granaditas, The, of Guanajuato, 348, 349.
Altata, 429.
Alvaredo, Pedro, 279.
American Capital in Mexico, 280.
American Colony, 53.
Anahuac, Valley of, 74 _et seq._
Apam, Plains of, 41, 91.
Architecture, Mexican, 47, 271-273.
Army, The Mexican, 334-337.
Art in Mexico, 270.
Auto-da-fé, The first, 345.
Aztecs, History of the, 11, 75;
Subjugation of, 14-16;
Descendants of, 183 _et seq._;
Markets of, 217-218;
Celebrations of, 235.
Banana, Culture of the, 106-108, 431.
Baptism of Indians, 309.
Baptist Missions, 324-326.
Bargaining, 125, 220.
Barra, Francisco de la, 406, 413.
Bear, Playing the, 48, 170-172.
Beggars, Mexican, 242, 340.
Belem, Prison of, 317.
Boca del Monte, 91.
Bonanzas (meaning mines worked at great profit), 275 _et seq._
Books, first printed in Mexico, 259.
Borda, Joseph de la, 276.
Buena Vista, Battle of, 27.
Bull-fight, 243 _et seq._
Bull-ring, 245.
Cacao, 105, 109.
Campo Santo, 63.
Capitals, Population of the, 479.
Cargadors (burden-bearers), 195-199.
Cart, Mexican, 120.
Casa (meaning home), 163, 210-211.
Casas Grandes, 403, 425.
Cathedral of Capital, 60, 321-323.
Catorce, 283, 330.
Cattle ranches, 36, 128, 417, 418-419.
Celaya, 297, 298.
Celebrations in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, 236 _et seq._
Cemeteries, 63.
Centennial of Independence, 1910, 73, 396-398.
Central Railway, 297-299.
Cerro (a hill) de las Campañas, 35.
Chalco, Lake, 74.
Chamber of Deputies, The, 18.
Chapala, Lake, 9.
Chapultepec, 86;
military academy, 337.
Chiapas, State of, 304.
Chichen Itza, 441-447.
Chihuahua, City of, 36, 298, 405, 417-419, 422;
State of, 36, 398, 401, 415, 424;
Execution of Hidalgo at, 349.
Chinampas, or floating gardens, 82.
Chilpantzingo, 350.
Cholula, 78, 148;
Pyramid of, 113, 149, 150.
Chorubusco, 363.
Christmas celebrations, 227-232.
Churches, Mexican, 271-273.
Church, The Mexican, 308 _et seq._
Cinco de Mayo, Victory of, 37, 374;
Street of, 50.
Ciudad Juarez, 401, 402, 404, 405, 416, 424.
Climate of the Capital, 54-55;
Variety of, 8;
of Oaxaca, 123.
Coahuila, State of, 27.
Coal, 288-289.
Coatzacoalcos, 99, 137, 139.
Cock-fighting, 33.
Coffee culture, 94, 106, 431.
Colonia Juarez, 425.
Comonfort, President, 315.
Congress, First Mexican, 350;
Second, 354;
of to-day, 18.
Congregational Missions, 324-326.
Conquest, Manner of the, 14-16, 77.
Conquistadores (conquerors), Vandalism and nature of, 13.
Contrasts, A land of, 45.
Copper, Production of, 228.
Cordillerias, The, 26.
Cordoba, 94, 301;
Treaty of, 353.
Corral, Hon. Ramon, 405.
Cortez, 77, 111;
Defeat of, 78;
as governor, 343;
Landing of, 95;
and his followers, 13-16.
Cosmopolitan character of City of Mexico, 59.
Coyoacan, 85.
Creole, The, 51, 162;
women, 165-166.
Cuautla, Battle of, 350.
Cuernevaca, 299.
Cuilapa, 358.
Cuitzeo, Lake, 9.
Culiacan, 429.
Curandera (native doctor), 222-224.
Currency reform, 459.
Customs, Domestic, 167;
Strange, 201 _et seq._;
officials, polite, 22, 482.
Cypress of Noche Triste, 78;
of Chapultepec, 86;
of Tule, 153.
Denouncing a mining claim, 287.
Desierto, El, 85.
Diaz, Bernal, 262.
Diaz, Porfirio, 18-19;
Birthplace of, 116;
and education, 264;
encouragement of railroads, 296;
and Protestantism, 325;
organizes _Rurales_, 331-333;
Sketch of, 369 _et seq._;
Revolution against, 396 _et seq._
Diego Juan, Vision of, 236-238.
Dolores Hidalgo, 34, 347.
Douglass, 402.
Dude, The Mexican, 57.
Dulces (Mexican candy), 220.
Durango, 36, 278;
Mountain of iron in, 288;
State of, 415.
Easter, Celebration of, 232-234.
