PUBLICATIONS OF
THE HISPANIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA
No. 85
[Illustration: Willem Janszoon Blaeu. 1571-1638
(J. Falck _sculp._)]
WILLEM JANSZOON BLAEU
1571-1638
A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE AND WORK
WITH AN ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO HIS
LARGE WORLD MAP OF 1605
FACSIMILE
OF THE UNIQUE COPY BELONGING TO
THE HISPANIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA
EIGHTEEN SHEETS WITH KEY PLATE
BY
EDWARD LUTHER STEVENSON, PH.D.
[Illustration: THE HISPANIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA]
NEW YORK
1914
Copyright, 1914, by
THE HISPANIC SOCIETY
OF AMERICA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
WILLEM JANSZOON BLAEU 11
WORLD MAP OF 1605 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BLAEU’S PRINCIPAL GEOGRAPHICAL
PUBLICATIONS 65
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Willem Janszoon Blaeu. 1571-1638 (J. Falck, _sculp._) _Frontispiece_
Facing Page
Island of Hveen, showing the location of Uranienburg. From Le
Grand Atlas 12
Press invented by Blaeu. From Johnson, J. Typographia 16
Interior of Tycho Brahe’s Observatory at Uranienburg. From
Le Grand Atlas 30
Terrestrial globe and celestial globe, 1616. Willem Janszoon Blaeu 44
World Map from Toonneel des Aerdrycx, by Willem Janszoon
Blaeu 52
Printer’s mark of the Blaeu Press [tail-piece, page 59].
WILLEM JANSZOON BLAEU
1571-1638
WILLEM JANSZOON BLAEU
AND HIS
WORLD MAP OF 1605
Willem Janszoon Blaeu, one of Holland’s most distinguished map and
globe makers of the early seventeenth century, was born at the village
of Alkmaar in the year 1571; such is the record which finds general
acceptance.[1]
Of his childhood nothing is known. It was some time in his early
boyhood days that he went to Amsterdam, where he found employment, it
appears at first, in the house of a Holland merchant, and later as a
joiner’s apprentice. We can be certain neither of the time when he
decided to leave Amsterdam, nor of the circumstances which induced him
to visit the island of Hveen, then belonging to Denmark,[2] an event
of much significance in his life. We, however, cannot be far wrong in
asserting the promptings for this visit to have been his early liking
for mathematical, geographical and astronomical studies. On this island
he was brought into intimate relations with Tycho Brahe, the famous
Danish astronomer, who, in 1576, established here his observatory at
the Castle of Uranienburg.[3] For near a quarter of a century, this
was one of the most famous centers in all Europe for the study of
astronomical science and of its practical applications. Blaeu, let it
be noted, was not the first of the young Netherlanders who found his
way to Uranienburg that he might receive astronomical instructions
from the great master. As early as 1591, Jacob Florent van Langren of
Amsterdam sent his son Arnold to the Danish astronomer with a request
that he might be allowed to copy the catalogue of the stars which had
been located at his observatory, wishing to make use of the same in
the new celestial globes which he proposed to construct. This special
request, we are informed, was not granted, for Brahe’s records were not
yet complete, but young van Langren was given permission to see the
large celestial globe which was in the observatory, and on which at the
time of the visit 800 stars had been represented.[4] It is stated
that Tycho often had as many as ten or twelve boys at his observatory
as his assistants.
[Illustration: Island of Hveen, showing the location of Uranienburg.
From Le Grand Atlas]
We have but little direct information concerning Blaeu’s sojourn at
Uranienburg. It appears certain that he passed at least two years
with Brahe, engaged the while in study and in the construction of
mathematical and astronomical instruments. May 21, 1596, the day
of the young Hollander’s departure for his native land, Brahe made
the following entry in his day-book, which book may be found in the
Imperial Library of Vienna, “Abiit domum in Hollandiam, Vilhelmus
Batavius cum per integram hyemen his fuisset,” and by Gassendi we are
told that Guilielmus Janssonius had been with Tycho for two years,
although he does not make it certain that it was for two consecutive
years. That the relations between the two distinguished scientists
continued to be of the most friendly character long after the date
given above is very certain, as not a few of those who in later years
in praising Blaeu’s scientific attainments refer to him as “the
pupil and longtime friend of Brahe,” yet neither of them appears
in his writings to have made more than a passing allusion to their
relations.[5]
It cannot be doubted that Blaeu owed to his abode on the island of
Hveen the real foundation of his scientific knowledge, both in the
field of geography and of astronomy, as well as his knowledge of the
construction and the skilful use of mathematical instruments. We have
reason for believing that a number of the instruments which served the
great astronomer in his investigations, were the work of Blaeu, and
it is an interesting fact, as we know, that Brahe’s observations, here
made, formed the basis for Kepler’s calculations, leading him to the
discovery of the laws which immortalized his name.
It was perhaps late in the year 1596, or early in 1597, that Blaeu
returned to Amsterdam where he soon established himself as a maker of
mathematical instruments, of maps and of globes, and as an engraver and
printer.
