THE AMERICAN INDIANS.
If the preserved antiquities of the American Indians, dating from a
period anterior to our discovery of the western hemisphere, possess
an extraordinary interest because they afford trustworthy evidence
of the degree of progress which the aborigines had attained in the
cultivation of the arts and in their social condition before they came
in contact with Europeans, it must be admitted that the ancient musical
instruments of the American Indians are also worthy of examination.
Several of them are constructed in a manner which, in some degree,
reveals the characteristics of the musical system prevalent among the
people who used the instruments. And although most of these interesting
relics, which have been obtained from tombs and other hiding-places,
may not be of great antiquity, it has been satisfactorily ascertained
that they are genuine contrivances of the Indians before they were
influenced by European civilization.
Some account of these relics is therefore likely to prove of interest
also to the ethnologist, especially as several facts may perhaps be
found of assistance in elucidating the still unsolved problem as to the
probable original connection of the American with Asiatic races.
Among the instruments of the Aztecs in Mexico and of the Peruvians
none have been found so frequently, and have been preserved in their
former condition so unaltered, as pipes and flutes. They are generally
made of pottery or of bone, substances which are unsuitable for the
construction of most other instruments, but which are remarkably
well qualified to withstand the decaying influence of time. There
is, therefore, no reason to conclude from the frequent occurrence of
such instruments that they were more common than other kinds of which
specimens have rarely been discovered.
[Illustration]
The Mexicans possessed a small whistle formed of baked clay, a
considerable number of which have been found. Some specimens (of which
we give engravings) are singularly grotesque in shape, representing
caricatures of the human face and figure, birds, beasts, and flowers.
Some were provided at the top with a finger-hole which, when closed,
altered the pitch of the sound, so that two different tones were
producible on the instrument. Others had a little ball of baked clay
lying loose inside the air-chamber. When the instrument was blown the
current of air set the ball in a vibrating motion, thereby causing a
shrill and whirring sound. A similar contrivance is sometimes made
use of by Englishmen for conveying signals. The Mexican whistle most
likely served principally the same purpose, but it may possibly have
been used also in musical entertainments. In the Russian horn band
each musician is restricted to a single tone; and similar combinations
of performers--only, of course, much more rude--have been witnessed by
travellers among some tribes in Africa and America.
[Illustration]
Rather more complete than the above specimens are some of the whistles
and small pipes which have been found in graves of the Indians of
Chiriqui in central America. The pipe or whistle which is represented
in the accompanying engraving appears, to judge from the somewhat
obscure description transmitted to us, to possess about half a dozen
tones. It is of pottery, painted in red and black on a cream-coloured
ground, and in length about five inches. Among the instruments of this
kind from central America the most complete have four finger-holes.
By means of three the following four sounds (including the sound
which is produced when none of the holes are closed) can be emitted:
[Illustration] the fourth finger-hole, when closed, has the effect of
lowering the pitch a semitone. By a particular process two or three
lower notes are obtainable.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The pipe of the Aztecs, which is called by the Mexican Spaniards
_pito_, somewhat resembled our flageolet: the material was a reddish
pottery, and it was provided with four finger-holes. Although among
about half a dozen specimens which the writer has examined some are
considerably larger than others they all have, singularly enough, the
same pitch of sound. The smallest is about six inches in length, and
the largest about nine inches. Several _pitos_ have been found in a
remarkably well-preserved condition. They are easy to blow, and their
order of intervals is in conformity with the pentatonic scale, thus:
[Illustration] The usual shape of the _pito_ is that here represented;
showing the upper side of one pipe, and a side view of another. A
specimen of a less common shape, also engraved, is in the British
museum. Indications suggestive of the popular estimation in which the
flute (or perhaps, more strictly speaking, the pipe) was held by the
Aztecs are not wanting. It was played in religious observances and
we find it referred to allegorically in orations delivered on solemn
occasions. For instance, at the religious festival which was held in
honour of Tezcatlepoca--a divinity depicted as a handsome youth, and
considered second only to the supreme being--a young man was sacrificed
who, in preparation for the ceremony, had been instructed in the art of
playing the flute. Twenty days before his death four young girls, named
after the principal goddesses, were given to him as companions; and
when the hour arrived in which he was to be sacrificed he observed the
established symbolical rite of breaking a flute on each of the steps,
as he ascended the temple.
Again, at the public ceremonies which took place on the accession of
a prince to the throne the new monarch addressed a prayer to the god,
in which occurred the following allegorical expression:--“I am thy
flute; reveal to me thy will; breathe into me thy breath like into a
flute, as thou hast done to my predecessors on the throne. As thou
hast opened their eyes, their ears, and their mouth to utter what is
good, so likewise do to me. I resign myself entirely to thy guidance.”
