[1] See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, _Geschichte der
altchristlichen Literatur_, Teil I. v. 171; ib. Teil II. _Chronologie
der altchristl. Literatur_, i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, _Die
Offenbarung im Gnosticismus_ (1901).
[2] For the text see A. Merx, _Bardesanes von Edessa_ (1863), and A.
Hilgenfeld, _Bardesanes der letzte Gnostiker_ (1864).
[3] Ed. Petermann-Schwartze; newly translated by C. Schmidt,
_Koptisch-gnostische Schriften_, i. (1905), in the series _Die
griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei
Jahrhunderte_; see also A. Harnack, _Texte und Untersuchungen_, Bd.
vii. Heft 2 (1891), and _Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur_,
ii. 193-195.
[4] See R. A. Lipsius, _Die Quellen der altesten Ketzergeschichte_
(1875); A. Harnack, _Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des
Gnosticismus_ (1873); A. Hilgenfeld, _Ketzergeschichte_, pp. 1-83;
Harnack, _Geschichte der altchristlich. Literatur_, i. 171 seq., ii.
533 seq., 712 seq.; J. Kunze, _De historiae Gnostic. fontibus_
(1894). On the _Philosophumena_ of Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the
cross-references in the Philosophumena, _Hermathena_, vol. xi. (1885)
p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin, _Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts_,
_Texte und Unters._ Bd. vi. Hft. 3 (1890).
[5] Cf. the same idea of the fall of mankind in the pagan Gnosticism
of "Poimandres"; see Reitzenstein, _Poimandres_ (1904); and the
position of the Primal Man (_Urmensch_) among the Manichaeans is
similar.
[6] These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and
perhaps even underlie St Paul's exposition in Col. ii. 15.
[7] For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom
was named a separate sect, the Marcosians, with their Pythagorean
theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic,
and sacramental, see VALENTINUS AND VALENTINIANS.
GNU, the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South African
antelope (q.v.), now nearly extinct, know to the Boers as the black
wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaetes (or Catoblepas) gnu. A
second and larger species is the brindled gnu or blue wildebeest (_C.
taurinus_ or _Catoblepas gorgon_), also known by the Bechuana name
_kokon_ or _kokoon_; and there are several East African forms more or
less closely related to the latter which have received distinct names.
[Illustration: White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (_Connochaetes
gnu_).]
GO, or GO-BANG (Jap. _Go-ban_, board for playing _Go_), a popular table
game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in Japan, according
to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 B.C., but it is probably of
Chinese origin. According to Falkener the first historical mention of it
was made about the year 300 B.C., but there is abundant evidence that it
was a popular game long before that period. The original Japanese Go is
played on a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical
lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the flat round men, 181
white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game proceeds. The men
are placed by the two players on any intersections (_me_) that may seem
advantageous, the object being to surround with one's men as many
unoccupied intersections as possible, the player enclosing the greater
number of vacant points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are
captured and removed from the board. This game is played in England upon
a board divided into 361 squares, the men being placed upon these
instead of upon the intersections.
A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners, has for its
object to get five men into line. This may have been the earliest form
of the game, as the word _go_ means five. Except in Japan it is often
played on an ordinary draughts-board, and the winner is he who first
gets five men into line, either vertically, horizontally or diagonally.
See _Go-Bang_, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding's Home Library (New
York, 1896); _Games Ancient and Oriental_, by Edward Falkener (London,
1892); _Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Go_, by O. Korschelt (Yokohama,
1881); _Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen_, by G. Schurig (Leipzig,
1888).
GOA, the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese India, and
of the surrounding territory more exactly described as Goa settlement,
which is situated on the western coast of India, between 15 deg. 44' and
14 deg. 53' N., and between 73 deg. 45' and 74 deg. 26' E. Pop. (1900)
475,513, area 1301 sq. m.
