A.D. 1700-1800.
THE JEWS IN POLAND: THE CHASIDIM—FRANK—MENDELSSOHN.
From the times of the Maccabees, if not earlier, to those of the
impostor Sabbathai Sevi, Rabbinism had prevailed in the Jewish
Church. The only opposition had come from the Karaites, of whom we
have already spoken, and they were but a small sect, commanding
little influence. Eminent Jews, again, such as Solomon Ben Abraham
of Montpellier, in the thirteenth century, or Nathanael Tribotti
of Rome, or the more renowned Maimonides, might put forward
opinions which the Rabbins condemned, proceeding sometimes to the
excommunication of the offending writers. But either the latter
submitted, or modified their opinions, or their judges reconsidered
their decisions; and Rabbinical theology continued in the main
unaltered. But the followers of Sabbathai Sevi formed themselves into
a distinct sect, calling themselves Jews indeed, and professing the
principal doctrines of the Jewish faith, but differing from it, at
the same time, in the most essential particulars.
His followers, as we have seen, were not alienated by his apostasy
or undeceived by his death. One prophet rose after another, who
formed his own theological system, resembling Sabbathaism in its
general outline, but having peculiar and distinctive features of its
own. Most of these secured, during their lifetime, at all events, a
large and enthusiastic following, while, in some instances, their
teaching was adopted as a rule of faith long after they had passed
away from earth. Among these prophets two of the most remarkable were
Malach and Hajun. These men were two Rabbins belonging, the one to a
Polish, the other to a German, synagogue, who, A.D. 1700, had made
a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, there to announce the immediate coming
of the Messiah. Most of their companions died of want or fatigue on
the journey; and nearly all the survivors, following the example of
Sabbathai, went over to Islamism. But the two leaders, and especially
Hajun, zealously propagated their opinions, notwithstanding the most
determined opposition of the Rabbins of Jerusalem and Constantinople.
Among the doctrines preached by Hajun was that of a Trinity of Gods,
though the Three were perfect in their unity. This dogma—very nearly
coinciding, if not identical, with the Catholic doctrine of the
Trinity—he professed to find in the Book of Zohar.[204]
It is scarcely necessary to add that such teaching provoked the
animosity of the Rabbins to the utmost. In A.D. 1722 Hajun and his
followers were publicly excommunicated by all the synagogues, and
his influence in the East was almost entirely destroyed. In Central
Europe, however, he obtained some support. He ingratiated himself
with the Emperor Charles VI. by his denunciation of the Jews, and
many congregations in Bohemia and Moravia attached themselves to him.
Attempts were made to extend his influence into Holland, Hungary,
and other European countries, but with little success. A similar
movement was initiated shortly afterwards by Moses Luzzato; who, in
concert with a physician named Jethukiel, collected a congregation at
Wilna. He was excommunicated by the Rabbins, and repeatedly obliged
to retract his statements. He led a wandering, unsettled life, and at
last travelled to Jerusalem, where he ended his days in 1747.
Another and more important sect, appearing at least to derive its
origin from Sabbathaism, is that of the Chasidim, which established
itself chiefly in Poland, Galicia, and Russia. This is, according to
a well-known writer of the present day, the religion of nearly all
the Jews in Galicia, Hungary, Southern Russia, and Wallachia. Its
founder was one Israel Baal Schem, who first appeared in Podolia in
1740. He claimed to be the representative of God on earth, and as
such, his commands were to be obeyed with implicit submission. His
early history is full of fable, wild, extravagant tales being told of
it, which are unworthy of repetition. The orthodox Rabbins say he was
a man of mean rank and extraction, possessed of no real ability, and
who affected sanctity and mystery in order to impress his followers.
A certain supernatural power was invariably claimed by the students
of Cabbalism, but those assumed by Israel had apparently no limit.
He could absolve from all sin; he could cure all diseases by his
simple command; he could work the most stupendous miracles; he was
endowed with all knowledge, not only of the past, but of the future
also. The main drift of his teaching, which entirely rejected the
Talmud as a Rabbinical tradition, was the necessity of learning, by
continual contemplation and self-mortification, the true nature of
God, and also of entire submission to the Tzaddikhim, or priesthood.