Similar sentences occur in the orations addressed to the monarch. In
reading them one can hardly fail to be reminded of Hamlet’s reflections
addressed to Guildenstern, when the servile courtier expresses his
inability to “govern the ventages” of the pipe and to make the
instrument “discourse most eloquent music,” which the prince bids him
to do.
M. de Castelnau in his “Expédition dans l’Amérique” gives among the
illustrations of objects discovered in ancient Peruvian tombs a flute
made of a human bone. It has four finger-holes at its upper surface
and appears to have been blown into at one end. Two bone-flutes, in
appearance similar to the engraving given by M. de Castelnau, which
have been disinterred at Truxillo are deposited in the British museum.
They are about six inches in length, and each is provided with five
finger-holes. One of these has all the holes at its upper side, and one
of the holes is considerably smaller than the rest. The specimen which
we engrave (p. 64) is ornamented with some simple designs in black.
The other has four holes at its upper side and one underneath, the
latter being placed near to the end at which the instrument evidently
was blown. In the aperture of this end some remains of a hardened
paste, or resinous substance, are still preserved. This substance
probably was inserted for the purpose of narrowing the end of the
tube, in order to facilitate the producing of the sounds. The same
contrivance is still resorted to in the construction of the bone-flutes
by some Indian tribes in Guiana. The bones of slain enemies appear
to have been considered especially appropriate for such flutes. The
Araucanians, having killed a prisoner, made flutes of his bones, and
danced and “thundered out their dreadful war-songs, accompanied by the
mournful sounds of these horrid instruments.” Alonso de Ovalle says
of the Indians in Chili: “Their flutes, which they play upon in their
dances, are made of the bones of the Spaniards and other enemies whom
they have overcome in war. This they do by way of triumph and glory for
their victory. They make them likewise of bones of animals; but the
warriors dance only to the flutes made of their enemies.” The Mexicans
and Peruvians obviously possessed a great variety of pipes and flutes,
some of which are still in use among certain Indian tribes. Those which
were found in the famous ruins at Palenque are deposited in the museum
in Mexico. They are:--The _cuyvi_, a pipe on which only five tones
were producible; the _huayllaca_, a sort of flageolet; the _pincullu_,
a flute; and the _chayna_, which is described as “a flute whose
lugubrious and melancholy tones filled the heart with indescribable
sadness, and brought involuntary tears into the eyes.” It was perhaps a
kind of oboe.
[Illustration]
The Peruvians had the syrinx, which they called _huayra-puhura_. Some
clue to the proper meaning of this name may perhaps be gathered from
the word _huayra_, which signifies “air.” The _huayra-puhura_ was made
of cane, and also of stone. Sometimes an embroidery of needle-work was
attached to it as an ornament. One specimen which has been disinterred
is adorned with twelve figures precisely resembling Maltese crosses.
The cross is a figure which may readily be supposed to suggest itself
very naturally; and it is therefore not so surprising, as it may appear
at a first glance, that the American Indians used it not unfrequently
in designs and sculptures before they came in contact with Christians.
[Illustration]
The British museum possesses a _huayra-puhura_ consisting of fourteen
reed pipes of a brownish colour, tied together in two rows by means
of thread, so as to form a double set of seven reeds. Both sets are
almost exactly of the same dimensions and are placed side by side. The
shortest of these reeds measure three inches, and the longest six and
a half. In one set they are open at the bottom, and in the other they
are closed. Consequently, octaves are produced. The reader is probably
aware that the closing of a pipe at the end raises its pitch an octave.
Thus, in our organ, the so-called stopped diapason, a set of closed
pipes, requires tubes of only half the length of those which constitute
the open diapason, although both these stops produce tones in the same
pitch; the only difference between them being the quality of sound,
which in the former is less bright than in the latter.
The tones yielded by the _huayra-puhura_ in question are as follows:
[Illustration] The highest octave is indistinct, owing to some injury
done to the shortest tubes; but sufficient evidence remains to show
that the intervals were purposely arranged according to the pentatonic
scale. This interesting relic was brought to light from a tomb at Arica.