Before the close of the seventeenth century, the Netherlands had moved
into the first rank of European states in which the art of engraving
and of printing flourished. Nothing perhaps contributed more to this
end, especially in the north, than the freedom which there prevailed
untrammeled by the restraints of the Index.
As for the particular art of map engraving and map printing, the work
of Mercator, of Ortelius, of Waghenaer, had centered the attention of
those interested in this field upon the Low Countries. As early as
1541, not to mention his work of the preceding decade, Mercator issued
his terrestrial globe gores, which mark a decided advance in the art
of map engraving, and this was followed by his large map of England,
of Europe, and of the World, the latter setting forth the new method
of projection since known as Mercator’s projection. Ortelius’s great
work of 1570, with its numerous succeeding issues, Waghenaer’s Mirror
of Navigation of 1585, and Mercator’s book of maps of 1585, for which
collection as a title the name Atlas was first used, were superior
productions, models for those who followed closely within the same
field.
Blaeu acknowledged these men to be his masters, though, as was also
frequently the case with other map makers and map engravers of his day,
he occasionally forgot to assign proper credit to those from whom he
borrowed in the cartographical work that issued from his press.
We are told that Tycho had given to Blaeu a copy of his astronomical
observations before their publication, that this copy was carried
to Amsterdam, and that on the record contained therein the latter
began the practice of globe making. The implication contained in this
reference is that his first work as a globe maker was the preparation
of material for a celestial globe, but no such globe of his is known
bearing date earlier than 1602. His first dated work appears to have
been a terrestrial globe of the year 1599. It was as a maker and
vender of mathematical instruments, as a collector and close student
of maps geographical and astronomical, he probably found his chief
employment during the first years after his return to the Netherlands.
There is good reason for thinking that from the first he prospered in
his undertakings, and that he was soon in a position to establish an
independent business. It may be inferred from incidental references
that it was not long after 1600 he was in his own fully equipped house
engaged in the business of engraving and printing.
Blaeu seems not to have become a member of any of the guilds in his
adopted city, and we, therefore, cannot turn to their records for any
information concerning his activities. His name first publicly appears
in the records of the States General for the year 1605, in a resolution
proposing that a sum of money should be granted to him for printing
and publishing a NIEUW GRAETBOUCK, a name given at that time in the
Netherlands to a book containing declination tables. This resolution
reads as follows: “19 Maart 1605. Is Willem Jansz Blaeu tot Amsterdam
geaccordeert octroy, omme voor den tyt van 6 jaren naestcomende
alleene in de vereenichde provincien in druck vuyt to geven een
bouxken, geintituleert: Nieuw graetbouck, nae den ouden styl vuyt de
aldercorrecste observatien van den vermaerden astronomo Tycho Brahe,
gecalculeert ende gestelt op ten meridiaen deser Nederlanden, enz.”[6]
A copy of this work does not appear to be extant, but we may be able,
as Baudet suggests, to obtain something of an idea of its character
from later publications of Blaeu, as for instance from his “Licht der
Zeevaert.”
On his “Paescarte,” one of his early publications, and usually
referred to the year 1606, we read that it was “Ghedruckt t’ Amsterdam
bij Willem Janssoon op’t Waeter inde Sonnewijser,” a location often
referred to in certain later publications as “op’ t water In de
vergulde Sonnewyser,” reference being to the gilded sun-dial which as
a business sign adorned the gable of his establishment.[7] It appears
that in this originally selected locality his work was carried on until
the year 1637, when his entire plant was moved into more commodious
quarters in the Blumengracht, one year only before his death. On the
death of Willem Blaeu, in 1638, the business passed into the hands
of his sons John and Cornelius Blaeu. In 1672 practically the entire
establishment was destroyed by fire.
[Illustration: Typographia....501
PRESS INVENTED BY BLAEW.
From Johnson, J. Typographia]
For his ability and attainments as a practical printer Willem Blaeu is
especially entitled to great honor. He labored on for many years in
Amsterdam, making use of such presses as were commonly to be found in
the printing houses of his own and of other lands. Finding, however,
numerous inconveniences attending the structure of these oldtime
presses, he was induced, about 1620, to contrive remedies.[8] In this,
we are told, he succeeded beyond his expectations, so much indeed that
he had nine of the new presses constructed, each of which he called by
the name of one of the Muses. The excellence of Blaeu’s improvements
soon becoming known to other printing houses, their proprietors were
induced to follow his example, and presses of his design became, in the
course of a few years, almost general throughout the Low Countries,
and were introduced into England, though at first there was here much
opposition to his new ideas. While the description below is that of the
Blaeu establishment as it was under the management of the son John, yet
as it presents to us the printing house founded by the father, Willem
Blaeu, and describes a printing house of the middle of the seventeenth
century, it is here cited in free translation.