_Goa Settlement._--With Damaun (q.v.) and Diu (q.v.) Goa settlement
forms a single administrative province ruled by a governor-general, and
a single ecclesiastical province subject to the archbishop of Goa; for
judicial purposes the province includes Macao in China, and Timor in the
Malay Archipelago. It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or
Araundem, which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western
Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It comprises
the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette, conquered early in
the 16th century and therefore known as the Velhas Conquistas (Old
Conquests), seven districts acquired later and known as the Novas
Conquistas, and the island of Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which
has a coast-line of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas
Conquistas; its distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though
the highest summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the
island of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands
skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and the
Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas), being
connected on the landward side by a creek. The island (native name
Tisvadi, Tissuvaddy, Tissuary) is a triangular territory, the apex of
which, called the _cabo_ or cape, is a rocky headland separating the
harbour of Goa into two anchorages--Agoada or Aguada at the mouth of the
Mandavi, on the north, and Mormugao or Marmagao at the mouth of the
Juari, on the south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of
the south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains. The
southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always open, but
is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city of Goa, which
is built on the island. A railway connects Mormagao, south of the Juari
estuary, with Castle Rock on the Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles
and foodstuffs, and exports coco-nuts, areca-nuts, spices, fish, poultry
and timber. Its trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras,
Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is mined in large quantities, some
iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit, betel and
bananas.
_Cities of Goa._--1. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which hardly a
fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point of the island,
and was famous in early Hindu legend and history for its learning,
wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain inscriptions its name
appears as Gove, Govapuri, Gomant, &c.; the medieval Arabian geographers
knew it as Sindabur or Sandabur, and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was
ruled by the Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century A.D. to 1312, and by
Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about 1370, during
which period it was visited and described by Ibn Batuta. It was then
annexed to the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, of which, according to
Ferishta, it still formed part in 1469, when it was conquered by the
Bahmani sultan of the Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers
state that it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa)
was founded.
2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without inhabitants
other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The chief surviving
buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albuquerque in 1511 to
commemorate his entry into Goa on St Catherine's day 1510, and rebuilt
in 1623, and still used for public worship; the convent of St Francis
(1517), a converted mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved
black stone, which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India
dating from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St
Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a superb example
of Renaissance architecture as developed by the Jesuits, containing the
magnificent shrine and tomb of St Francis Xavier (see XAVIER, FRANCISCO
DE); and the 17th-century convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The
college of St Paul (see below) is in ruins.
3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa, originally a suburb of Old Goa, is, like
the parent city, built on the left bank of the Mandavi estuary, in 15
deg. 30' N. and 73 deg. 33' E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is a modern port
with few pretensions to architectural beauty. Ships of the largest size
can anchor in the river, but only small vessels can load or discharge at
the quay. Panjim became the residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the
capital of Portuguese India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, a school for
teachers, a seminary, a technical school and an experimental
agricultural station.
_Political History._--With the subdivision of the Bahmani kingdom, after
1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil Shah, king of Bijapur, who
was its ruler when the Portuguese first reached India. At this time Goa
was important as the starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as
a mart with no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as
the centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz, the
control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring in the
Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with command of the sea,
as the encircling rivers could only be forded at one spot, and had been
deliberately stocked with crocodiles. It was attacked on the 10th of
February 1510 by the Portuguese under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic
had foretold its downfall and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was
outnumbered, the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque
entered it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree
flowers of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf
Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the ford,
and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to August, when the
cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put to sea. In November
Albuquerque returned with a larger force, and after overcoming a
desperate resistance, recaptured the city, permitted his soldiers to
plunder it for three days, and massacred the entire Mahommedan
population.
Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in Asia.
Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, as distinct
from the fortified factories which had been established in certain
Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry native women, and to
settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or artisans. These married men
soon became a privileged caste, and Goa acquired a large Eurasian
population. Albuquerque and his successors left almost untouched the
customs and constitutions of the 30 village communities on the island,
only abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (_Foral
de usos e costumes_) was published in 1526, and is an historical
document of much value; an abstract of it is given in R. S. Whiteway's
_Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India_ (London, 1898).
Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the East. It
was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal
chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a
special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the
governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament, in which
all parts of the Portuguese east were to be represented; this was vetoed
by the king.
In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the
city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625.
_Goa Dourada_, or Golden Goa, was then the wonder of all travellers, and
there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see
Lisbon." Merchandise from all parts of the East was displayed in its
bazaar, and separate streets were set aside for the sale of different
classes of goods--Bahrein pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk,
Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay
Archipelago. In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The houses
of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built
of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied
windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work.
The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters of
the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; but the luxury
and ostentation of all classes had become a byword before the end of the
16th century. Almost all manual labour was done by slaves; common
soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the
poor noblemen who congregated together in boarding-houses to subscribe
for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so
that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably
attired and with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons,
licensed by the municipality, where determined players lodged for weeks
together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness, was practised by
both sexes, although European women were forced to lead a kind of zenana
life, and never ventured unveiled into the streets; they even attended
at church in their palanquins, so as to avoid observation.
The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual
ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets,
though never captured, and in 1635 it was ravaged by an epidemic. Its
trade was gradually monopolized by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666,
Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and
decay. In 1683 only the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from
capture by a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory
was attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unexpected
arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was always imminent
until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was concluded. In the same
year the proposal to remove the seat of government to Panjim was carried
out; it had been discussed as early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the
population dwindled from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only
inhabited by a few priests, monks and nuns.
_Ecclesiastical History._--Some Dominican friars came out to Goa in
1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken before the
arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their headquarters in Goa the
Franciscan preachers visited many parts of western India, and even
journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the Malay Archipelago. For nearly
twenty-five years they carried on the work of evangelization almost
alone, with such success that in 1534 Pope Paul III. made Goa a
bishopric, with spiritual jurisdiction over all Portuguese possessions
between China and the Cape of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the
archbishopric of Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, Joao de
Albuquerque, came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St Francis
Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of Santa Fe,
for the training of native missionaries; this was renamed the College of
St Paul, and became the headquarters of all Jesuit missions in the East,
where the Jesuits were commonly styled _Paulistas_. By a Bull dated the
4th of February 1557 Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction
over the sees of Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575),
Japan (1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur) (1606),
Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of Mozambique,
which included the entire coast of East Africa. In 1606 the archbishop
received the title of Primate of the East, and the king of Portugal was
named Patron of the Catholic Missions in the East; his right of
patronage was limited by the Concordat of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao
and certain parts of British India. The Inquisition was introduced into
Goa in 1560: a vivid account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon,
_Relation de l'inquisition de Goa_ (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils,
which dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa--in 1567, 1575,
1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided over the more
important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur, about 12 m. S.E. of Cochin),
which in 1599 condemned as heretical the tenets and liturgy of the
Indian Nestorians, or Christians of St Thomas (q.v.). In 1675 Fryer
described Goa as "a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics,"
and Hamilton states that early in the 18th century the number of
ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary total of
30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and by 1800 Goa had lost
much even of its ecclesiastical importance. The Inquisition was
abolished in 1814 and the religious orders were secularized in 1835.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. N. da Fonseca, _An Historical and Archaeological
Sketch of Goa_ (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city from the
earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portuguese rule
the chief authorities are _The Commentaries ... of Dalboquerque_
(Hakluyt Society's translation, London, 1877), the _Cartas_ of
Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the _Historia ... da India_ of F. L. de
Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the _Lendas da India
of G. Correa_ (Lisbon, 1860, written 1514-1566), and the _Decadas da
India_ of Joao de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written
about 1530-1616). Couto's _Soldado pratico_ (Lisbon, 1790) and S.
