The construction of the _organistrum_ requires but little explanation.
A glance at the finger-board reveals at once that the different
tones were obtained by raising the keys placed on the neck under the
strings, and that the keys were raised by means of the handles at
the side of the neck. Of the two bridges shown on the body, the one
situated nearest the middle was formed by a wheel in the inside, which
projected through the sound-board. The wheel which slightly touched
the strings vibrated them by friction when turned by the handle at
the end. The order of intervals was _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _a_,
_b-flat_, _b-natural_, _c_, and were obtainable on the highest string.
There is reason to suppose that the other two strings were generally
tuned a fifth and an octave below the highest. The _organistrum_ may
be regarded as the predecessor of the hurdy-gurdy, and was a rather
cumbrous contrivance. Two persons seem to have been required to sound
it, one to turn the handle and the other to manage the keys. Thus it is
generally represented in mediæval concerts.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The _monochord_ (p. 100) was mounted with a single string stretched
over two bridges which were fixed on an oblong box. The string could be
tightened or slackened by means of a turning screw inserted into one
end of the box. The intervals of the scale were marked on the side, and
were regulated by a sort of movable bridge placed beneath the string
when required. As might be expected, the _monochord_ was chiefly used
by theorists; for any musical performance it was but little suitable.
About a thousand years ago when this monochord was in use the musical
scale was diatonic, with the exception of the interval of the seventh,
which was chromatic inasmuch as both _b-flat_ and _b-natural_ formed
part of the scale. The notation on the preceding page exhibits the
compass as well as the order of intervals adhered to about the tenth
century.
This ought to be borne in mind in examining the representations of
musical instruments transmitted to us from that period.
As regards the wind instruments popular during the middle ages, some
were of quaint form as well as of rude construction.
The _chorus_, or _choron_, had either one or two tubes, as in the
woodcut page 101. There were several varieties of this instrument;
sometimes it was constructed with a bladder into which the tube is
inserted; this kind of _chorus_ resembled the bagpipe; another kind
resembled the _poongi_ of the Hindus, mentioned page 51. The name
_chorus_ was also applied to certain stringed instruments. One of
these had much the form of the _cithara_, page 86. It appears however,
probable that _chorus_ or _choron_ originally designated a horn
(Hebrew, _Keren_; Greek, _Keras_; Latin, _cornu_).
[Illustration]
The flutes of the middle ages were blown at the end, like the
flageolet. Of the _syrinx_ there are extant some illustrations of the
ninth and tenth centuries, which exhibit the instrument with a number
of tubes tied together, just like the Pandean pipe still in use. In one
specimen engraved (page 102) from a manuscript of the eleventh century
the tubes were inserted into a bowl-shaped box. This is probably the
_frestele_, _fretel_, or _fretiau_, which in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries was in favour with the French ménétriers.
Some large Anglo-saxon trumpets may be seen in a manuscript of the
eighth century in the British museum. The largest kind of trumpet was
placed on a stand when blown. Of the _oliphant_, or hunting horn, some
fine specimens are in the South Kensington collection. The _sackbut_
(of which we give a woodcut) probably made of metal, could be drawn
out to alter the pitch of sound. The sackbut of the ninth century had,
however, a very different shape to that in use about three centuries
ago, and much more resembled the present _trombone_. The name _sackbut_
is supposed to be a corruption of _sambuca_. The French, about the
fifteenth century, called it _sacqueboute_ and _saquebutte_.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The most important wind instrument--in fact, the king of all the
musical instruments--is the organ.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The _pneumatic organ_ is sculptured on an obelisk which was erected
in Constantinople under Theodosius the great, towards the end of the
fourth century. The bellows were pressed by men standing on them:
see page 103. This interesting monument also exhibits performers on
the double flute. The _hydraulic organ_, which is recorded to have
been already known about two hundred years before the Christian era,
was according to some statements occasionally employed in churches
during the earlier centuries of the middle ages. Probably it was more
frequently heard in secular entertainments for which it was more
suitable; and at the beginning of the fourteenth century appears to
have been entirely supplanted by the pneumatic organ. The earliest
organs had only about a dozen pipes. The largest, which were made
about nine hundred years ago, had only three octaves, in which the
chromatic intervals did not occur. Some progress in the construction
of the organ is exhibited in an illustration (engraved p. 104) dating
from the twelfth century, in a psalter of Eadwine, in the library of
Trinity college, Cambridge. The instrument has ten pipes, or perhaps
fourteen, as four of them appear to be double pipes. It required four
men exerting all their power to produce the necessary wind, and two men
to play the instrument. Moreover, both players seem also to be busily
engaged in directing the blowers about the proper supply of wind. Six
men and only fourteen pipes! It must be admitted that since the twelfth
century some progress has been made, at all events, in the construction
of the organ.
[Illustration]
The pedal is generally believed to have been invented by Bernhard, a
German, who lived in Venice about the year 1470. There are, however,
indications extant pointing to an earlier date of its invention.
Perhaps Bernhard was the first who, by adopting a more practicable
construction, made the pedal more generally known. On the earliest
organs the keys of the finger-board were of enormous size, compared
with those of the present day; so that a finger-board with only nine
keys had a breadth of from four to five feet. The organist struck the
keys down with his fist, as is done in playing the _carillon_ still in
use on the continent, of which presently some account will be given.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
Of the little portable organ, known as the _regal_ or _regals_,
often tastefully shaped and embellished, some interesting sculptured
representations are still extant in the old ecclesiastical edifices
of England and Scotland. There is, for instance, in Beverley minster
a figure of a man playing on a single regal, or a regal provided
with only one set of pipes; and in Melrose abbey the figure of an
angel holding in his arms a double regal, the pipes of which are in
two sets. The regal generally had keys like those of the organ but
smaller. A painting in the national Gallery, by Melozzo da Forli
who lived in the fifteenth century, contains a regal which has keys
of a peculiar shape, rather resembling the pistons of certain brass
instruments. The illustration has been drawn from that painting.
To avoid misapprehension, it is necessary to mention that the name
_regal_ (or _regals_, _rigols_) was also applied to an instrument
of percussion with sonorous slabs of wood. This contrivance was, in
short, a kind of harmonica, resembling in shape as well as in the
principle of its construction the little glass harmonica, a mere toy,
in which slips of glass are arranged according to our musical scale.
In England it appears to have been still known in the beginning of the
eighteenth century. Grassineau describes the “Rigols” as “a kind of
musical instrument consisting of several sticks bound together, only
separated by beads. It makes a tolerable harmony, being well struck
with a ball at the end of a stick.” In the earlier centuries of the
middle ages there appear to have been some instruments of percussion in
favour, to which Grassineau’s expression “a tolerable harmony” would
scarcely have been applicable. Drums, of course, were known; and their
rhythmical noise must have been soft music, compared with the shrill
sounds of the _cymbalum_; a contrivance consisting of a number of metal
plates suspended on cords, so that they could be clashed together
simultaneously; or with the clangour of the _cymbalum_ constructed
with bells instead of plates; or with the piercing noise of the
_bunibulum_, or _bombulom_; an instrument which consisted of an angular
frame to which were loosely attached metal plates of various shapes
and sizes. The lower part of the frame constituted the handle: and to
produce the noise it evidently was shaken somewhat like the sistrum of
the ancient Egyptians. We give woodcuts of the three instruments.
[Illustration]
The _triangle_ nearly resembled the instrument of this name in use
at the present day; it was more elegant in shape and had some metal
ornamentation in the middle.
The _tintinnabulum_ consisted of a number of bells arranged in regular
order and suspended in a frame.
[Illustration]