Education in Mexico, 257 _et seq._;
of soldiers, 335.
Ejutla, 283.
El Paso, 401, 404, 416, 481.
Embrace, A Mexican, 47.
English language, Teaching of, 267.
Ensenada, 434.
Esperanza, 91.
Evangelista (letter-writer), 220.
Exclusiveness of Mexicans, 164, 210.
Exports and imports, 459-460.
Farming in the tropics, 106;
Antiquated, 123, 465.
Feasts and festivals, 225 _et seq._
Feather work, Aztec, 218.
Federal District, Schools of, 265.
Ferrocarriles Mexicanos, 294 _et seq._
Fibre-producing plants, 40.
Fiesta, 190, 225;
at Oaxaca, 117;
at Guadalupe, 236 _et seq._;
de las Flores, 235.
Finances of Mexico, 458-459.
Floating gardens, 82-84.
Flower market, The, 67.
Frijoles, 216.
Funeral cars, 62.
Germans, Affiliation of, 38.
Goat raising, 417.
Gold of Aztecs, 285;
Production of, 288.
Gomez, Vasquez, 410.
Gondola, The Mexican, 82.
Gonzalez, Manuel, 384.
Graphite, 289.
Grasshoppers as food, 81.
Gringo, a term of derision originally applied to foreigners.
Grito, The, 347.
Guadalajara, 37, 219, 299, 426, 428.
Guadalupe, Town of, 240-242;
Church of, 238;
Virgin of, 236-242.
Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of, 363.
Guanajuato, 36, 277, 283;
Battle at, 348, 383.
Guatemotzin, eleventh and last Aztec Emperor, 78.
Guaymas, 99, 301, 428.
Guaxaca (_See_ Oaxaca).
Guerrero, The patriot, 352, 357.
Guatemala City, Bull fight in, 252;
Earthquake in, 260;
Theatre of, 284.
Hacienda, The, 27-30;
of Mitla, 124-128;
of Zuloaga, 418-420;
Labour on, 189.
Hacendado, The, 28, 52.
Henequen, 40-41.
Hermosillo, 301, 427-428.
Hidalgo, Miguel, 347-349, 392, 397.
Hidalgo Railway, 297.
Holidays, 190, 225 _et seq._
Home, Regard for, 163, 210.
Horsemen, Mexican, 57.
Huamantla, 381.
Huitzilopoxtli, 308.
Iglesias, 382-383, 387, 388.
Improvements, Contemplated, in Capital, 71-73.
Independence, Declaration of, 350.
Indians, 183 _et seq._, 421-424;
habits and characteristics, 58;
of the hotlands, 103;
cargadors, 195-199;
market, 120-122;
Independent tribe of, 115;
miners, 280.
Inquisition, Establishment of the, 345.
International Railway, 297.
Interoceanic Railway, 297.
Irapuato, 298, 299.
Iron, 288.
Irrigation, Benefits of, 39.
Iturbide, Agustin de, 352-356;
Hotel, 356.
Ixtaccihuatl, Volcano of, 87, 113.
Ixtlan, 373.
Ixtle, 23.
Japanese, Resemblance of Mexicans to, 10.
Jardenas flotandas, 82-84.
Jesuits, The, 258.
Juarez, Benito, Birthplace of, 116;
attitude toward education, 264;
crushes temporal power of the Church, 315;
favours Diaz, 371;
sketch of career, 364-368, 388.
Judas, Burning of, 233.
Judicial System, 467-469.
Labourers, Mexican, 183 _et seq._
Lajartija, (Mexican dude), 57.
La Paz, 434, 436.
Laredo, 481.
Las Madres, 415.
Lead, 289.
Legal customs, 207-209.
Leon, 36, 298.
Leperos, 339, 340.
Lerdo, 368, 379, 382, 385, 387, 388.
Liberty Bell, The, of Mexico, 69.
Library, National, 269.
Limantour, Minister of Finance, 298, 459.
Literary men, 262 _et seq._
Literature, Mexican, 258 _et seq._
Lovemaking, Mexican, 170-172.
Lower California, 306, 431-437.
Madero Family, 400, 411.
Madero, Francisco, 400, 401, 403, 404, 406-408, 410-414, 435.
Madrid, Bull-ring of, 244;
Bull-fight in, 253.
Magdalena, 426.
Magdalena Bay, 435.
Maguey, 41-45.
Mal Paso, 400.
Maltrata, 92.
Mañana, The Land of, 204.
Manzanillo, 99, 299.
Markets, Ancient, 217-218;
of capital, 218;
of Oaxaca, 117-119;
of Tehuantepec, 132.
Marsh-flies as food, 81.
Matamoros, 380.
Maximilian, 264, 315, 366-367, 390;
Execution of, 34-35.