“On the Blumengracht,” says Filips von Zesen, in his description of the
city of Amsterdam,[9] “near the third bridge, and the third alley, may
be found the greatly renowned printing house of John Blaeu, Counsellor
and Magistrate, of this city. It is furnished with nine type presses,
named after the nine Muses, six presses for copperplate printing,
and a type foundry. The entire establishment on the canal, with the
adjoining house, in which the proprietor lives, is 75 feet in breadth,
and stretches along the east side of a cross street 135 feet, or with
the attached house 150 feet. Fronting on the canal is a room with
cases in which the copper plates are kept, from which the Atlases, the
Book of the Cities of the Netherlands and of foreign countries, also
the Mariners’ Atlases and other choice books are printed, and which
must have cost a ton of gold. Next to this first room is a press room
used for plate printing, and opening upon the cross street referred to
above is a place where the type, from which impressions have been made,
are washed; then follows in order the room for book printing, which
resembles a long hall with numerous windows on either side. In the
extreme rear is a room in which the type and certain other materials
used in printing are stored. Opposite this store room is a stairway
leading to a small room above which is set apart for the use of the
proof-readers, where first and second impressions are carefully looked
over, and the errors corrected which have been made by the typesetters.
In front of this last designated room is a long table or bench on
which the final prints are placed as soon as they are brought from the
press, and where they are left for a considerable time. In the story
above is a table for the same purpose just indicated, at the extreme
end of which, and over the room occupied by the proof-readers, is the
type foundry wherein the letters used in the printing of the various
languages are moulded.
The foundation of this splendid building was laid in the year 1636, by
John Blaeu’s oldest son Willem Blaeu,[10] and on the 13th of the fall
month of the following year the printing establishment was here set
in order. The original founder of the printing house, who died in the
following year, was John Blaeu’s art loving father Willem, who, for
a considerable time, had been a pupil of the great astronomer Tycho
Brahe, whom he zealously followed, constructing many instruments for
the advancement of astronomical studies, for the promotion of the art
of navigation, and of other sciences of like character, an interest in
all of which he revived and furthered while at the same time he made
new discoveries, as has become widely known from the publications which
have issued from this printing house.
But why should we here give to them such unbounded praise? Since father
and son without eulogy from us are so well known to the entire learned
world, to which they have presented such treasures of inestimable
value through their incomparable pains and at great cost, and are so
far advanced on the road to immortality, it is more becoming in us to
remain silent than to speak further concerning them.”
Before turning for a reference more in detail to the publications
which were issued by the Blaeu press, to a consideration of Willem
Blaeu’s most important work as engraver, as globe maker, as printer and
publisher of maps and navigators’ charts, a further brief word may be
said touching certain general interests and activities of his, touching
certain personal relations and individual characteristics, which
support the conclusion that he was a man justly held in the highest
esteem by men of science of his day, and that he was interested in
whatever pertained to his great field of study.
Reference has been made to Blaeu’s ability as a maker of mathematical
and astronomical instruments, which work claimed more or less of
his attention to the end of his days. The fact, however, is a very
remarkable one that from the many years of activity as an instrument
maker with Tycho Brahe, and independently at Amsterdam, but one example
of his should have come down to us. Vossius says that “no other scholar
ever deserved so much praise as Blaeu on account of an extraordinary
and beautiful quadrant, which can be seen at Leyden in the tower,
where astronomical observations are being made.”[11] His reference is
to a quadrant now kept in the Leyden Observatory. It is described by
Kayser in his Annals of the Observatory as a wooden quadrant, with a
brass rim, having a radius of seven feet.[12] In the year 1632 it was
purchased from the estate of Willebrod Snellius, and may be said to
have induced the founding of this observatory in the year 1633.
With the conscientious map makers the problem was ever present, how
shall accuracy in space relations, accuracy in location of places on
the map be attained. Ptolemy had been a guide in the earlier years
of great geographical discoveries and explorations, but geographical
knowledge soon extended to regions beyond those known to Ptolemy,
and the inaccuracies of his records, even for those regions more or
less familiar to the ancients, became very apparent. In the maps of
the seventeenth century we have interestingly exhibited the tortuous
advance of geographical knowledge. They do not show a steady and
continuous progress toward accuracy. Information which may have been
accepted as truth respecting certain regions or geographical areas,
and have been recorded as such by one or by many of the map makers,
would often be held as doubtful by those of succeeding years, to be
accepted and rejected again in turn. Blaeu’s intimate acquaintance
with mathematics and astronomy as related to geography, particularly as
related to cartography, admirably fitted him for a certain leadership
in this field. We have from Vossius the information that Blaeu
undertook the measurement of a degree on the surface of the earth to
the end that he might aid the map maker in improving his work and serve
especially the cause of navigation. In his attempts to find a new and
better method for terrestrial measurements, it seems probable that
he anticipated the work of the great mathematician Snellius, whose
results were first published in the year 1617, and to whom credit is
generally given for having employed a new method of procedure based
upon triangulation.[13] Blaeu’s measurements, made along the coast
of the Netherlands from the mouth of the Meuse to the Texel, were
never published, probably for the reason, as suggested by Vossius,
that he may have distrusted their accuracy. The mathematician Picard,
in his Voyage d’Uranibourg,[14] writes in the month of July, 1671, a
brief word concerning Blaeu’s contributions toward the solution of
problems having to do with terrestrial measurements, giving us in this
word practically the only information we have concerning the matter.
