GLOSS, GLOSSARY GOLDBEATING
GLOSSOP GOLDBERG
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF GOLD COAST
GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE GOLDEN
GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY GOLDEN BULL
GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE GOLDEN-EYE
GLOUCESTER, ROBERT GOLDEN FLEECE
GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK GOLDEN HORDE
GLOUCESTER (city of England) GOLDEN ROD
GLOUCESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) GOLDEN ROSE
GLOUCESTER CITY GOLDEN RULE
GLOUCESTERSHIRE GOLDFIELD
GLOVE GOLDFINCH
GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY GOLDFISH
GLOVER, RICHARD GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST
GLOVERSVILLE GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN
GLOW-WORM GOLDING, ARTHUR
GLOXINIA GOLDINGEN
GLUCINUM GOLDMARK, KARL
GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD GOLDONI, CARLO
GLUCKSBURG GOLDS
GLUCKSTADT GOLDSBORO
GLUCOSE GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN
GLUCOSIDE GOLDSMID
GLUE GOLDSMITH, LEWIS
GLUTARIC ACID GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
GLUTEN GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR
GLUTTON GOLDWELL, THOMAS
GLYCAS, MICHAEL GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ
GLYCERIN GOLETTA
GLYCOLS GOLF
GLYCONIC GOLIAD
GLYPH GOLIARD
GLYPTODON GOLIATH
GLYPTOTHEK GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH
GMELIN GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH
GMUND GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH
GMUNDEN GOLIUS, JACOBUS
GNAT GOLLNOW
GNATHOPODA GOLOSH
GNATIA GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH
GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH
GNEISS GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH
GNEIST, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH VON GOLTZ, BOGUMIL
GNESEN GOLTZ, COLMAR
GNOME, and GNOMIC POETRY GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK
GNOMES GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR
GNOMON GOMAL
GNOSTICISM GOMARUS, FRANZ
GNU GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY
GO GOMER
GOA GOMERA
GOAL GOMEZ, DIOGO
GOALPARA GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS
GOAT GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD
GOATSUCKER GOMPERS, SAMUEL
GOBAT, SAMUEL GOMPERZ, THEODOR
GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH GONAGUAS
GOBELIN GONCALVES DIAS, ANTONIO
GOBI GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH
GOBLET, RENE GONCOURT, DE
GOBLET GONDA
GOBY GONDAL
GOCH GONDAR
GOD GONDOKORO
GODALMING GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA
GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL GONDOPHARES
GODAVARI (river of India) GONDWANA
GODAVARI (district of India) GONFALON
GODEFROY GONG
GODESBERG GONGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE
GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS GONIOMETER
GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE
GODFREY OF BOUILLON GONVILE, EDMUND
GODFREY OF VITERBO GONZAGA
GODHRA GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO
GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE GONZALEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSE
GODIVA GONZALO DE BERCEO
GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE GOOCH, SIR DANIEL
GODMANCHESTER GOOD, JOHN MASON
GODOLLO GOOD FRIDAY
GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN GOODMAN, GODFREY
GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, MANUEL DE GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD
GODROON GOODRICH, THOMAS
GODWIN, FRANCIS GOODSIR, JOHN
GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT GOODWILL
GODWIN, WILLIAM GOODWIN, JOHN
GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT CLOYNE GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL
GODWINE GOODWIN, THOMAS
GODWIT GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON
GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON GOODWIN SANDS
GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE GOODWOOD
GOES, DAMIAO DE GOODYEAR, CHARLES
GOES, HUGO VAN DER GOOGE, BARNABE
GOES GOOLE
GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOOSE (bird)
GOETZ, HERMANN GOOSE (game)
GOFFE, WILLIAM GOOSEBERRY
GOFFER GOOTY
GOG GOPHER
GOGO GOPPINGEN
GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH GORAKHPUR
GOGRA GORAL
GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME GORAMY
GOHRDE GORBERSDORF
GOITO GORBODUC
GOITRE GORCHAKOV
GOKAK GORDIAN
GOKCHA GORDIUM
GOLCONDA GORDON
GOLD GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY
GOLD AND SILVER THREAD GORDON, ALEXANDER
GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE
GLOSS, GLOSSARY, &c. The Greek word [Greek: glossa] (whence our
"gloss"), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or dialect,
gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, technical or
otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. _Rhet._ iii. 3. 2).