[Illustration]
Another _huayra-puhura_, likewise still yielding sounds, was discovered
placed over a corpse in a Peruvian tomb, and was procured by the French
general, Paroissien. This instrument is made of a greenish stone which
is a species of talc, and contains eight pipes. In the Berlin museum
may be seen a good plaster cast taken from this curious relic. The
height is 5⅜ inches, and its width 6¼ inches. Four of the tubes
have small lateral finger-holes which, when closed, lower the pitch a
semitone. These holes are on the second, fourth, sixth, and seventh
pipe, as shown in the engraving. When the holes are open, the tones
are: [Illustration] and when they are closed: [Illustration] The other
tubes have unalterable tones. The following notation exhibits all the
tones producible on the instrument:
[Illustration]
The musician is likely to speculate what could have induced the
Peruvians to adopt so strange a series of intervals: it seems rather
arbitrary than premeditated.
[Illustration]
If (and this seems not to be improbable) the Peruvians considered those
tones which are produced by closing the lateral holes as additional
intervals only, a variety of scales or kinds of _modes_ may have been
contrived by the admission of one or other of these tones among the
essential ones. If we may conjecture from some remarks of Garcilasso
de la Vega, and other historians, the Peruvians appear to have used
different orders of intervals for different kinds of tunes, in a way
similar to what we find to be the case with certain Asiatic nations. We
are told for instance “Each poem, or song, had its appropriate tune,
and they could not put two different songs to one tune; and this was
why the enamoured gallant, making music at night on his flute, with the
tune which belonged to it, told the lady and all the world the joy or
sorrow of his soul, the favour or ill-will which he possessed; so that
it might be said that he spoke by the flute.” Thus also the Hindus have
certain tunes for certain seasons and fixed occasions, and likewise a
number of different modes or scales used for particular kinds of songs.
Trumpets are often mentioned by writers who have recorded the manners
and customs of the Indians at the time of the discovery of America.
There are, however, scarcely any illustrations to be relied on of these
instruments transmitted to us. The Conch was frequently used as a
trumpet for conveying signals in war.
[Illustration]
The engraving represents a kind of trumpet made of wood, and nearly
seven feet in length, which Gumilla found among the Indians in the
vicinity of the Orinoco. It somewhat resembles the _juruparis_, a
mysterious instrument of the Indians on the Rio Haupés, a tributary
of the Rio Negro, south America. The _juruparis_ is regarded as an
object of great veneration. Women are never permitted to see it. So
stringent is this law that any woman obtaining a sight of it is put to
death--usually by poison. No youths are allowed to see it until they
have been subjected to a series of initiatory fastings and scourgings.
The _juruparis_ is usually kept hidden in the bed of some stream, deep
in the forest; and no one dares to drink out of that sanctified stream,
or to bathe in its water. At feasts the _juruparis_ is brought out
during the night, and is blown outside the houses of entertainment.
The inner portion of the instrument consists of a tube made of slips
of the Paxiaba palm (_Triartea exorrhiza_). When the Indians are about
to use the instrument they nearly close the upper end of the tube
with clay, and also tie above the oblong square hole (shown in the
engraving) a portion of the leaf of the Uaruma, one of the arrow-root
family. Round the tube are wrapped long strips of the tough bark of the
Jébaru (_Parivoa grandiflora_). This covering descends in folds below
the tube. The length of the instrument is from four to five feet. The
illustration, which exhibits the _juruparis_ with its cover and without
it, has been taken from a specimen in the museum at Kew gardens. The
mysteries connected with this trumpet are evidently founded on an old
tradition from prehistoric Indian ancestors. _Jurupari_ means “demon”;
and with several Indian tribes on the Amazon customs and ceremonies
still prevail in honour of Jurupari.
The Caroados, an Indian tribe in Brazil, have a war trumpet which
closely resembles the _juruparis_. With this people it is the custom
for the chief to give on his war trumpet the signal for battle, and to
continue blowing as long as he wishes the battle to last. The trumpet
is made of wood, and its sound is described by travellers as very deep
but rather pleasant. The sound is easily produced, and its continuance
does not require much exertion; but a peculiar vibration of the lips
is necessary which requires practice. Another trumpet, the _turé_, is
common with many Indian tribes on the Amazon who use it chiefly in war.
It is made of a long and thick bamboo, and there is a split reed in the
mouthpiece. It therefore partakes rather of the character of an oboe
or clarinet. Its tone is described as loud and harsh. The _turé_ is
especially used by the sentinels of predatory hordes, who, mounted on a
lofty tree, give the signal of attack to their comrades.