According to Picard, Blaeu’s measurements gave results with an error of
but 66 meters, whereas for the same measurements, Snellius’s results
gave an error of no less than 3880 meters. Had Blaeu more persistently
carried on his studies in this particular branch of mathematical
geography, his name doubtless would have been with the very first
in a list of those who have made contribution to the science of
terrestrial measurement and to a reform of the maps. His aim was set
in the right direction, and we are safe in saying that none, in his
day, made greater contribution toward the attainment of accuracy in map
drawing than did he. To be able to understand the nature of the errors
so common in chart making and to be able to correct the same were two
very different matters, and although Blaeu was able to point out many
errors, such, for example, as pertained to latitude and longitude, his
maps do not indicate that he was able to overcome all difficulties.
His was not the day for scientifically accurate results. Years had yet
to pass before that end could be attained. To some of his errors, and
to certain improvements of his, attention will be directed later. He
appears to have been especially desirous, at all times, of acquiring
detailed geographical and astronomical information from navigators who
visited distant regions, making request of them that their observations
should be reported to him. In a letter to W. Schickard, dated June
24, 1634, Blaeu wrote, “When the directors of the East India Company
placed me at the head of their department of hydrography a year ago, I
requested them to charge all pilots and masters who sailed for India
to observe all eclipses, in whatever part they might be seen, and this
has been done.”[15] His desire to be of assistance to others in giving
out such information as might come into his possession is made evident
by the further word in his letter to Schickard assuring him that “if
observations of eclipses from India or other places on the way are sent
to me, I shall be pleased to inform you of them.”
The determination of longitude, particularly at sea, remained for
more than a century and a half after Blaeu’s day a most perplexing
problem, a problem, however, of the greatest significance in the art
of navigation, miscalculations being often the cause of most serious
disasters. The rulers of the maritime states of western Europe not
infrequently offered liberal reward for its solution. Philip III of
Spain, for instance, promised an annuity of 6000 ducats to the one who
would first devise a method for determining longitude.[16] Numerous
attempts were made in Spain and Portugal, as a result of the promised
reward, but the problem remained unsolved. The States General of
Holland, for instance, offered a liberal reward to Plancius should a
plan he submitted prove to be of value, which plan he had based upon
the declination of the needle; and in the records of that body, bearing
date May 21, 1601, we read that a reward of 150 pounds was promised to
any one who, having made an expedition for the purpose of determining
longitude and latitude, could obtain the support of six or eight sea
captains that his method was of real value.[17] Blaeu often figured
somewhat conspicuously as an expert in passing upon the solution of
certain problems which were offered. Resolutions of the States General,
for example, make mention of a plan submitted by Thomas Leamer, an
Englishman residing in Amsterdam, but it appears that no satisfactory
agreement could be entered into with him on his first plans, and it
was, therefore, decided to submit his subsequent propositions to the
College of Admiralty of Amsterdam, authorizing this body to ask for
a demonstration of the new invention in its presence, to have it
investigated by Willem Jansz. Blaeu and other masters in this art
together with such experienced navigators and pilots as the College
might see fit to choose, to examine it carefully and impartially with
especial reference to its practical value, and to follow their best
judgment as to the advisability of attempting to make use of the
invention.[18] On July 3, 1612, the Council of the Admiralty sent word
to the States General that the aforesaid Leamer had been examined, in
accord with the letter of December 21, 1611, at different times, and
at his request again and again in its presence, by “Willem Jansz,”
and by many other persons experienced in mathematics and navigation,
in order to find out the truth relative to his proposition; that they
had charged the judges to examine honestly, and that it had been
unanimously concluded the invention was wholly worthless.[19] It is not
without interest to note that Leamer made an especial appeal to the
Admiralty of Amsterdam, charging the committee with partiality and with
inability to judge the case, but we are not informed that the Admiralty
altered its opinion.
Taking into consideration the extensive commerce and interest in
navigation of the United Provinces in this period, it does not occasion
surprise that Galileo, after having offered in vain to Philip III
his plan for a new method of determining longitude, should decide to
present the same to the States General of the Provinces.[20] This
plan he based upon his discovery in 1610 of the satellites of Jupiter
and the valuable data furnished him through a study of the eclipses
of these satellites. Galileo himself tells us of his negotiations
with Philip of Spain, stating that the King informed him of the many
inventions which had been sent to him, and which he had accepted, only
to find afterward that they were of no practical value. Having been
so often deceived, he had come to the conclusion that a great deal of
money had been wasted, and had, therefore, decided to be more careful
in future. It was not until August, 1636, that Galileo decided upon
presenting his plan to the States General, as he informed Hugo Grotius,
then Swedish consul at the French Court, and not until November of
that year that Laurens Reael handed to the States a letter from him
containing an explanation of his method, with an offer of the plan
to that distinguished body. Blaeu is again chosen as one of four
experts to examine and report on the invention. Galileo’s plan was
well adapted for the determination of longitude on land, but because
of the ship’s motion on the high seas it did not prove to be practical
for navigators, though he suggested the placing of his instruments and
the observer in a vessel of water on the ship’s deck, thinking thus to
counterbalance the ship’s motion. By resolution of April 25, 1637, he
was to receive a reward for the new method he had suggested, but it
does not appear that it was paid to him.