The making of collections and explanations[1] of such [Greek: glossai]
was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized form of literary
activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among the many writings of
Abdera was included a treatise entitled [Greek: Peri Homerou e
orthoepeies kai glosseon]. It was not, however, until the Alexandrian
period that the [Greek: glossographoi], glossographers (writers of
glosses), or glossators, became numerous. Of many of these perhaps even
the names have perished; but Athenaeus the grammarian alone (c. A.D.
250) alludes to no fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was
Philetas of Cos (d. c. 290 B.C.), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus
dedicated the treatise [Greek: Pros Philptan]; he was the compiler of a
lexicographical work, arranged probably according to subjects, and
entitled [Greek: Hatakta] or [Greek: Glossai] (sometimes [Greek: Ataktoi
glossai]). Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 280 B.C.),
one of the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of [Greek:
Glossai Homerikai]; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil
Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 200 B.C.), whose great compilation [Greek:
Peri lexeon] (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known to
have included [Greek: Attikai lexeis, Lakonikai glossai], and the like.
From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one glossographer of
name,--Diodorus, Artemidorus ([Greek: Glossai], and a collection of
[Greek: lexeis opsartutikai]), Nicander of Colophon ([Greek: Glossai],
of which some twenty-six fragments still survive), and Aristarchus (c.
210 B.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous labours included an
arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary ([Greek: lexeis]) in the order of
the books. Contemporary with the last named was Crates of Mallus, who,
besides making some new contributions to Greek lexicography and
dialectology, was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar
investigations in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school
proceeded Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of [Greek: Ethnikai lexeis]
or [Greek: glossai], a work said to have been designed chiefly to
support the views of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical
interpretation of Homer.[2] Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, c.
50 B.C.), who made collections of [Greek: lexeis tragodoumenai komikai],
&c.; Apollonius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come
down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as [Greek: ho
glossographos]. In the beginning of the 1st century of the Christian era
Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome during the reigns of
Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours of Aristarchus and other
predecessors with [Greek: Glossai Homerikai], and a treatise [Greek:
Peri tes Hromaikes dialekton]; Heliodorus or Herodorus was another
almost contemporary glossographer; Erotian also, during the reign of
Nero, prepared a special glossary for the writings of Hippocrates, still
preserved. To this period also Pamphilus, the author of the [Greek:
Leimon], from which Diogenian and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so
largely, most probably belonged. In the following century one of the
most prominent workers in this department of literature was Aelius
Herodianus, whose treatise [Greek: Peri monerous lexeos] has been edited
in modern times, and whose [Greek: Epimerismoi] we still possess in an
abridgment; also Pollux, Diogenian ([Greek: Lexis pantodape]), Julius
Vestinus ([Greek: 'Epitome ton Pamphilou glosson]) and especially
Phrynichus, who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and
whose _Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum_ has frequently been
edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria (c. 389), who
wrote [Greek: Peri Homoion kai diaphoron lexeon], a dictionary of words
used in senses different from those in which they had been employed by
older and approved writers. Of somewhat later date is the well-known
Hesychius, whose often-edited [Greek: Lexikon] superseded all previous
works of the kind; Cyril, the celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also
contributed somewhat to the advancement of glossography by his [Greek:
Sunagoge ton pros diaphoron semasian diaphoros tonoumenon lexeon]; while
Orus, Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this
period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the
_Etymologicum magnum_, to which might be added the _Lexica Sangermania_
and the _Lexica Segueriana_, are referred to in the article DICTIONARY.
To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large and
important class of works relating to the law-compilations of Justinian.
Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties all commentaries
([Greek: hupomnemata]) on his legislation (_Const. Deo Auctore_, sec.