Again, the aborigines in Mexico had a curious contrivance of this kind,
the _acocotl_, now more usually called _clarin_. The former word is
its old Indian name, and the latter appears to have been first given
to the instrument by the Spaniards. The _acocotl_ consists of a very
thin tube from eight to ten feet in length, and generally not quite
straight but with some irregular curves. This tube, which is often not
thicker than a couple of inches in diameter, terminates at one end in
a sort of bell, and has at the other end a small mouthpiece resembling
in shape that of a clarinet. The tube is made of the dry stalk of a
plant which is common in Mexico, and which likewise the Indians call
_acocotl_. The most singular characteristic of the instrument is that
the performer does not blow into it, but inhales the air through it; or
rather, he produces the sound by sucking the mouthpiece. It is said to
require strong lungs to perform on the _acocotl_ effectively according
to Indian notions of taste.
[Illustration]
The _botuto_, which Gumilla saw used by some tribes near the river
Orinoco (of which we engrave two examples), was evidently an ancient
Indian contrivance, but appears to have fallen almost into oblivion
during the last two centuries. It was made of baked clay and was
commonly from three to four feet long: but some trumpets of this kind
were of enormous size. The _botuto_ with two bellies was usually made
thicker than that with three bellies and emitted a deeper sound, which
is described as having been really terrific. These trumpets were used
on occasions of mourning and funeral dances. Alexander von Humboldt saw
the _botuto_ among some Indian tribes near the river Orinoco.
Besides those which have been noticed, other antique wind instruments
of the Indians are mentioned by historians; but the descriptions given
of them are too superficial to convey a distinct notion as to their
form and purport. Several of these barbarous contrivances scarcely
deserve to be classed with musical instruments. This may, for instance,
be said of certain musical jars or earthen vessels producing sounds,
which the Peruvians constructed for their amusement. These vessels
were made double; and the sounds imitated the cries of animals or
birds. A similar contrivance of the Indians in Chili, preserved in
the museum at Santiago, is described by the traveller S. S. Hill as
follows:--“It consists of two earthen vessels in the form of our
india-rubber bottles, but somewhat larger, with a flat tube from four
to six inches in length, uniting their necks near the top and slightly
curved upwards, and with a small hole on the upper side one third of
the length of the tube from one side of the necks. To produce the
sounds the bottles were filled with water and suspended to the bough
of a tree, or to a beam, by a string attached to the middle of the
curved tube, and then swung backwards and forwards in such a manner as
to cause each end to be alternately the highest and lowest, so that
the water might pass backwards and forwards from one bottle to the
other through the tube between them. By this means soothing sounds were
produced which, it is said, were employed to lull to repose the drowsy
chiefs who usually slept away the hottest hours of the day. In the
meantime, as the bottles were porous, the water within them diminished
by evaporation, and the sound died gradually away.”
[Illustration]
As regards instruments of percussion, a kind of drum deserves special
notice on account of the ingenuity evinced in its construction. The
Mexicans called it _teponaztli_. They generally made it of a single
block of very hard wood, somewhat oblong square in shape, which they
hollowed, leaving at each end a solid piece about three or four inches
in thickness, and at its upper side a kind of sound-board about a
quarter of an inch in thickness. In this sound-board, if it may be
called so, they made three incisions; namely, two running parallel some
distance lengthwise of the drum, and a third running across from one
of these to the other just in the centre. By this means they obtained
two vibrating tongues of wood which, when beaten with a stick, produced
sounds as clearly defined as are those of our kettle drums. By making
one of the tongues thinner than the other they ensured two different
sounds, the pitch of which they were enabled to regulate by shaving
off more or less of the wood. The bottom of the drum they cut almost
entirely open. The traveller, M. Nebel, was told by archæologists in
Mexico that these instruments always contained the interval of a third,
but on examining several specimens which he saw in museums he found
some in which the two sounds stood towards each other in the relation
of a fourth; while in others they constituted a fifth, in others a
sixth, and in some even an octave. This is noteworthy in so far as it
points to a conformity with our diatonic series of intervals, excepting
the seventh.
The _teponaztli_ (engraved above) was generally carved with various
fanciful and ingenious designs. It was beaten with two drumsticks
covered at the end with an elastic gum, called _ule_, which was
obtained from the milky juice extracted from the ule-tree. Some of
these drums were small enough to be carried on a string or strap
suspended round the neck of the player; others, again, measured
upwards of five feet in length, and their sound was so powerful that
it could be heard at a distance of three miles. In some rare instances
a specimen of the _teponaztli_ is still preserved by the Indians in
Mexico, especially among tribes who have been comparatively but little
affected by intercourse with their European aggressors. Herr Heller saw
such an instrument in the hands of the Indians of Huatusco--a village
near Mirador in the Tierra templada, or temperate region, occupying
the slopes of the Cordilleras. Its sound is described as so very loud
as to be distinctly audible at an incredibly great distance. This
circumstance, which has been noticed by several travellers, may perhaps
be owing in some measure to the condition of the atmosphere in Mexico.