Blaeu’s training admirably fitted him to serve his country in matters
pertaining to its maritime interests, and its calls as well as its
rewards for his services were not infrequent. As further proof of the
confidence that his contemporaries had in his knowledge of geography
and navigation, the States General of Amsterdam, January 3, 1633, by
resolution appointed Blaeu map maker of the Republic, an honorable
position held by him until his death, being then successively passed
on to his son and to his grandson. In a resolution of October 23, 1666,
we read that no house engaged in commerce will be allowed to send any
marine maps to India, or have them taken by captains of vessels, except
those made by Blaeu; and in a resolution of 1670 it is stated that to
Willem Jansz. Blaeu, map maker in ordinary of the Company, instruction
has been given to examine the journals of the pilots and to correct and
improve the maps.
It is not easy at this date to determine the justice of the several
complaints which we find were occasionally made by certain map makers
of the Netherlands in the early seventeenth century against fellow
countrymen. There was so much borrowing one from the other without
credit that it would be an exceedingly difficult, if not impossible,
task to give a complete catalogue of any one of the several map makers’
work. Rivalry often ran strong, and the authorities not infrequently
were urged to exercise special diligence to prevent the infringement
of a copyrighted plate, or one that was protected, as they at that
time expressed it, by an octroi. Between Willem Blaeu and Joannes
Janssonius this rivalry was particularly marked, each claiming at times
an infringement by the other. Whether it was for protection against
Janssonius that Blaeu in 1608 presented a special plea to the States
of Holland and West Friesland, asking that he be made secure against
the loss caused by pirated editions of works published by him, is not
certain. He informed the States that he had given himself hope of
being able to support his family in an honest way, and that he would
have succeeded with God’s mercy and blessing, if certain individuals
engaged in the same business had not undertaken to copy his new works,
as well as his enlarged and improved works.[21] This rivalry between
Blaeu and Janssonius continued for many years, involving in some degree
Jodocus Hondius, the father-in-law of Janssonius. It seems probable
that Blaeu’s complaint of 1608 touched in some manner his large World
Map of 1605, since, as before stated, there is a striking resemblance
between this and the World Map of Hondius issued about 1611, on which
he must have been at work for some years, a similarity in which the
very differences and slight variations cannot be without peculiar
significance.[22]
If Blaeu won deserved renown through his scientific attainments, so the
Blaeu press became renowned for the excellence of the work which bore
its imprint. Its map engravers were among the most skilful employed in
the workshops of the Netherlands, its types were unexcelled in simple
but artistic form, unless perchance one may accord first place to the
Elzevir press. His good work, as we know, was a spur to others, as, for
example, to Hondius and Janssonius in the issue of their Atlas of 1633.
The list of works which issued from this famous printing house in so
far as we have accurate information, is an exceedingly long one, and
the titles include many which do not touch upon matters geographical,
hence do not call for consideration in this brief sketch. We may,
therefore, pass to a more detailed word concerning those works which
bear particularly upon geography and navigation, to his maps and
globes.
* * * * *
It does not seem possible at this date to enumerate all the maps which
might properly be called the special work of Blaeu, and it is doubtful
if it could have been done in Blaeu’s day, since he so often borrowed
here a little and there a little which he incorporated in his maps.
Reference has before been made to the practice of map makers borrowing
one from the other, sometimes more, sometimes less, without credit. Not
all of Blaeu’s maps are signed, and but comparatively few of them are
dated. He did not consider it essential always to employ the same name
when affixing his signature. Sometimes he gave his name as Guilielmus
Janssonius Blaeu, Guil. Jansz. Blaeu, Guiljelmus Blaeuw; sometimes
as Guil. Jansz. Alcmar, Guilielmus Janssonius Alcmarianus; sometimes
as Guiljelmus Caesius, or G. J. Caesius, in which, in accord with a
practice of the time, he had classicized his name Blaeu; sometimes the
name is coupled with that of the son as Guil. et Johan. Blaeu, and on
certain maps we find the names J. or Joan. Blaeu, Johannes et Cornelius
Blaeu, maps which were wholly or in part the work of the sons, but were
drawn after the manner of the father.
Next to his terrestrial globe maps of 1599 and 1602, his oldest known
map is that of 1605, here issued in facsimile, and described below.
His “Nywe Paskaerte” of 1606, of which but few copies are now known,
appears to have been the first which he especially designed for
navigators. Baudet gives a somewhat enthusiastic description of a copy
of this map printed on parchment, which at the time of his writing
was in the possession of Mr. Tiele.[23] It is drawn with the west at
the top, having a width of 76 cm. and a breadth of 59 cm., extending
from 25° 30′ to 75° north latitude, or from the Canary Islands on the
south to the Beeren Island on the north, from Terceira on the west
to and including the Ionian Islands on the east. In a cartouche at
the bottom of the map is the following inscription, given here in
free translation:[24] “Willem Jansz. to the kind reader: In this map,
dear reader, you will find all the sea coasts of Europe carefully
drawn by Cornelius Doedsz. of Edam, according to true directions and
elevations, except for the Mediterranean, in which the author has
purposely omitted the elevations from Malta eastward, and has only
given direction, according to our common Dutch compasses, which, in
the vicinity of Candia and Cyprus point a little too much toward the
northwest, as is shown by the fact that Malta, the south shore of
Candia and of Cyprus are all situated in latitude 36°, although it is
impossible to reach them sailing west-east, as this map clearly shows.”