Mayas, The, 438 _et seq._
Mazatlan, 99, 279, 429-430.
Mendoza, Viceroy, 258, 344.
Merchants, Aztec, 329.
Mesas, 26.
Mescal (native brandy), 45.
Mestizos, 184.
Metate, 178, 215.
Methodist Missions, 324, 326.
Mexican races, Origin of, 10.
Mexican, Conservatism of, 52, 174;
his view of Anglo-Saxon, 20.
Mexican Central Railway, 80, 297-299.
Mexican National Railway, Route of, 24 _et seq._, 297-298.
Mexican Railway, 90 _et seq._, 299.
Mexican Southern Railway, 112-114, 300.
Mexico, Antiquity of, 3;
Resources of, 19;
The United States of, 18.
Miñaca, 420.
Mines of Mexico, 274 _et seq._, 427, 434.
Missions, Protestant, in Mexico, 324-327.
Mitla, Village of, 152;
Ruins of, 152 _et seq._;
Hacienda of, 124-127, 154.
Molino del Rey (the king’s mill), 88, 363.
Monte de Piedad, 61.
Monte las Cruces, Battle of, 349.
Monterey, 24-25, 297, 299, 417;
Battle of, 25.
Montezuma, 199.
Moon, Pyramid of the, 147.
Morelas, Jose Maria, 350-352.
Morelia, 268, 351, 352.
Mormon Colony, 425-426.
Mountains, 24, 415 _et seq._
Mozo, a servant.
Museum, National, 269.
Nahuals, 75.
National Palace, The, 322.
National Railway, 297.
Navarro, General, 404-405.
Newspapers and periodicals, 260-261.
Noche Bueno, 227.
Noche Triste, Tree of, 78.
Nochistongo cut, 80.
_No es costumbre_, 213-214.
Nogales, 402, 426.
_No hay_, 220.
“Northers,” The, 7, 98.
Notaries, Mexican, 209.
Nuevo Leon, State of, 24.
Oaxaca, 111 _et seq._, 300, 371, 381;
Markets of, 117-119;
Valley of, 111, 151-152;
Mines of, 283.
O’Donoju, Viceroy, 353.
Ojinaga, 400.
Oñata, Juan de, 276.
Oranges, 109, 431.
Orient, Resemblance to, 1-3, 121-123.
Oriental habits of women, 162.
Orizaba, 93, 366;
Volcano of, 91, 113.
Orozco, Pascual, 404-405.
Pachuca, 282, 297, 405.
Padilla, 355.
Palace, The National, 68-69.
Palenque, 441, 451-455.
Palo Alto, Battle of, 361.
Panama Canal, A competitor of, 136 _et seq._
Pan American Railroad, 303-305.
Panteon of Guanajuato, 284;
National, 72.
Paseo de la Reforma, 56, 69.
Patio (courtyard) in houses, 47.
Patio process, 279, 281.
Patzcuaro, Lake, 9, 270.
Pawnshop, The National, 61.
Peon, The, 183 _et seq._;
as a soldier, 334-335.
Peonage, 188-189, 191-192, 390.
Pertenencia, a mining claim, 287.
Petroleum, Production of, 289.
Piedad, Monte de, 277.
Pijijiapam, 304.
Piñate, Breaking the, 231-232.
Plateaus, The, 26, 295.
Plaza Mayor, 68;
de Toros, 245.
Poets and poetry, Mexican, 262-264.
Police, The, 336, 341.
Politeness, 209.
Popocatapetl, 87, 89, 113.
Popotla, Village of, 78.
Poppies, Feast of the, 235.
Population of Mexico, 9;
of states and capitals, 479.
Posadas, The, 228-232.
Pottery, Mexican, 119, 219.
Presbyterian Missions, 324, 326.
Printing press, First, 259.
Prisons, schools in, 267.
Procrastination, A land of, 203-205.
Protestantism in Mexico, 317, 324-327.
Puebla, 37-39, 113, 297, 383, 398, 407;
city of churches, 321;
house of the inquisition in, 345;
Battles at, 374, 378.
Pulque, 41, 66;
shop, 65-67.
Pyramid of Cholula, 113, 149, 150;
of the Sun, 147;
of the Moon, 147.
Quetzalcoatl, 149, 235.
Querétero, 34, 298.
Railroads, Mexican, 143, 290 _et seq._, 417-418, 481.
Rainfall, 102, 418, 435.
Real del Monte, Mines of, 282.
Rebosa, 59.
Regla, Count of, 277;
Mines of, 282.
Religion of Mexico, 308 _et seq._
Reyes, Bernardo, 407-408.
Rincon Antonio, 138.
Robbers and bandits of former days, 328-333.
Ruins of Yucatan, 146, 440 _et seq._;
of Mitla, 152 _et seq._
Rurales, 331-334, 336.