We are told by Dr. M’Caul that they are in the habit of spending
every Sabbath with their Tzaddik, coming in for the purpose from
many miles round, bringing with them provisions for the meals of the
day, as well as presents for the Tzaddik. They consult him in all
difficulties, accepting his replies as inspired by Heaven; arrange
their private affairs, and compose their quarrels at his bidding. At
Israel Baal Schem’s death, his disciples insist that he was taken up
to heaven, there to dwell with the holy angels, and make effectual
intercession with Almighty God in behalf of every Jew who brings
up his children in accordance with the teaching of Chasidism, and
obeys the Tzaddik. He was succeeded in his authority by his three
grandsons, who were his chief disciples. But this of necessity broke
up the community into three distinct bodies, and further divisions
have since taken place, though the various synagogues of Chasidists
spread over the countries of Eastern Europe are on the whole at unity
with one another.
A few years later another strange development of Cabbalistic
Sabbathaism made its appearance, under the name of Zoharism. Jacob
Frank, its founder, is said to have been born in Poland, _circ._
A.D. 1722. In his youth he was a distiller of brandy, and he first
appeared as a religious teacher in Turkey, A.D. 1760. He was then
approaching his fortieth year. He followed the Chasidists in his
attacks on the Talmud and his devotion to the Book of Zohar. Such
fierce dissensions ensued that the Polish Government,—for it was
in Poland that he first put forth his theological dogmas,—found it
necessary to interfere. But Frank found a protector in the Bishop of
Kaminiek, who perceived, or thought he perceived, in Frank’s system
the elements of Catholic Christianity. Frank himself encouraged this
by submitting to Christian baptism, and publicly burning the Talmud.
He also declared his belief that God had appeared in human form for
the expiation of man’s transgression, and that He will hereafter
appear again, also in human form, for the final deliverance from the
power of evil. This sounded orthodox enough; but Frank was careful
not to say in whose person God had thus appeared on earth, and
whether, in fact, he accepted Jesus Christ, or Sabbathai Sevi, as the
Messiah.
But neither the Jews nor the Christians were content to leave matters
in this condition. The Rabbins, who regarded Frank with a mixture
of alarm and dislike, denounced him to the Polish Government as
an apostate to their community (and so legally liable to their
censure), and to the papal nuncio as an heretical Christian.
Neither of the parties appealed to were disposed to overlook the
accusation; and the Zoharites found themselves on the brink of a
twofold persecution. Frank himself was thrown into prison, and his
followers were scattered in all directions, most of them endeavouring
to seek a refuge in Turkey. On their way, while passing through
Moldavia, they received harsh usage from both the authorities and
the populace. Those that remained behind were obliged to profess
Christianity. Frank himself remained in prison, until the fortress
in which he was confined was captured, in 1777, by the Russians, who
set him at liberty. He then travelled through Poland, Moravia, and
Bohemia, everywhere levying large sums on the synagogues which still
continued to support him, until he reached Vienna, where he resided
for several years, under the protection of Maria Theresa. From thence
he journeyed to Brunn, in Moravia, and finally established himself at
Offenbach, in Hesse, where he resided until his death, in 1791.
A strange mystery attended his daily life, upon which no light has
ever been thrown. He was apparently without pecuniary resources, yet
he lived for many years—ten or twelve at the least—in a style which
could only have been maintained by the most lavish expenditure. He
had a retinue which might have vied with that of an Eastern prince,
of several hundred beautiful Jewish boys and girls; carts, said to
contain gold and silver, were continually brought to his place of
residence; when he went to perform his devotions, he was conveyed
in a chariot drawn by the finest horses that could be procured,
and a guard of ten or twelve Uhlans, wearing a splendid uniform of
green, scarlet, and gold, rode on either side of it. The service
was performed with a great display of magnificence, accompanied by
various strange ceremonies, the meaning of which has never been
explained. When he died, as he did some three years after his
settlement at Offenbach, he was buried with the utmost pomp and
splendour, as many as eight hundred persons attending his funeral;
and a costly cross was set up over his grave. But the secret of his
unbounded riches was interred with him. His family, it was found, had
been left entirely destitute. They appealed to his followers, who
had shown such devotion, but wholly in vain; and they relapsed into
absolute beggary. Such of his followers as survived him joined the
Roman Catholic Church of Poland. It is believed, however, that they
still cherish in secret some of their founder’s peculiar tenets.