Botelho's _Cartas and Tombo_, written 1547-1554, published in
"Subsidios" of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable studies of
military life and administration. The _Archivo Portuguez oriental_ (6
parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most useful collection of documents
dating from 1515; part 2 contains the privileges, &c. of the city of
Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiastical councils
and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has been
graphically described by many writers; see especially the travels of
Varthema (c. 1505), Linschoten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608) in the Hakluyt
Society's translations; J. Mocquet, _Voyages_ (Paris, 1830, written
1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in _Churchill's Voyages_, vol. 3 (London,
1732); J. Fryer, _A New Account of East India and Persia_ (London,
1698); A. de Mandelslo, _Voyages_ (London, 1669); _Les Voyages de M.
de Thevenot aux Indes Orientales_ (Amsterdam, 1779), and A. Hamilton,
_A New Account of the East Indies_ (London, 1774). For Goa in the 20th
century see _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_. (K. G. J.)
GOAL, originally an object set up as the place where a race ends, the
winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to which any effort is
directed. It is thus used to translate the Lat. _meta_, the boundary
pillar, set one at each end of the circus to mark the turning-point. The
word was quite early used in various games for the two posts, with or
without a cross-bar, through or over which the ball has to be driven to
score a point towards winning the game. The _New English Dictionary_
quotes the use in Richard Stanyhurst's _Description of Ireland_ (1577);
but the word _gol_ in the sense of a boundary appears as early as the
beginning of the 14th century in the religious poems of William de
Shoreham (c. 1315). The origin of the word is obscure. It is usually
taken to be derived from a French word _gaule_, meaning a pole or stick,
but this meaning does not appear in the English usage, nor does the
usual English meaning appear in the French. There is an O. Eng.
_gaelan_, to hinder, which may point to a lost _gal_, barrier, but there
is no evidence in other Teutonic languages for such a word.
GOALPARA, a town and district of British India, in the Brahmaputra
valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town (pop. 6287)
overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the frontier outpost of the Mahommedan
power, and has long been a flourishing seat of river trade. The civil
station is built on the summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent
view of the valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy
ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills. The native
town is built on the western slope of the hill, and the lower portion is
subject to inundation from the marshy land which extends in every
direction. It has declined in importance since the district headquarters
were removed to Dhubri in 1879, and it suffered severely from the
earthquake of the 12th of June 1897.
The DISTRICT comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated along the
Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes its southerly course
from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is striking. Along the banks of the
river grow clumps of cane and reed; farther back stretch fields of rice
cultivation, broken only by the fruit trees surrounding the villages,
and in the background rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white
peaks of the Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous
earth, with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed; that of the
plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and occasionally
severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahmaputra annually inundates
vast tracts of country. Numerous extensive forests yield valuable
timber. Wild animals of all kinds are found. In 1901 the population was
462,083, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. Rice forms the staple
crop. Mustard and jute are also largely grown. The manufactures consist
of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and silver
ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery. The
cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish anywhere in
the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari merchants, and is
carried on at the _bazars_, weekly _hats_ or markets and periodical
fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute, cotton, timber, lac,
silk cloth, india-rubber and tea; the imports, Bengal rice, European
piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and tobacco.
Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the district,
stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its great bend south.
It is the termination of the emigration road from North Bengal and of
the river steamers that connect with the North Bengal railway. It is
also served by the eastern Bengal State railway.
GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. _gat_, Goth. _gaits_, Mod. Ger.
_Geiss_, cognate with Lat. _haedus_, a kid), properly the name of the
well-known domesticated European ruminant (_Capra hircus_), which has
for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything that is evil, in
contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol of excellence and
purity. Although the more typical goats are markedly distinct from
sheep, there is, both as regards wild and domesticated forms, an almost
complete gradation from goats to sheep, so that it is exceedingly
difficult to define either group. The position of the genus _Capra_ (to
all the members of which, as well as some allied species, the name
"goat" in its wider sense is applicable) in the family _Bovidae_ is
indicated in the article BOVIDAE, and some of the distinctions between
goats and sheep are mentioned in the article SHEEP. Here then it will
suffice to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and
offensive odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on the
chin; while as a general rule glands are present between the middle toes
of the fore feet only.
Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group, of which
the more typical forms are confined to Europe and south-western and
central Asia, although there are two outlying species in northern
Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is represented in Europe in the
Cyclades and Crete by rather small races. more or less mingled with
domesticated breeds, the Cretan animal being distinguished as _Capra
hircus creticus_; but the large typical race _C. h. aegagrus_ is met
with in the mountains of Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to
Sind, where it is represented by a somewhat different race known as _C.
h. blythi_. The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty,
and characterized by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and sharp
front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or bosses.
Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands, such as the Hebrides,
Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and Juan Fernandez. Some of these
reverted breeds have developed horns of considerable size, although not
showing that regularity of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the
Azores the horns are remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of
"antelope-goat" which has been given to these animals. The concretions
known as _bezoar-stones_, formerly much used in medicine and as
antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild goat.
Although there have in all probability been more or less important local
crosses with other wild species, there can be no doubt that domesticated
goats generally are descended from the wild goat. It is true that many
tame goats show spirally twisted horns recalling those of the
under-mentioned Asiatic markhor; but in nearly all such instances it
will be found that the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among
the domesticated breeds the following are some of the more important.
Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which there are
several more or less well-marked breeds, differing from each other in
length of hair, in colour and slightly in the configuration of the
horns. The ears are more or less upright, sometimes horizontal, but
never actually pendent, as in some Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather
flat at the base and not unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically
from the head, curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally
inclined. The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when
pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most European
countries possess more than one description of the common goat. In the
British Isles there are two distinct types, one short and the other long
haired. In the former the hair is thick and close, with frequently an
under-coat resembling wool. The horns are large in the male, and of
moderate size in the female, flat at the base and inclining outwards.
The head is short and tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose
small; while the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The
colour varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently fawn, with
a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders. The other
variety has a shaggy coat, generally reddish-black, though sometimes
grey or pied and occasionally white. The head is long, heavy and ugly,
the nose coarse and prominent, with the horns situated close together,
often continuing parallel almost to the extremities, being also large,
corrugated and pointed. The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal
itself being generally gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to
Ireland, the Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The
short-haired goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds, as
well as those from abroad, are frequently ornamented with two
tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the throat. It has
been supposed by many that these are traceable to foreign blood; but
although there are foreign breeds that possess them, they appear to
pertain quite as much to the English native breeds as to those of
distant countries, the peculiarity being mentioned in very old works on
the goats of the British Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as
well as other kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often
yield a quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France
are similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour and
character of horns. The Norway breed is frequently white with long hair;
it is rather small in size, with small bones, a short rounded body, head
small with a prominent forehead, and short, straight, corrugated horns.
The facial line is concave. The horns of the males are very large, and
curve round after the manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair
between and in front.
The Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down below the jaw.
The hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed is usually hornless.
The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in Lower
Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Madagascar. The hair and
ears are excessively long, the latter so much so that they are sometimes
clipped to prevent their being torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The
horns are somewhat erect and spiral, with an outward bend.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Male Angora Goat.]
The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but is in reality
quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed, of which there are
two or three varieties, is the length and quantity of the hair, which
has a particularly soft and silky texture, covering the whole body and a
great part of the legs with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male
differ from those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape
spiral, whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat
like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair, the one
short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies close to the
skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of wool, forming the
outer covering. Both are used by the manufacturer, but the exterior
portion, which makes up by far the greater bulk, is much the more
valuable. The process of shearing takes place in early spring, the
average amount of wool yielded by each animal being about 2-1/2 lb. The
best quality comes from castrated males, females producing the next
best.
The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The Angora is a bad
milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh is better than that of
any other breed, and in its native country is preferred to mutton. The
kids are born small, but grow fast, and arrive early at maturity. The
Kashmir, or rather Tibet, goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous
ears, which are both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is
coarse and of different colours according to the individual. The horns
are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards and to
such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is composed, as in
the Angora, of two materials; but in this breed it is the under-coat
that partakes of the nature of wool and is valued as an article of
commerce. This under-coat, or _pushm_, which is of a uniform
greyish-white tint, whatever the colour of the hair may be, is
beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy description resembling down.