12; _Const. Tanta_, sec. 21), yet indices ([Greek: indikes]) and
references ([Greek: paratitla]), as well as translations ([Greek:
ermeneiai kata poda]) and paraphrases ([Greek: hermeneiai eis platos]),
were expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the numerous
compilers of alphabetically arranged [Greek: lexeis Rhomaikai] or
[Greek: Lateinikai], and [Greek: glossai nomikai] (glossae nomicae),
Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors of [Greek:
paragraphai], or [Greek: semeioseis], whether [Greek: exothen] or
[Greek: esothen keimenai], are too numerous to mention. A collection of
these [Greek: paragraphai ton palaion], combined with [Greek: neai
paragraphai] on the revised code called [Greek: ta basilika], was made
about the middle of the 12th century by a disciple of Michael
Hagiotheodorita. This work is known as the _Glossa ordinaria_ [Greek:
ton basilikon].[3]
In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, various
glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were produced[4];
particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny), to which, apart
from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is usually assigned. After
the total extinction of the Byzantine authority in the West the study of
law became one of the free arts, and numerous schools for its
cultivation were instituted. Among the earliest of these was that of
Bologna, where Pepo (1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their
expositions. They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering
exegetical lectures ("ordinariae" on the _Digest_ and _Code_,
"extraordinariae" on the rest of the _Corpus juris civilis_), also wrote
Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal.[5] The series of these
glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the compilation known as
the _Glossa ordinaria_ or _magistralis_, the authority of which soon
became very great, so that ultimately it came to be a recognized maxim,
"Quod non agnoscit glossa, non agnoscit curia."[6] For some account of
the glossators on the canon law, see CANON LAW.
In late classical and medieval Latin, _glosa_ was the vulgar and romanic
(e.g. in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the late 8th century
Leiden Glossary), _glossa_ the learned form (Varro, _De ling. Lat._ vii.
10; Auson. _Epigr_. 127. 2 (86. 2), written in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34).
The diminutive _glossula_ occurs in Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The
same meaning has _glossarium_ (Gell. xviii. 7. 3 _glosaria_ = [Greek:
glossarion]), which also occurs in the modern sense of "glossary"
(Papias, "unde _glossarium_ dictum quod omnium fere partium glossas
contineat"), as do the words _glossa_, _glossae_, _glossulae_,
_glossemata_ (Steinmeyer, _Alth. Gloss._ iv. 408, 410), expressed in
later times by _dictionarium_, _dictionarius_, _vocabularium_,
_vocabularius_ (see DICTIONARY). _Glossa_ and _glossema_ (Varro vii. 34.
107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. _De gramm._ 22; Fest. 166^b. 8, 181^a.
18; Quint. i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms, signifying (a) the word which
requires explanation; or (b) such a word (called _lemma_) together with
the interpretation (_interpretamentum_); or (c) the interpretation alone
(so first in the _Anecd. Helv._).
Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the practical
wants of students and teachers, of whose names we only know a few. No
doubt even in classical times collections of glosses ("glossaries") were
compiled, to which allusion seems to be made by Varro (_De ling. Lat._
vii. 10, "tesca, aiunt sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt") and
Verrius-Festus (166^b .6, "naucum ... glossematorum ... scriptures fabae
grani quod haereat in fabulo"), but it is not known to what extent
Varro, for instance, used them, or retained their original forms. The
_scriptores glossematorum_ were distinguished from the learned
glossographers like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his _Musae_, ap. Suet. _De
gramm._ 6; Gell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius
Clodius (Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose
_liber glossematorum_ Festus mentions (181^{a}.18).
Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have preserved
many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to us. He
copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, "Verr. Forsch.," in vol. i. of
_Breslauer philol. Abhandl._, p. 88; Kriegshammer, _Comm. phil. Ien._
vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise _De
obscuris Catonis_ (Reitzenstein, ib. 56. 92). He often made use of
Varro (Willers, _De Verrio Flacco_, Halle, 1898), though not of his
_ling. lat._ (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with
later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the _glossae asbestos_
(Goetz, _Corpus_, iv.; _id., Rhein. Mus._ xl. 328). Festus was used by
Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, "De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore," _Comm.