Nearly about the same time another Jew appeared, very different in
character and opinions from Jacob Frank, but destined to exercise a
far wider and more permanent influence. Moses Mendelssohn was born of
humble parents in Dessau, A.D. 1729. His thirst for learning showed
itself from his childhood, and his early application to study is
said to have permanently injured his health. At the age of thirteen
he followed his favourite teacher, Rabbi Frankels, to Berlin, where,
after many years of labour, he obtained a tutorship in the family
of Herr Bernhardt, a silk manufacturer. Soon after he formed an
acquaintance with the philosopher Lessing,[205] and became known in
the literary world by the publication of his philosophical works, and
especially of _Phædon, or the Immortality of the Soul_, in imitation
of Plato. Other works followed, which increased his celebrity.
Having obtained the prize of the Berlin Academy for an essay on
the Evidence of Metaphysical Science, he was elected a member of
that society; but Frederick the Great struck his name off the list,
considering that a Jew was not worthy to belong to so august a body.
His writings nevertheless continued to attract popular admiration;
and the entire emancipation from the fetters of Rabbinism which they
displayed encouraged many of his friends to hope that he was already
a Christian in principle, and was on the high road to adopting it
as his profession. The celebrated Lavater addressed a letter to
him, urgently entreating him to take this step. But Mendelssohn
courteously but firmly refused, remaining nominally a member of
the Jewish synagogue to the day of his death, though he absolutely
refused to allow his spiritual pastors to impose any restrictions
on his private judgment. It seems to have been his principle to
minimize the differences between Christianity and Judaism, and, while
remaining a Jew in name, to be a Christian in spirit.
Mendelssohn’s name is greatly honoured and admired, but it may
be gravely questioned whether the course he pursued was either
defensible in itself or beneficial in its results. None of
his followers have been able to maintain the position he took
up. Some have adopted the genuine faith of Christ, some have
renounced distinctive religion altogether. It was remarkable
that all Mendelssohn’s descendants, including the famous
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, the composer, became Christians. So did Louis
Borne, and Neander, the historian and the renowned poet, Heinrich
Heine.
We must not pass over Mendelssohn’s three celebrated friends—Wessely,
the father of modern Hebrew poetry, David Friedlander, the founder
of the Jews’ Free School at Berlin, and Isaac Euchel, the translator
of the Jewish prayer-book. These men, though less distinguished than
their great contemporary, have exercised so large an influence on
their countrymen and co-religionists that they may be said to have
almost entirely changed the tone of Jewish thought and feeling.[206]
The synagogue service has also undergone considerable alteration.
The prayers and sacred poems have been abridged, and preaching very
generally introduced. Even the use of organs is not unusual. Indeed,
the old stereotyped service seems to have been exchanged for a ritual
according in minor matters with the sentiments and inclination of
each congregation.
In Russia, during this century, the condition of the Jews seems to
have varied according to the caprices alike of the rulers and the
people. They were admitted within the Muscovite kingdom by Peter the
Great; but in the reign of Elizabeth, A.D. 1745, their residence
was again forbidden, on the ground that they had been maintaining a
treasonable correspondence with some Siberian exiles. The expulsion
could not have been general, since only a few years later, in 1753,
the old charge of sacrificing children was again alleged against
them; an appeal was made to the reigning pope, Benedict XIV., and
his successor (Clement XIII.) undertook to make an investigation.
He accordingly commissioned Count Bruhl to inquire into the matter,
adding, to his honour, that he was to disregard all hearsay evidence,
and be satisfied with nothing short of proof. It needs not to add
that he did not obtain that. But the popular fury rose to such a
height that an imperial ukase was found necessary to control it. The
same charge has been repeated since, with the same total absence of
evidence, even in our time.
FOOTNOTES:
[204] ‘There be Three Lights in God: the Ancient Light, the Pure
Light, the Purified Light. These three make one God.’ For Book of
Zohar, see Appendix.
[205] Nathan the Jew, the hero of Lessing’s famous play, _Nathan der
Weiss_, was designed as a portrait of Mendelssohn.
[206] There were other distinguished men belonging to this age,
which, indeed, was unusually rife in literary talent. Joel Lowe,
professor at Breslau; Herr Homberg, superintendent of Jewish
education in Galicia; Aaron Wolfsohn, also professor at Breslau; and
Solomon Maimon, author of several philosophical works and his own
autobiography.