It makes its appearance in the autumn, and continues to grow until the
following spring, when, if not removed, it falls off naturally; its
collection then commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal
undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all the wool
and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes with it, is removed.
The latter is afterwards carefully separated, when the fleece in a good
specimen weighs about half a pound. This is the material of which the
far-famed and costly shawls are made, which at one time had such a
demand that, it is stated, 16,000 looms were kept in constant work at
Kashmir in their manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head,
long, thin, ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat,
are for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties
possessing this valuable quality, but those of Kashmir, Tibet and
Mongolia are the most esteemed.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Nubian Goat.]
The Nubian goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt and Abyssinia,
differs greatly in appearance from those previously described. The coat
of the female is extremely short, almost like that of a race-horse, and
the legs are long. This breed therefore stands considerably higher than
the common goat. One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the
face, the forehead being prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose
itself extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper. The
ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side of the head
like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns are black, slightly twisted and very
short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips, and recumbent on the head.
Among goats met with in England a good many show signs of a more or less
remote cross with this breed, derived probably from specimens brought
from the East on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage.
The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays the
characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree, and in the
form of the head and skull is very sheep-like.
The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed, having the
same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long legs. The horns,
however, are more spiral. The colour of the hair, which is longer than
in the Nubian, is black, grey or white, with black blotches.
Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the coast whence
its name is derived. There are three varieties. Besides the commonest
_Capra recurva_, there is a rarer breed, _Capra depressa_, inhabiting
the Mauritius and the islands of Bourbon and Madagascar. The other
variety is met with along the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various
points on the African coast of the Mediterranean.
As regards wild goats other than the representatives of _Capra hircus_,
the members of the ibex-group are noticed under IBEX, while another
distinctive type receives mention under MARKHOR. The ibex are connected
with the wild goat by means of _Capra nubiana_, in which the front edge
of the horns is thinner than in either the European _C. ibex_ or the
Asiatic _C. sibirica_; while the Spanish _C. pyrenaica_ shows how the
ibex-type of horn may pass into the spirally twisted one distinctive of
the markhor, _C. falconeri_. In the article IBEX mention is made of the
Caucasus ibex, or tur, _C. caucasica_, as an aberrant member of that
group, but beside this animal the Caucasus is the home of another very
remarkable goat, or tur, known as _C. pallasi_. In this ruminant, which
is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black horns diverge
outwards in a manner resembling those of the bharal among the sheep
rather than in goat-fashion; and, in fact, this tur, which has only a
very short beard, is so bharal-like that it is commonly called by
sportsmen the Caucasian bharal. It is one of the species which render
it so difficult to give a precise definition of either sheep or goats.
The short-horned Asiatic goats of the genus _Hemitragus_ receive mention
in the article TAHR; but it may be added that fossil species of the same
genus are known from the Lower Pliocene formations of India, which have
also yielded remains of a goat allied to the markhor of the Himalayas.
The Rocky Mountain goat (q.v.) of America has no claim to be regarded as
a member of the goat-group.
For full descriptions of the various wild species, see R. Lydekker,
_Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats_ (London, 1898). (R. L.*)
GOATSUCKER, a bird from very ancient times absurdly believed to have the
habit implied by the common name it bears in many European tongues
besides English--as testified by the Gr.[Greek: aigothelas], the Lat.
_caprimulgus_, Ital. _succiacapre_, Span. _chotacabras_, Fr.
_tettechevre_, and Ger. _Ziegenmelker_. The common goatsucker
(_Caprimulgus europaeus_, Linn.), is admittedly the type of a very
peculiar and distinct family, _Caprimulgidae_, a group remarkable for the
flat head, enormously wide mouth, large eyes, and soft, pencilled plumage
of its members, which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position
has been variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously
removed from the _Passeres_, in which Linnaeus placed all the species
known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two other families--the
swifts (_Cypselidae_) and humming-birds (_Trochilidae_)--the division
_Cypselomorphae_ of his larger group Aegithognathae, which is equivalent
in the main to the Linnaean _Passeres_. There are two ways of regarding
the _Caprimulgidae_--one including the genus _Podargus_ and its allies,
the other recognizing them as a distinct family, _Podargidae_. As a
matter of convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the
_Caprimulgidae_, which will then contain two subfamilies, _Caprimulginae_
and _Podarginae_; for what, according to older authors, constitutes a
third, though represented only by _Steatornis_, the singular oil-bird, or
guacharo, certainly seems to require separation as an independent family
(see GUACHERO).