Ien._ v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the _glossae ab absens_ (Goetz, "De
Astrabae Pl. fragmentis," _Ind. Ien._, 1893, iii. sqq.). The distinct
connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing, as Plinius
and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, _De Non. Marc. auctt.
gramm._ 145; Nettleship, _Lect. and Ess._ 229; Frohde, _De Non. Marc.
et Verrio Flacco_, 2; W. M. Lindsay, "Non. Marc.," _Dict. of Repub.
Latin_, 100, &c.).
The _bilingual_ (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early
period, and were used by the grammarians (1) to explain the
peculiarities (_idiomata_) of the Latin language by comparison with
the Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254.
9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq.; Marschall, _De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm.
22_; Goetz, _Corp. gloss. lat._ ii. 6).
For the purposes of grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans,
Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a
translation of Dositheus and the so-called _Hermeneutica_, parts of
which may be dated as early as the 3rd century A.D., and lexica (cf.
Schoenemann, _De lexicis ant._ 122; Knaack, in _Phil. Rundsch._, 1884,
372; Traube, in _Byzant. Ztschr._ iii. 605; David, _Comment. Ien._ v.
197 sqq.).
The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known
lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly, see
Rudorff, in _Abh.. Akad. Berl._, 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 183,
190; Mommsen, _C.I.L._ v. 8120; A. Dammann, _De Festo Pseudo-philoxeni
auctore_, 12 sqq.; Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus (consul
A.D. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries
(containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal,
Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by
some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek influence
(his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &c.); the other (Greek-Latin) is
ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end of some of
his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of not later than
the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the _Cod. Harl._, which is the
source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th century); cf. Goetz,
_Corp._ ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. _ibid._ p. xx. sqq. Furthermore,
the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had their origin in old lists
of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise _De herbarum virtutibus_,
and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann, _Hermes_, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who
thinks that the latter work is based on Pamphilus, q.v.; Goetz,
_Corp._ iii.); the glossary, entitled _Hermeneuma_, printed from the
_Cod. Vatic._ reg. Christ. 1260, contains names of diseases.
Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the glosses
extend. If _massucum edacem_ in Placidus indicates the original form,
the allied gloss of Festus (_masucium edacem a mandendo scilicet_)
shows an etymological addition. Another extension consists in adding
special references to the original source, as e.g. at the gloss
_Ocrem_ (Fest. 181^a. 17), which is taken from Ateius Philol. In this
way collections arose like the _priscorum verborum cum exemplis_, a
title given by Fest. (218^b. 10) to a particular work. Further the
_glossae veterum_ (Charis. 242. 10); the _glossae antiquitatum_ (id.
229. 30); the _idonei vocum antiquarum enarratores_ (Gell. xviii. 6.
8); the _libri rerum verborumque veterum_ (_id._ xiii. 24. 25). L.
Cincius, according to Festus (330^b. 2), wrote _De verbis priscis_;
Santra, _De antiquitate verborum_ (Festus 277^a. 2).
Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors
few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 229. 30,
speaks of _glossae antiquitatum_ and 242. 10 of _glossae veterum_, but
it is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation
they stand to the _glossemata per litteras Latinas ordine composita_,
which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according to
the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus, and
Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a _glossarium
Plautinum_ (Ritschl, Op. ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual glossaries
have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but of this early
period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus, who is sometimes
called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with the Statius scholiast,
with whom the _glossae Placidi_ have no connexion. All that we know of
him tends to show that he lived in North Africa (like Fulgentius and
Nonius and perhaps Charisius) in the 6th century, from whence his
glosses came to Spain, and were used by Isidore and the compiler of
the _Liber glossarum_ (see below). These glosses we know from (1)
Codices Romani (15th and 16th century); (2) the _Liber glossarum_; (3)
the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis. 1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of
glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses are kept separate from the
others, and still retain traces of their original order (cf. the
editions published by A. Mai, _Class. auct._ iii. 427-503, and
Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, _Corp._ v.; P. Karl, "De Placidi glossis,"
_Comm. Ien._ vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq.; Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 86; F.
Bucheler, in _Thesaur. gloss. emend._). His collection includes
glosses from Plautus and Lucilius.
(Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. A.D. 468-533) wrote _Expositio
sermonum antiquorum_ (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898; cf. Wessner,
_Comment. Ien._ vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each
containing a lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving
quotations and names of authors. Next to him come the _glossae
Nonianae_, which arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in
Nonius Marcellus' work being written in the margin without the words
of the text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards
copied for other collections (see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 637 sqq., id. v.