[Illustration]
Instruments of percussion constructed on a principle more or less
similar to the _teponaztli_ were in use in several other parts of
America, as well as in Mexico. Oviedo gives a drawing of a drum from
San Domingo which, as it shows distinctly both the upper and under
side of the instrument, is here inserted.
The largest kind of Mexican _teponaztli_ appears to have been
generally of a cylindrical shape. Clavigero gives a drawing of
such an instrument. Drums, also, constructed of skin or parchment
in combination with wood were not unknown to the Indians. Of this
description was, for instance, the _huehuetl_ of the Aztecs in Mexico,
which consisted, according to Clavigero, of a wooden cylinder somewhat
above three feet in height, curiously carved and painted and covered
at the top with carefully prepared deer-skin. And, what appears the
most remarkable, the parchment (we are told) could be tightened or
slackened by means of cords in nearly the same way as with our own
drum. The _huehuetl_ was not beaten with drumsticks but merely struck
with the fingers, and much dexterity was required to strike it in the
proper manner. Oviedo states that the Indians in Cuba had drums which
were stretched with human skin. And Bernal Diaz relates that when he
was with Cortés in Mexico they ascended together the _Teocalli_ (“House
of God”), a large temple in which human sacrifices were offered by
the aborigines; and there the Spanish visitors saw a large drum which
was made, Diaz tells us, with skins of great serpents. This “hellish
instrument,” as he calls it, produced, when struck, a doleful sound
which was so loud that it could be heard at a distance of two leagues.
The name of the Peruvian drum was _huanca_: they had also an instrument
of percussion, called _chhilchiles_, which appears to have been a sort
of tambourine.
The rattle was likewise popular with the Indians before the discovery
of America. The Mexicans called it _ajacaxtli_. In construction it was
similar to the rattle at the present day commonly used by the Indians.
It was oval or round in shape, and appears to have been usually made
of a gourd into which holes were pierced, and to which a wooden handle
was affixed. A number of little pebbles were enclosed in the hollowed
gourd. They were also made of pottery. The little balls in the
_ajacaxtli_ of pottery, enclosed as they are, may at a first glance
appear a puzzle. Probably, when the rattle was being formed they were
attached to the inside as slightly as possible; and after the clay had
been baked they were detached by means of an implement passed through
the holes.
[Illustration]
The Tezcucans (or Acolhuans) belonged to the same race as the Aztecs,
whom they greatly surpassed in knowledge and social refinement.
Nezahualcoyotl, a wise monarch of the Tezcucans, abhorred human
sacrifices, and erected a large temple which he dedicated to “The
unknown god, the cause of causes.” This edifice had a tower nine
stories high, on the top of which were placed a number of musical
instruments of various kinds which were used to summon the worshippers
to prayer. Respecting these instruments especial mention is made
of a sonorous metal which was struck with a mallet. This is stated
in a historical essay written by Ixtlilxochitl, a native of Mexico
and of royal descent, who lived in the beginning of the seventeenth
century, and who may be supposed to have been familiar with the musical
practices of his countrymen. But whether the sonorous metal alluded to
was a gong or a bell is not clear from the vague record transmitted to
us. That the bell was known to the Peruvians appears to be no longer
doubtful, since a small copper specimen has been found in one of the
old Peruvian tombs. This interesting relic is now deposited in the
museum at Lima. M. de Castelnau has published a drawing of it, which
is here reproduced. The Peruvians called their bells _chanrares_; it
remains questionable whether this name did not designate rather the
so-called horse bells, which were certainly known to the Mexicans
who called them _yotl_. It is noteworthy that these _yotl_ are found
figured in the picture-writings representing the various objects which
the Aztecs used to pay as tribute to their sovereigns. The collection
of Mexican antiquities in the British museum contains a cluster of
yotl-bells. Being nearly round, they closely resemble the _Schellen_
which the Germans are in the habit of affixing to their horses,
particularly in the winter when they are driving their noiseless
sledges.