[Illustration: Common Goatsucker.]
Some of the differences between the _Caprimulginae_ and _Podarginae_
have been pointed out by Sclater (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1866, p. 123), and
are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes have _four_ phalanges
only, thus presenting a very uncommon character among birds, and the
middle claws are pectinated; while in the latter the normal number of
five phalanges is found, and the claws are smooth, and other
distinctions more recondite have also been indicated by him (_tom. cit._
p. 582). The Caprimulginae may be further divided into those having the
gape thickly beset by strong bristles, and those in which there are few
such bristles or none--the former containing the genera _Caprimulgus_,
_Antrostomus_, _Nyctidromus_ and others, and the latter _Podargus_,
_Chordiles_, _Lyncornis_ and a few more.
The common goatsucker of Europe (_C. europaeus_) arrives late in spring
from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence is soon made known
by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting chiefly of moths and
cockchafers, in the evening-twilight. As the season advances the song
of the cock, from its singularity, attracts attention amid all rural
sounds. This song seems to be always uttered when the bird is at rest,
though the contrary has been asserted, and is the continuous repetition
of a single burring note, as of a thin lath fixed at one end and in a
state of vibration at the other, and loud enough to reach in still
weather a distance of half-a-mile or more. On the wing, while toying
with its mate, or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where
it finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another
and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but somewhat
resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air, though whether this
noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascertained. In general its flight
is silent, but at times when disturbed from its repose, its wings may be
heard to smite together. The goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner
English name, nightjar,[1] passes the day in slumber, crouching on the
ground or perching on a tree--in the latter case sitting not across the
branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In hot
weather, however, its song may sometimes be heard by day and even at
noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily, and without the
vigour that characterizes its crepuscular or nocturnal performance.
Towards evening the bird becomes active, and it seems to pursue its prey
throughout the night uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a
few seconds to alight on a bare spot--a pathway or road--and then
resuming its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no
nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground,
generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the soil. So
light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is some vegetable
growth, produces no visible depression of the grass, moss or lichens on
which the eggs rest, and the finest sand equally fails to exhibit a
trace of the parental act. Yet scarcely any bird shows greater local
attachment, and the precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be
occupied the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted
down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered on
becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles that of
the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and black, blended
and mottled in a manner that passes description. They soon attain their
full size and power of flight, and then take to the same manner of life
as their parents. In autumn all leave their summer haunts for the south,
but the exact time of their departure has hardly been ascertained. The
habits of the nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less
essentially those of the whole subfamily--the differences observable
being apparently less than are found in other groups of birds of similar
extent.
A second species of goatsucker (_C. ruficollis_), which is somewhat
larger, and has the neck distinctly marked with rufous, is a summer
visitant to the south-western parts of Europe, and especially to Spain
and Portugal. The occurrence of a single example of this bird at
Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in October 1856, has been recorded
by Mr Hancock (_Ibis_, 1862, p. 39); but the season of its appearance
argues the probability of its being but a casual straggler from its
proper home. Many other species of _Caprimulgus_ inhabit Africa, Asia
and their islands, while one (_C. macrurus_) is found in Australia. Very
nearly allied to this genus is _Antrostomus_, an American group
containing many species, of which the chuck-will's-widow (_A.
carolinensis_) and the whip-poor-will (_A. vociferus_) of the eastern
United States (the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples.