Praef. xxxv.; Onions and Lindsay, _Harvard Stud._ ix. 67 sqq.;
Lindsay, _Nonii praef._ xxi.). In a similar way arose the _glossae
Eucherii_ or _glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum_ found
in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, _Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wien_, cxv. 425 sqq.; =
the _Corpus Glossary_, first part), which are an alphabetical extract
from the _formulae spiritalis intelligentiae_ of St Eucherius, bishop
of Lyons, c. 434-450.[7]
Other sources were the _Differentiae_, already known to Placidus and
much used in the medieval glossaries; and the _Synonyma Ciceronis_;
cf. Goetz, "Der Liber glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl.
der sachs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss._, 1893, p. 215; id. in _Berl. philol.
Wochenschr._, 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in _Wochenschr._, p. 297 sqq.,
and Sittls, _ibid._ p. 267; _Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 594; W. L.
Mahne, (Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of _scholia_. By
the side of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an
ars similar to that ascribed to him; further, treatises _de dubiis
generibus_, the _scriptores orthographici_ (especially Caper and
Beda), and Priscianus, the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf.
Goetz in _Melanges Boissier_, 224).
During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in
various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or
amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be
exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High
German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or were
used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and development
of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved to us can be
traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript texts of classical
authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane writers, students
and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way words
which they considered difficult to remember or to require elucidation,
wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations or explanations
in more easy or better-known words. The interpretations written above
the line are called "interlinear," those written in the margins of the
MSS. "marginal glosses." Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the
Bible were often provided with literal translations in the vernacular
written above the lines of the Latin version (interlinear versions).
Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be seen in
the various palaeographical works published in recent years; cf. _The
Palaeogr. Society_, 1st ser. vol. ii. pls. 9 (Terentius MS. of 4th or
5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine's epistles, 6th or
7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12, 33, 40,
50-54, 57, 58, 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39, 44,
54, 80.
From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions
glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin
words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and collected
in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one after the
other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement, but with the
names of the authors or the titles of the books whence they were
taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or chapter. In
this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss; when
reference is made only to the word explained it is called the _lemma_,
while the explanation is termed the _interpretamentum_. In most cases
the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood in its source, and
explained by a single word (_tesca: sancta_, Varro vii. 10;
_clucidatus: suavis, id._ vii. 107; cf. Isid. _Etym._ i. 30. 1, "quid
enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat [_scil._ glossa] ut
conticescere est tacere"), so that we meet with lemmata in the
accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words in the
same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. Of this
first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are preserved,
for instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary (Voss. 69, ed.
J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or glosses excerpted
from the _Life of St Martin_ by Sulpicius Severus; chs. iv., v. and
xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from Gildas; chs. vii. to
xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon; Proverbs, &c., &c.); chs.
xxvi. to xlviii, from Isidore, the _Vita S. Anthonii_, Cassiodorus, St
Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine, St Clement, Eucherius, St
Gregory, the grammarians Donatus, Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, _Corp._
v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40 from Ovid's _Metam._; v. 657 from
Apuleius, _De deo Socratis_; cf. Landgraf, in _Arch._ ix. 174).
By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in
_alphabetical_ order according to the first letter of the lemma, but
still retained in separate chapters under the names of authors or the
titles of books. Of this _second_ stage the Leiden Glossary contains
traces also: ch. i. (_Verba de Canonibus_) and ii. (_Sermones de
Regulis_); see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427
sqq. (Virgil).
The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in
alphabetical order, in the first instance according to the first
letters of the lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors
or the titles of the books could no longer be preserved, and
consequently the sources whence the glosses were excerpted became
uncertain, especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been
normalized.
A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first two
letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still
earlier _Cod. Vat._ 3321 (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 1 sqq.), where even many
attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three
letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the
_Glossae affatim_ (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are
alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b,
c, &c.), and then further according to the first _vowel_ in the word
(a, e, i, o, u).