[Illustration]
Again, in south America sonorous stones are not unknown, and were used
in olden time for musical purposes. The traveller G. T. Vigne saw
among the Indian antiquities preserved in the town of Cuzco, in Peru,
“a musical instrument of green sonorous stone, about a foot long, and
an inch and a half wide, flat-sided, pointed at both ends, and arched
at the back, where it was about a quarter of an inch thick, whence it
diminished to an edge, like the blade of a knife.... In the middle of
the back was a small hole, through which a piece of string was passed;
and when suspended and struck by any hard substance a singularly
musical note was produced.” Humboldt mentions the Amazon-stone, which
on being struck by any hard substance yields a metallic sound. It was
formerly cut by the American Indians into very thin plates, perforated
in the centre and suspended by a string. These plates were remarkably
sonorous. This kind of stone is not, as might be conjectured from its
name, found exclusively near the Amazon. The name was given to it as
well as to the river by the first European visitors to America, in
allusion to the female warriors respecting whom strange stories are
told. The natives pretending, according to an ancient tradition, that
the stone came from the country of “Women without husbands,” or “Women
living alone.”
As regards the ancient stringed instruments of the American Indians
our information is indeed but scanty. Clavigero says that the Mexicans
were entirely unacquainted with stringed instruments: a statement
the correctness of which is questionable, considering the stage of
civilization to which these people had attained. At any rate, we
generally find one or other kind of such instruments with nations
whose intellectual progress and social condition are decidedly
inferior. The Aztecs had many claims to the character of a civilized
community and (as before said) the Tezcucans were even more advanced
in the cultivation of the arts and sciences than the Aztecs. “The
best histories,” Prescott observes, “the best poems, the best code
of laws, the purest dialect, were all allowed to be Tezcucan. The
Aztecs rivalled their neighbours in splendour of living, and even
in the magnificence of their structures. They displayed a pomp and
ostentatious pageantry, truly Asiatic.” Unfortunately historians
are sometimes not sufficiently discerning in their communications
respecting musical questions. J. Ranking, in describing the grandeur
of the establishment maintained by Montezuma, says that during the
repasts of this monarch “there was music of fiddle, flute, snail-shell,
a kettle-drum, and other strange instruments.” But as this writer does
not indicate the source whence he drew his information respecting
Montezuma’s orchestra including the fiddle, the assertion deserves
scarcely a passing notice.
The Peruvians possessed a stringed instrument, called _tinya_, which
was provided with five or seven strings. To conjecture from the
unsatisfactory account of it transmitted to us, the _tinya_ appears to
have been a kind of guitar. Considering the fragility of the materials
of which such instruments are generally constructed, it is perhaps
not surprising that we do not meet with any specimens of them in the
museums of American antiquities.
A few remarks will not be out of place here referring to the musical
performances of the ancient Indians; since an acquaintance with the
nature of the performances is likely to afford additional assistance
in appreciating the characteristics of the instruments. In Peru, where
the military system was carefully organised, each division of the army
had its trumpeters, called _cqueppacamayo_, and its drummers, called
_huancarcamayo_. When the Inca returned with his troops victorious from
battle his first act was to repair to the temple of the Sun in order
to offer up thanksgiving; and after the conclusion of this ceremony
the people celebrated the event with festivities, of which music and
dancing constituted a principal part. Musical performances appear to
have been considered indispensable on occasions of public celebrations;
and frequent mention is made of them by historians who have described
the festivals annually observed by the Peruvians.
About the month of October the Peruvians celebrated a solemn feast in
honour of the dead, at which ceremony they executed lugubrious songs
and plaintive instrumental music. Compositions of a similar character
were performed on occasion of the decease of a monarch. As soon as it
was made known to the people that their Inca had been “called home to
the mansions of his father the sun” they prepared to celebrate his
obsequies with becoming solemnity. Prescott, in his graphic description
of these observances, says: “At stated intervals, for a year, the
people assembled to renew the expressions of their sorrow; processions
were made displaying the banner of the departed monarch; bards and
minstrels were appointed to chronicle his achievements, and their songs
continued to be rehearsed at high festivals in the presence of the
reigning monarch,--thus stimulating the living by the glorious example
of the dead.” The Peruvians had also particular agricultural songs,
which they were in the habit of singing while engaged in tilling the
lands of the Inca; a duty which devolved upon the whole nation. The
subject of these songs, or rather hymns, referred especially to the
noble deeds and glorious achievements of the Inca and his dynasty.
While thus singing, the labourers regulated their work to the rhythm
of the music, thereby ensuring a pleasant excitement and a stimulant in
their occupation, like soldiers regulating their steps to the music of
the military band. These hymns pleased the Spanish invaders so greatly
that they not only adopted several of them but also composed some in a
similar form and style. This appears, however, to have been the case
rather with the poetry than with the music.