Both these birds take their common name from the cry they utter, and
their habits seem to be almost identical, with those of the old world
goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which need not here be
mentioned, the genus _Nyctidromus_, though consisting of only one
species (_N. albicollis_) which inhabits Central and part of South
America, requires remark, since it has tarsi of sufficient length to
enable it to run swiftly on the ground, while the legs of most birds of
the family are so short that they can make but a shuffling progress.
_Heleothreptes_, with the unique form of wing possessed by the male,
needs mention. Notice must also be taken of two African species,
referred by some ornithologists to as many genera (_Macrodipteryx_ and
_Cosmetornis_), though probably one genus would suffice for both. The
males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful development of
the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches in fully adult specimens
the extraordinary length of 17 in. or more. The former of these birds,
the _Caprimulgus macrodipterus_ of Adam Afzelius, is considered to
belong to the west coast of Africa, and the shaft of the elongated
remiges is bare for the greater part of its length, retaining the web,
in a spatulate form, only near the tip. The latter, to which the
specific name of _vexillarius_ was given by John Gould, has been found
on the east coast of that continent, and is reported to have occurred in
Madagascar and Socotra. In this the remigial streamers do not lose their
barbs, and as a few of the next quills are also to some extent
elongated, the bird, when flying, is said to look as though it had four
wings. Specimens of both are rare in collections, and no traveller seems
to have had the opportunity of studying the habits of either so as to
suggest a reason for this marvellous sexual development.
The second group of _Caprimulginae_, those which are but poorly or not
at all furnished with rictal bristles, contains about five genera, of
which we may particularize _Lyncornis_ of the old world and _Chordiles_
of the new. The species of the former are remarkable for the tuft of
feathers which springs from each side of the head, above and behind the
ears, so as to give the bird an appearance like some of the "horned"
owls--those of the genus _Scops_, for example; and remarkable as it is
to find certain forms of two families, so distinct as are the
_Strigidae_ and the _Caprimulgidae_, resembling each other in this
singular external feature, it is yet more remarkable to note that in
some groups of the latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind
of dimorphism takes place. In either case this has been frequently
asserted to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be
entertained. Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in
some groups of owls, individuals of the same species are found in
plumage of two entirely different hues--rufous and grey. The only
explanation as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is
sexual, but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not,
however, be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of the
existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close
relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to the same
causes, concerning which future observers may possibly enlighten us, but
at present we must regard them as analogies, not homologies. The species
of _Lyncornis_ inhabit the Malay Archipelago, one, however, occurring
also in China. Of _Chordiles_ the best-known species is the night-hawk
of North America (_C. virginianus_ or _C. popetue_), which has a wide
range from Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in
South America. The general habits of all these birds agree with those of
the typical goatsuckers.
We have next to consider the birds forming the genus _Podargus_ and
those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct family, or as
a subfamily of _Caprimulgidae_. As above stated, they have feet
constructed as those of birds normally are, and their sternum seems to
present the constant though comparatively trivial difference of having
its posterior margin elongated into two pairs of processes, while only
one pair is found in the true goatsuckers. _Podargus_ includes the bird
(_P. cuvieri_) known from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians,[2] and
several other species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia
and New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it would
seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they mainly
subsist on insects, chiefly _Cicadae_ and _Phasmidae_. They also differ
from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes partially reversible,
and they build a flat nest on the horizontal branch of a tree for the
reception of their eggs, which are of a spotless white. Apparently
allied to _Podargus_, but differing among other respects in its mode of
nidification, is _Aegotheles_, which belongs also to the Australian
sub-region; and farther to the northward, extending throughout the Malay
Archipelago and into India, comes _Batrachostomus_, wherein we again
meet with species having aural tufts somewhat like _Lyncornis_. The
_Podarginae_ are thought by some to be represented in the new world by
the genus _Nyctibius_, of which several species occur from the Antilles
and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may be stated that none of
the _Caprimulgidae_ seem to occur in Polynesia or in New Zealand, though
there is scarcely any other part of the world suited to their habits in
which members of the family are not found. (A. N.)