To the right of the above inscription we read: “Ghedruct t’ Amsterdam
bij Willem Janssoon op’t Waeter inde Sonnewijser,” and to the left,
given here in translation: “Since on account of the limited space
the entire Mediterranean Sea could not be given, we have therefore
decided, for the use of seamen, to add also the part from the coasts
of Barbary, Sicily, and Malta, passing the Grecian Islands, Candia,
and Cyprus to the coast of Syria.” Of the two small inset maps, one
represents the Azores, the other the Beeren Island and the west coast
of Spitzbergen. The eastern part of the Mediterranean, Greece and the
Ionian Archipelago, the coast of Asia Minor and Syria, have been placed
in the Sahara Desert. Longitude is not indicated, but latitude is
given on the border, each degree being divided into thirds. In this map
northern Europe is brought too far to the west, and, in accord with the
general representations of the time, the Mediterranean is given too
great an extent in longitude. The errors in latitude are comparatively
insignificant. As one of the first examples of the work of Blaeu’s
printing house, it is deserving the special mention given above,
particularly so by reason of the distinctness of its boundary lines,
the excellent form of its letters, and the care with which geographical
details have been indicated.
[Illustration: Interior of Tycho Brahe’s Observatory at Uranienburg
From Le Grand Atlas]
A resolution of the States General dated April 25, 1608, gives us
the information that to Willem Jansz., map maker of Amsterdam, the
sum of 200 gl. is to be given for the dedication and presentation of
a book of sea charts, entitled “Het Licht der Zeevaert,” which lays
down the coasts and harbors of the Western, Northern and Eastern Seas.
In this we appear to have first reference to Volumes I and II of an
important work by Blaeu, of which work a third volume appeared in 1621,
protected by an octroi of the States General for six years, expressed
in a resolution bearing date August 13, 1618.[25] This resolution of
the States informs us that to Willem Jansz., a citizen of Amsterdam,
an octroi is granted for the period of six years, to make, print, and
publish in the United Netherlands, the third part of his book entitled
“Het Licht der Zeevaert,” containing a description of the sea-coasts
of the Mediterranean Sea. Copies of the first two volumes, printed
in accord with the indication contained in the resolution referred
to above, that is, in 1608, appear not to be known, but there exists
a French edition of 1619, bearing the title “Le flambeau de la
navigation ... Chez Guilliaume Jeansz. demeurant sur l’eau, à l’ensigne
du Solaire Dore. l’An 1619,” which title is often found in the volume
pasted over an original Dutch title dated 1620. In translation this
Dutch title, being practically the same as that in French, reads, “The
Light of Navigation in which are plainly drawn and described all the
Coasts and Harbours of the Western, Northern, Eastern and Mediterranean
Seas. Also many countries, islands and places of Guinea, Brazil, East
and West Indies. Partly taken from the works of the best writers on
marine matters [as Lucas Jansz. Waghenaer and others] but improved
through the writings of experienced seamen, and by making use of their
statements and explanations; enlarged by many new descriptions and
maps. All divided into four books, each volume having its own index.
Hereto have been added [besides a course in the art of navigation] new
tables of the declination of the sun, derived from the observations of
Tycho Brahe, and calculated from the meridian of Amsterdam. Also new
tables and instructions in the right use of the Pole Star and other
Stars, for the benefit of all navigators.” In 1627 the Dutch edition
seems to have been issued by “Jan Janssoon wonende op ’t water,” the
first part being dated 1626, and the second part dated 1625.
In the dedication of his third volume to the States General and to
Prince Maurice, a dedication dated September 1, 1618, there is to
be found a statement by Blaeu which shows his own opinion of the
importance of the first two volumes. He writes he is “assured without
boasting that this third volume will be as useful as the two preceding,
containing the description of Eastern and Western Navigation, of which
Your Honorable Body [States General] and Your Excellency [Maurice] at
other times have had sufficient proof from trustworthy certificates
of well known navigators, and also from the statements of the famous
pilot Lucas Waghenaer.” To have from Lucas Jansz. Waghenaer a favorable
criticism concerning a work which was destined to be considered
superior to his own, is of no little importance. Blaeu further
acknowledges in his introduction the influence of Willem Barentszoen’s
maps upon his own, for he states “to the kind reader” that “we have for
some years past collected very carefully all observations and plans,
by means of which we have improved and enlarged in many respects the
descriptions of Willem Barentsz., whose writings have been of much
value to us in this work. Besides, we have added the descriptions of
all the sea-coasts in the east which were not laid down by him, as
of the islands of Candia, Cyprus, the coasts of Syria and Egypt, and
also of the Greek islands; and how one in this way can sail even to
Constantinople; and we have put this all together.” “The uses of this
Book” he sets forth in six brief introductory chapters, in which he
treats of “1--The difference between the Dutch and the Italian marine
maps; 2--Why the compass needle is not laid directly under the compass
lily; 3--Why the marine charts of the Mediterranean Sea are not drawn
showing the degrees of latitude; 4--How to reckon latitude; 5--How the
declination of the compass needle or the variation of the compass may
be determined; 6--How to find the elevation of the sun from its shadow.”