No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or
arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in the
Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century, whereas
the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same century,
represents already the fourth stage.
For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been given
to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly from
their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae
_abstrusae_; glossae _abavus major_ and _minor_; g. _affatim_; g. _ab
absens_; g. _abactor_; g. _Abba Pater_; g. a, a; g. _Vergilianae_; g.
_nominum_ (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563, iv.); g. _Sangallenses_ (Warren,
_Transact. Amer. Philol. Assoc._ xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.).
A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the _Origines_
(_Etymologiae_) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like
Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many places
we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work became
a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he deals with
the etymology of many substantives and adjectives arranged
alphabetically according to the first letter of the words, perhaps by
himself from various sources. His principal source is Servius, then
the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome, Lactantius) and Donatus
the grammarian. This tenth book was also copied and used separately,
and mixed up with other works (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 167. 21). Isidore's
_Differentiae_ have also had a great reputation.
Next comes the _Liber glossarum_, chiefly compiled from Isidore, but
all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain c.
A.D. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of the
MSS., some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name is
suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book (cf.
Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Class,
der kon. sachs. Ges._ xiii., 1893; _id._, _Corp._ v., praef. xx. 161).
Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely
mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations: (1)
the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning of
the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels;
another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss.
Q^o. 69; (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th
century[8] and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society
from a MS. in the town library at Epinal; (4) the _Glossae
Amplonianae_, i.e. three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library
at Erfurt, known as Erfurt^1, Erfurt^2 and Erfurt^3. The first,
published by Goetz (_Corp._ v. 337-401; cf. also Loewe, _Prodr._ 114
sqq.) with the various readings of the kindred Epinal, consists, like
the latter, of different collections of glosses (also some from
Aldhelm), some arranged alphabetically according to the first letter
of the lemma, others according to the first two letters. The title of
Erfurt^2 (_incipit II. conscriptio glosarum in unam_) shows that it is
also a combination of various glossaries; it is arranged
alphabetically according to the first two letters of the lemmata, and
contains the _affatim_ and _abavus maior_ glosses, also a collection
from Aldhelm; Erfurt^3 are the _Glossae nominum_, mixed also with
Anglo-Saxon interpretations (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563). The form in
which the three Erfurt glossaries have come down to us points back to
the 8th century.
The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and
glossaries is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of
St Gall, who died A.D. 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed
c. 1475 at Augsburg, with the headline _Salemonis ecclesie
Constantiensis episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus_.
The oldest MSS. of this work date from the 11th century. Its sources
are the _Liber glossarum_ (Loewe, _Prodr._ 234 sqq.), the glossary
preserved in the 9th-century MS. _Lat. Monac._ 14429 (Goetz, "Lib.
Gloss." 35 sqq.), and the great Abavus Gloss (_id., ibid._ p. 37;
_id._, _Corp._ iv. praef. xxxvii.).
The _Lib. glossarum_ has also been the chief source for the important
(but not original) glossary of Papias, of A.D. 1053 (cf. Goetz in
_Sitz. Ber. Akad. Munch._, 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates
eighty-seven MSS. of the 12th to the 15th centuries), of whom we only
know that he lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two
sons. An edition of it was published at Milan "per Dominicum de
Vespolate" on the 12th of December 1476; other editions followed in
1485, 1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly
compiled from Priscianus (Hagen, _Anecd. Helv._ clxxix. sqq.).
The same _Lib. gloss._ is the source (1) for the _Abba Pater_ Glossary
(cf. Goetz, _ibid._ p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (_Sitz. Ber.
Akad. Munch._, 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary _Absida
lucida_ (Goetz, ib. p. 41); and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the
_Cod. Leid. Scal. Orient._ No. 231 (published by Seybold in _Semit.
Studien_, Heft xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900).
The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," p. 215) is
compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (_abacti magistratus_), the
_Abavus major_ and the _Liber glossarum_, with a mixture of Hebraica.
Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations, as in the Cod.
Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, _Corp._ v. 520 sqq.), mixed up with glosses
from Beda, Placidus, &c. (cf. a glossary published by Ellis in _Amer.
Journ. of Philol._ vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides Paulus glosses,
also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge _Journ. of Philol._ viii. 71
sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.).