The name of the Peruvian elegiac songs was _haravi_. Some tunes of
these songs, pronounced to be genuine specimens, have been published
in recent works; but their genuineness is questionable. At all events
they must have been much tampered with, as they exhibit exactly the
form of the Spanish _bolero_. Even allowing that the melodies of
these compositions have been derived from Peruvian _harivaris_, it is
impossible to determine with any degree of certainty how much in them
has been retained of the original tunes, and how much has been supplied
besides the harmony, which is entirely an addition of the European
arranger. The Peruvians had minstrels, called _haravecs_ (_i.e._,
“inventors”), whose occupation it was to compose and to recite the
_haravis_.
The Mexicans possessed a class of songs which served as a record
of historical events. Furthermore they had war-songs, love-songs,
and other secular vocal compositions, as well as sacred chants, in
the practice of which boys were instructed by the priests in order
that they might assist in the musical performances of the temple.
It appertained to the office of the priests to burn incense, and
to perform music in the temple at stated times of the day. The
commencement of the religious observances which took place regularly
at sunrise, at mid-day, at sunset, and at midnight, was announced by
signals blown on trumpets and pipes. Persons of high position retained
in their service professional musicians whose duty it was to compose
ballads, and to perform vocal music with instrumental accompaniment.
The nobles themselves, and occasionally even the monarch, not
unfrequently delighted in composing ballads and odes.
Especially to be noticed is the institution termed “Council of music,”
which the wise monarch Nezahualcoyotl founded in Tezcuco. This
institution was not intended exclusively for promoting the cultivation
of music; its aim comprised the advancement of various arts, and of
sciences such as history, astronomy, &c. In fact, it was an academy
for general education. Probably no better evidence could be cited
testifying to the remarkable intellectual attainments of the Mexican
Indians before the discovery of America than this council of music.
Although in some respects it appears to have resembled the board of
music of the Chinese, it was planned on a more enlightened and more
comprehensive principle. The Chinese “board of music,” called _Yo
Poo_, is an office connected with the _Lé Poo_ or “board of rites,”
established by the imperial government at Peking. The principal object
of the board of rites is to regulate the ceremonies on occasions
of sacrifices offered to the gods; of festivals and certain court
solemnities; of military reviews; of presentations, congratulations,
marriages, deaths, burials,--in short, concerning almost every possible
event in social and public life.
The reader is probably aware that in one of the various hypotheses
which have been advanced respecting the Asiatic origin of the American
Indians China is assigned to them as their ancient home. Some
historians suppose them to be emigrants from Mongolia, Thibet, or
Hindustan; others maintain that they are the offspring of Phœnician
colonists who settled in central America. Even more curious are the
arguments of certain inquirers who have no doubt whatever that the
ancestors of the American Indians were the lost ten tribes of Israel,
of whom since about the time of the Babylonian captivity history is
silent. Whatever may be thought as to which particular one of these
speculations hits the truth, they certainly have all proved useful
in so far as they have made ethnologists more exactly acquainted with
the habits and predilections of the American aborigines than would
otherwise have been the case. For, as the advocates of each hypothesis
have carefully collected and adduced every evidence they were able
to obtain tending to support their views, the result is that (so to
say) no stone has been left unturned. Nevertheless, any such hints as
suggest themselves from an examination of musical instruments have
hitherto remained unheeded. It may therefore perhaps interest the
reader to have his attention drawn to a few suggestive similarities
occurring between instruments of the American Indians and of certain
nations inhabiting the eastern hemisphere.
We have seen that the Mexican pipe and the Peruvian syrinx were
purposely constructed so as to produce the intervals of the pentatonic
scale only. There are some additional indications of this scale having
been at one time in use with the American Indians. For instance, the
music of the Peruvian dance _cachua_ is described as having been very
similar to some Scotch national dances; and the most conspicuous
characteristics of the Scotch tunes are occasioned by the frequently
exclusive employment of intervals appertaining to the pentatonic scale.
We find precisely the same series of intervals adopted on certain
Chinese instruments, and evidences are not wanting of the pentatonic
scale having been popular among various races in Asia at a remote
period. The series of intervals appertaining to the Chiriqui pipe,
mentioned page 61, consisted of a semitone and two whole tones, like
the _tetrachord_ of the ancient Greeks.
In the Peruvian _huayra-puhura_ made of talc some of the pipes possess
lateral holes. This contrivance, which is rather unusual, occurs on the
Chinese _cheng_. The _chayna_, mentioned page 64, seems to have been
provided with a reed, like the oboe: and in Hindustan we find a species
of oboe called _shehna_. The _turé_ of the Indian tribes on the Amazon,
mentioned page 69, reminds us of the trumpets _tooree_, or _tootooree_,
of the Hindus. The name appears to have been known also to the Arabs;
but there is no indication whatever of its having been transmitted to
the peninsula by the Moors, and afterwards to south America by the
Portuguese and Spaniards.