Blaeu’s reference to the declination of the needle in this introduction
is of considerable scientific importance and interest. In his day
the compass makers found the needle’s declination for Holland to be
from about 7° 45′ to about 8° 26′ eastward. They were, therefore,
accustomed to lay the compass lily a corresponding number of degrees
to the left or westward from the direction in which the needle pointed
that this lily might turn to the true north. He found that in the
Adriatic the declination of the needle was 0, and that in the Italian
compasses the direction of the needle and of the lily agreed. Compass
roses on Italian portolan or sailors’ charts, therefore, indicated no
declination as the Italian compasses indicated none, and the compass
lily simply marked the true meridian. As distances to be sailed in
the Mediterranean were not great, latitude, therefore, was not laid
down, and longitude was omitted, by reason of the fact that there
was no accurate method of determining the same, consequently vessels
sailed from port to port directed only by the compass. Blaeu wrote
that “since the skies are there [in the Mediterranean] almost always
clear, and the land high, and places are not far distant one from
another, one losing sight of one part of the coast will be in sight of
another part, and the majority make very little use of latitude. The
seamen and those who have navigated these parts have not taken into
consideration the latitudes, and follow only general direction.” This
being Blaeu’s observation, which is practically taken word for word
from Barentszoen’s introduction to his “Caertboeck,” one would not,
therefore, expect to find either parallels or meridians laid down on
his maps. He gives only compass roses and direction for sailing in
accord with the Dutch compass. On the maps of Barentszoen, which maps
Blaeu closely followed in many respects, the directions for sailing are
given in accord with the Dutch and with the Italian compasses. Blaeu
could not have followed a better master in plan and purpose, and while
not always indicating just what he borrowed, he seems to have been
inclined to give adequate praise to the work of his predecessor. It
cannot be without interest to cite here a brief word from Barentszoen’s
introduction to his “Caertboeck,” as indicating his spirit and method.
He says “that not only being urged by my many good friends, but also
feeling inclined myself to do so, since I always have been accustomed
from my boyhood up to draw as many maps as I found it possible to draw
of the countries which I visited, or around which I sailed, giving the
seas, the waters and the directions, I have decided to publish certain
maps of the sea-coast of the Mediterranean Seas [which I have collected
for some years past] into book form, for the use and the benefit of all
navigators, and persons interested in navigation. In part, I describe
what I myself have seen on my journeys, in part what I have learned
from other experienced navigators and pilots, who have sailed through
the Strait of Gibraltar to Italy and the surrounding countries. And
this I have carefully arranged, showing all harbors, roads, bays,
courses and directions; giving myself a great deal of trouble, and
incurring a great deal of expense. Since I did not like to rely alone
upon myself, I invited to my home several seamen and pilots, who sailed
the Mediterranean Seas, with whom I have communicated about my work.
I made corrections whenever I found that their observations had been
more exact than my own, that it might not seem as if I, being proud,
intended to make a name for myself, and as if I had done this work
carelessly, but that it should be clear I had gone to much trouble.”
A resolution of the States General, dated March 9, 1623, granted to
Willem Jansz. Blaeu, for a period of ten years, the exclusive right
to print and publish a work referred to in the resolution as “een
compendium van den Zeespiegel.” It appears, however, that this was
not issued until 1625, and under the title “Tafelen van de declinatie
der Sonne, ende der voornaemste vaste sterren, Mitsgaders van ’t
verscheyden gebruyck der Noordsterre Nieulycx, allen Zeevaerenden
ten dienst, ghecalculeert door Willem Jansz. Blauw,” or “Tables of
the declination of the sun and of the most important planets with
the different uses of the North Star calculated anew for the use of
all navigators by Willem Jansz. Blauw.” On the title-page appears a
representation of the cross-staff and the astrolabe, with the imprint
“t’ Amsterdam By Willem Jansz. Blauw in de guide Sonnewyser, Met
privilegie, Anno 1625.” The statement is made in the preface that “from
the exact observations of Tycho Brahe, we have calculated new tables of
the declination of the sun.” These same tables are to be found in the
Zeespiegel of 1627, and were intended to replace the old tables of the
“Nieuw Graetbouck” of the year 1605.
A second privilege granted by the States General, dated March 9, 1623,
as the preceding, gives us the first word concerning another work by
Blaeu intended especially for the use of seamen. This work, apparently
not issued until the following year, though a copy dated 1624 does not
seem now to be known, bears the following title taken from the issue
of 1627: “Zeespiegel, Inhoudende een korte Onderwysinghe in de Konst
der Zeevaert, en Beschryvinghe der Seen en Kusten van de Oostersche,
Noordsche end Westersche Schipvaert. Wt ondervindinghen van veel
ervaren Zeevaerders vergadert, en t’ samen ghestelt. Door Willem Jansz.