Osbern of Gloucester (c. 1123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled
_Panormia_ (published by Angelo Mai as _Thesaurus novus Latinitatis_,
from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, _Rhein. Mus._ xxix.,
1874; Goetz in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 133 sqq.;
_Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der kon. sachs. Gesellsch. der Wiss._,
Leipzig, 1902); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected
from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. Capella,
Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, Jerome, &c., &c.
Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio, whose compendium was still
more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c., p. 121 sqq., who enumerates
one hundred and three MSS. of his treatise), and contains many
biblical glosses, especially Hebraica, some treatises on Latin
numerals, &c. (cf. Hamann, _Weitere Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas, "Glosses provencales ined."
in _Romania_, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P. Toynbee, _ibid._ xxv. p. 537
sqq.).
The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled _Summa quae vocatur
catholicon_, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent, (2)
etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, i.e. a lexicon,
which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias;
its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes
the Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio; it
excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church,
especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows many Hebrew
glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections then in use; it
mentions the _Graecismus_ of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, the works of
Hrabanus Maurus, the _Doctrinale_ of Alexander de Villa Dei, and the
_Aurora_ of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the _Catholicon_ in
Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced to Osbern. There
exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz edition of 1460 is well
known (cf. Goetz in _Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der kon. sachs.
Gesellsch. der Wiss._, Leipzig, 1902).
The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centuries are numerous, but a
diminution becomes visible towards the 11th. We then find grammatical
treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief
material was (1) the _Liber glossarum_; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3)
the _Abavus major_; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to
Priscian; (5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly
from Jerome). After these comes medieval material, as the
_derivationes_ which are found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in
_Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 136 sqq.; Traube in
_Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 264), containing quotations from Plautus,
Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasionally from Priscian, Eutyches,
and other grammarians, with etymological explanations. These
_derivationes_ were the basis for the grammatical works of Osbern,
Hugucio and Joannes of Janua.
A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic
glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, _Corp._ iii.). The
additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while
Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French,
Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1) the
_Glossae alphita_ (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the
_Collect. Salernitana_, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th
and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier
MSS.); (2) _Sinonoma Bartholomei_, collected by John Mirfeld, towards
the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (_Anecd. Oxon._ i. 1,
1882, cf. Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 116 sqq.); it seems to have used the
same or some similar source as No. 1; (3) the compilations of Simon de
Janua (_Clavis sanationis_, end of 13th century), and of Matthaeus
Silvaticus (_Pandectae medicinae_, 14th century; cf. H. Stadler,
"Dioscor. Longob." in _Roman. Forsch._ x. 3. 371; Steinmeyer,
_Althochd. Gloss._ iii.).
Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with
glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other biblical
proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate in general,
and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the _Glossae veteris ac
novi testamenti_ (beginning "Prologus graece latine praelocutio sive
praefatio") in numerous MSS. of the 9th to 14th centuries, mostly
retaining the various books under separate headings (cf. Arevalo,
_Isid._ vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 141; Steinmeyer iv. 459; S.
Berger, _De compendiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi_, Paris, 1879).
Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who lived about 1250,
and compiled a _Summa_ (beginning "difficiles studeo partes quas
Biblia gestat Pandere"), contained in many MSS. especially in French
libraries. This _Summa_ gave rise to the _Mammotrectus_ of Joh.
Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed in 1470,
1476, 1479, &c.
Finally we may mention such compilations as the _Summa Heinrici_; the
work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls _dictionarius_
(cf. Scheler in _Jahrb. f. rom. u. engl. Philol._ vi., 1865, p. 142
sqq.); and that of Alexander Neckam (ib. vii. p. 60 sqq., cf. R.
Ellis, in _Amer. Journ. of Phil._ x. 2); which are, strictly speaking,
not glossographic. The _Breviloquus_ drew its chief material from
Papias, Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, _Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1879; id., _Weitere Mitteil._, &c., Hamburg,
1882); so also the _Vocabularium Ex quo_; the various _Gemmae_;
_Vocabularia rerum_ (cf. Diefenbach, _Glossar. Latino-Germanicum_).