The wooden tongues in the drum _teponaztli_ may be considered as a
contrivance exclusively of the ancient American Indians. Nevertheless
a construction nearly akin to it may be observed in certain drums of
the Tonga and Feejee islanders, and of the natives of some islands
in Torres strait. Likewise some negro tribes in western and central
Africa have certain instruments of percussion which are constructed on
a principle somewhat reminding us of the _teponaztli_. The method of
bracing the drum by means of cords, as exhibited in the _huehueil_ of
the Mexican Indians, is evidently of very high antiquity in the east.
It was known to the ancient Egyptians.
Rattles, pandean pipes made of reed, and conch trumpets, are found
almost all over the world, wherever the materials of which they are
constructed are easily obtainable. Still, it may be noteworthy that
the Mexicans employed the conch trumpet in their religious observances
apparently in much the same way as it is used in the Buddhist worship
of the Thibetans and Kalmuks.
As regards the sonorous metal in the great temple at Tezcuco some
inquirers are sure that it was a gong: but it must be borne in mind
that these inquirers detect everywhere traces proving an invasion of
the Mongols, which they maintain to have happened about six hundred
years ago. Had they been acquainted with the little Peruvian bell
(engraved on page 75) they would have had more tangible musical
evidence in support of their theory than the supposed gong; for this
bell certainly bears a suggestive resemblance to the little hand-bell
which the Buddhists use in their religious ceremonies.
The Peruvians interpolated certain songs, especially those which they
were in the habit of singing while cultivating the fields, with the
word _hailli_ which signified “Triumph.” As the subject of these
compositions was principally the glorification of the Inca, the burden
_hailli_ is perhaps all the more likely to remind Europeans of the
Hebrew _hallelujah_. Moreover, Adair, who lived among the Indians of
north America during a period of about forty years, speaks of some
other words which he found used as burdens in hymns sung on solemn
occasions, and which appeared to him to correspond with certain Hebrew
words of a sacred import.
As regards the musical accomplishments of the Indian tribes at the
present day they are far below the standard which we have found among
their ancestors. A period of three hundred years of oppression has
evidently had the effect of subduing the melodious expressions of
happiness and contentedness which in former times appear to have
been quite as prevalent with the Indians as they generally are with
independent and flourishing nations. The innate talent for music
evinced by those of the North American Indians who were converted to
Christianity soon after the emigration of the puritans to New England
is very favourably commented on by some old writers. In the year 1661
John Elliot published a translation of the psalms into Indian verse.
The singing of these metrical psalms by the Indian converts in their
places of worship appears to have been actually superior to the sacred
vocal performances of their Christian brethren from Europe; for we find
it described by several witnesses as “excellent” and “most ravishing.”
In other parts of America the catholic priests from Spain did not
neglect to turn to account the susceptibility of the Indians for
music. Thus, in central America the Dominicans composed as early as in
the middle of the sixteenth century a sacred poem in the Guatemalian
dialect containing a narrative of the most important events recorded
in the Bible. This production they sang to the natives, and to enhance
the effect they accompanied the singing with musical instruments. The
alluring music soon captivated the heart of a powerful cazique, who
was thus induced to adopt the doctrines embodied in the composition,
and to diffuse them among his subjects who likewise delighted in the
performances. In Peru a similar experiment, resorted to by the priests
who accompanied Pizarro’s expedition, proved equally successful. They
dramatized certain scenes in the life of Christ and represented them
with music, which so greatly fascinated the Indians that many of them
readily embraced the new faith. Nor are these entertainments dispensed
with even at the present day by the Indian Christians, especially
in the village churches of the Sierra in Peru; and as several
religious ceremonies have been retained by these people from their
heathen forefathers, it may be conjectured that their sacred musical
performances also retain much of their ancient heathen character.
Most of the musical instruments found among the American Indians at
the present day are evidently genuine old Indian contrivances as they
existed long before the discovery of America. Take, for example, the
peculiarly shaped rattles, drums, flutes, and whistles of the North
American Indians, of which some specimens in the Kensington museum are
described in the large catalogue. A few African instruments, introduced
by the negro slaves, are now occasionally found in the hands of the
Indians, and have been by some travellers erroneously described as
genuine Indian inventions. This is the case with the African _marimba_,
which has become rather popular with the natives of Guatemala in
central America: but such adaptations are very easily discernible.