Blaeuw Tot Amsterdam. Ghedruckt by Willem Jansz. Blaeuw, in de vergulde
Sonnewyser 1627. Met Privilegie voor thien Jaren”; or, “Mirror of
the Sea, containing brief instruction in the art of Navigation, and a
description of the seas and coasts of the Eastern, Northern and Western
Navigation. Collected and arranged from the experiences of numerous
Navigators. By Willem Jansz. Blaeuw, At Amsterdam. Printed by Willem
Jansz. Blaeuw, in the gilded Sun-dial, 1627. With a privilege for ten
years.”
Blaeu figures his declination tables from the years 1624, 1625, 1626
and 1627, on a parallel of the earth from the meridian of the west
point of England, since this longitude was most frequently used by
the Dutch navigators in sailing the Channel, as well as in sailing
the coasts of France, Portugal or Spain. The work is divided into two
parts, the first being a short treatise on the art of navigation, and
the second a collection of maps or sea charts. We have in this work a
striking illustration of the lingering influence of Ptolemy, for he
takes as a basis of many of the ideas he presents the work of Ptolemy.
The book does not undertake, as Baudet points out, to add to or improve
the methods of defining geographical location. It does not undertake
to correct what were the known errors in his day. He treats in his
first part of the several spheres; he presents what he considers to be
acceptable proof that the earth is in the center of the universe, as
the stars appear at all times to be of the same size, in whatever part
of the heavens they may be; he explains the construction and the use of
the cross-staff by means of which the observer determines the altitude
of the sun; he points out that in determining latitude by observing
the altitude of the Pole Star, 2° 42′ should be taken as the distance
from the star to the pole; he discusses the subject of atmospheric
refraction, basing his observations on those of Tycho Brahe, which
discussion is of special interest since it sets forth the attitude of
seamen of that day toward this subject, and the difficulty they had in
meeting it by reason of the imperfect instruments with which they made
their calculations.
Blaeu’s charts are drawn on a plane or cylindrical projection, although
the projection of Mercator had been known for more than half a century.
This fact seems to suggest the idea that in publishing his book he
had not so much in view the question of the advance of the art of
navigation as to meet a desire for a work in agreement scientifically
with the knowledge of seamen of his day. In point of accuracy, Blaeu’s
charts in this work are wanting much, but we must not forget the
imperfect methods employed in his day for obtaining geographical
location. If accuracy was wanting in the land maps, much less could
we expect to find accuracy in the marine charts. Seamen in part were
accustomed to estimate longitude and distance from change in latitude,
and the direction in which they sailed. The speed of a ship was often
estimated from the size and the number of sails used. It was not until
about the middle of the seventeenth century that the log was brought
into common use, consequently Blaeu makes no reference to it. It is
interesting to note that a somewhat similar instrument was employed
about the middle of the sixteenth century for measuring the angle which
the axis of the ship made with its track as observed on the surface of
the water. In his “Spieghel der Zeevaert” of 1584, Waghenaer states
that for measuring this angle, “it is necessary to let the plumb line
log behind with a piece of wood attached or otherwise.” A comparison of
the maps of Blaeu with those of his distinguished predecessors, Lucas
Jansz. Waghenaer and Willem Barentszoen, warrants our assigning to him
first place, both in point of execution and in the nearer approach to
correctness in his drawing. John Blaeu, in his Atlas of 1664, referring
to the maps of Waghenaer and Barentszoen, says that “my late father not
only greatly improved both of these, but also enlarged them for the
benefit of navigation, adding to them so much that was lacking that his
may justly be called a new work.”
In 1646, John Blaeu printed a fourth part of the Zeespiegel, bearing
the title “Vierde deel der Zeespiegel, inhoudende eene beschryvinge
der See-havenen, Reeden, en Kusten van de Middelandsche Schipvaert.
Uyt ondervindingen van vele ervaren Zeevaerders by een vergadert, en
t’ samengestelt, door Willem Jansz. Blaeu, t’ Amsterdam. Gedruckt by
Johan Blaeu, op ’t Water, in de vergulde Zonnewyser. 1646,” or “Fourth
Part of the Mirror of the Sea, containing a description of the Harbors,
Roadsteads, and Coasts of the Mediterranean Navigation. Collected from
the experiences of famous Navigators, and arranged by Willem Jansz.
Blaeu at Amsterdam. Printed by John Blaeu on the Water in the gilded
Sun-dial, 1646.” There is included in this fourth part the third part
of the “Licht der Zeevaert” of 1621, with the arrangement of the
contents and the size of the volume somewhat altered. That which is
true of certain map publishers in this day, in their attitude toward
their own publications, was true of the publishers of these Willem
Blaeu maps after his death. So long as there were publishers for them,
it was not thought to be necessary to improve them, especially so since
John Blaeu, who had succeeded his father in charge of the business,
had taken up what he thought to be more profitable printing than the
issue of charts for seamen. Other publishers, after the middle of the
century, were entering the field, and the Blaeu marine maps in course
of time came to be regarded as obsolete.