Sagrario Metropolitano, Church of, 321-322.
Saint, Mexico’s patron, 236.
Saint days, 191.
Salina Cruz, 99, 137, 139 _et seq._, 481.
Saltillo, 27, 297.
San Antonio, Texas, 22.
San Benito, 305.
San Blas, 99.
San Cristobal, Lake, 74.
San Cristobal Ecatepec, 351.
San Geronimo, 304.
San Juan de Ulua, Fort of, 98, 356.
San Juan Teotihuacan, 146-148.
San Luis Potosi, City of, 30 _et seq._, 297, 299;
State of, 30.
Santa Anita, Village of, 83.
Santa Anna, General, 354, 359-364;
Burial place of, 239.
Santa Lucrecia, 131, 301.
School of fine arts, 270.
Schools, Public, 264-266.
Scott, General, in Mexico, 361, 363.
Seasons, Only two, 7.
Senate, The, 18.
Señoritas, 169.
Serenos, 342.
Sheep Raising, 417.
Shoemaker, Mexican, 221.
Silver, 275 _et seq._;
Production of, 287.
Sinaloa, State of, 415, 428-431.
Society in the capital, 53.
Soldiers, Schools for, 267.
Sonora, State of, 398, 415, 427.
Southern Pacific Railway, 301.
States, The, of Mexico, 18;
Area and population of, 479.
Steamship Lines, 469-471.
Streets of the capital, 50.
Suarez, José Maria Pino, 410, 411.
Sugar cane, 109, 429.
Sun, Pyramid of, 147.
Sunday, a day of pleasure, 57.
Tablelands, 26.
Tacuba, 85.
Tacubaya, 85.
Tajo de Nochistongo, 80.
Tamales, 216.
Tampico, 99, 289.
Taotl, an Aztec god, 308.
Tarahumari Indians, 421-424.
Tasco, 277.
Taylor, General, Invasion by, 24 _et seq._;
at Palo Alto, 361.
Tecoac, 382.
Tehuacan, 114.
Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, 128, 289 _et seq._;
Town of, 132-134;
Women of, 180-181;
National Railway, 136 _et seq._, 301.
Tejada, Lerdo de (_See_ Lerdo).
Temperature of the tropics, 100, 102;
of the capital, 54.
Tenochtitlan, The ancient capital, 49.
Teocalli, the Aztec, 60, 323.
Tepic, 415, 428, 431.
Tequila (native brandy), 45.
Texcoco, Lake, 49, 74, 81;
Town of, 85.
Thieves, 338-342.
Tia Juana, 401-402, 434-435.
Tierra Blanca, 130.
Tierra caliente, 7, 94, 100-105, 128.
Tierra fria, 6, 25.
Tierra templada, 7, 93.
Tlacolulu, 154.
Tlacochahuaya, 154.
Tolpetlac, Village of, 236.
Toltecs, 12, 75;
Gods of the, 308.
Topo Chico, Springs of, 25.
Topolobampo, 418.
Torreon, 298, 400, 405.
Tortillas, Making of, 178, 215.
Transition, The, in Mexico, 456 _et seq._
Travellers, Suggestions for, 481-483.
Tropics, Vegetation of, 94, 100, 133;
Need of, 110;
Railroading in, 301-303.
Tula, 439.
Tule, Big Tree of, 153.
Tzintzuntzan, 270.
United States, War with, 359, 363.
Uxmal, 441, 448-451.
Valenciana, Conde de, 277.
Valley of Mexico, View of, 35, 79, 87.
Vera Cruz, 95-97, 297, 366, 387, 391;
Fall of, 363;
Escape of Diaz, at, 380.
Vera Cruz and Pacific Railway, 131, 301, 481.
Victoria Guadalupe, first president, 356.
Viga canal, 82-84, 235.
Villa Reyes, Great hacienda of, 29.
Volcanoes, Height of, 480.
Vomito, 95-96.
Wages of miners, 287;
of labourers, 188.
Wheat, Introduction of, 39.
Woman, 133, 162 _et seq._;
The creole, 165-166.
Xaltocan, Lake, 74.
Xochimilco, Lake, 74.
Yaqui Indians, 427.
Yellow Fever, 95-96.
Young Men’s Christian Association, 327.
Yucatan, Ruins of, 146, 440 _et seq._;
Railways in, 306.
Zacatecas, 36, 282, 298.
Zambrano, a Mexican miner, 276.
Zapotec Indians, 160.
Zaragossa, General, Victory of, 37.
Zocalo, The, 67, 68, 231.
Zopilotes (buzzards), 97.
Zuloaga Hacienda, 418-420.
Zumarraga, Bishop, 258.
Zumpango, Lake, 74, 79.