After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first
to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf. Goetz,
in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ger. d. Wiss._, 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in his
edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled O.
Muller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps.
Scaliger also planned the publication of a _Corpus glossarum_, and
left behind a collection of glosses known as _glossae Isidori_ (Goetz,
_Corp._ v. p. 589 sqq.; id. in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges._, 1888, p.
224 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old
glossaries, clearly in reference to the tenth book of the
_Etymologiae_.
The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573, of the
bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing, besides
the two great glossaries, also the _Hermeneumata Stephani_, which is a
recension of the _Ps.-Dositheana_ (republished Goetz, _Corp._ iii.
438-474), and the _glossae Stephani_, excerpted from a collection of
the _Hermeneumata_ (ib. iii. 438-474).
In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding (1)
the glossae _Isidori_, which now appeared for the first time; (2) the
_Onomasticon_; (3) _notae_ and _castigationes_, derived from Scaliger
(Loewe, _Prodr._ 183).
In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective help
of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679,
by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no
further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the Leiden
Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, _Symbolae ad Literat. Teut._), though
glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius, Meursius,
Heraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where a rich
collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition of the
Vossius library (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 168). In the 19th century came
Osann's _Glossarii Latini specimen_ (1826); the glossographic
publications of Angelo Mai (_Classici auctores_, vols. iii., vi.,
vii., viii., Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern's _Panormia_, Placidus
and various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847)
on the _Cod. Amplonianus_ of Osbern, and his edition of the three
Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 G.
F. Hildebrand's _Glossarium Latinum_ (an extract from _Abavus minor_),
preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's vol. of
Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 1884 by R.
Paul Wulcker under the title _Anglo-Saxon and Old English
Vocabularies_ (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach's supplement to
Du Cange, entitled _Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et infimae
aetatis_, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries,
vocabularies, &c., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl's treatise
(1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus
by Deuerling; G. Loewe's _Prodromus_ (1876), and other treatises by
him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884); 1888, the
second volume of Goetz's own great _Corpus glossariorum Latinorum_, of
which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the light by 1907, the
last two being separately entitled _Thesaurus glossarum emendatarum_,
containing many emendations and corrections of earlier glossaries by
the author and other scholars; 1900, Arthur S. Napier, _Old English
Glosses_ (Oxford), collected chiefly from Aldhelm MSS., but also from
Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius, Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus,
Phocas, Prudentius, &c.
There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in
various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican, at Monte
Cassino, Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford,
Cambridge, &c. Much has already been done to make the material
contained in these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done
with what is still unpublished, though we may find that the
differences between the glossaries which often present themselves at
first sight are mere differences in form introduced by successive more
or less qualified copyists.
Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been
preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the
publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C.
Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many
others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's
_Grammatica Celtica_, A. Kuhn's _Beitrage zur vergleich.
Sprachforschung, Zeitschr. fur celtische Philologie, Archiv fur
Celtische Lexicographie, the Revue celtique, Transactions of the
London Philological Society_, &c.
The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R. Gershom of
Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But he and other Hebrew
writers after him mostly used the Old French language (though
sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which an example has been
published by Lambert and Brandin, in their _Glossaire hebreu-francais
du XIII^e siecle: recueil de mots hebreux bibliques avec traduction
francaise_ (Paris, 1905). See further _The Jewish Encyclopedia_ (New
York and London, 1903), article "Gloss."
AUTHORITIES.--For a great part of what has been said above, the writer
is indebted to G. Goetz's article on "Latein. Glossographie" in
Pauly's _Realencyklopadie_. By the side of Goetz's _Corpus_ stands the
great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, _Die althochdeutschen
Glossen_ (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also
Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical
Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides
the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already
mentioned, we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be
consulted: Hugo Blumner; _Catholicon Anglicum_ (ed. Hertage); De-Vit
(at end of Forcellini's _Lexicon_); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck; J. H.
Gallee (_Altsachs. Sprachdenkm._, 1894); Grober; K. Gruber
(_Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss._, Erlangen, 1904);
Hattemer; W. Heraeus (_Die Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen_,
Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Landgraf; Marx;
W. Meyer-Lubke ("Zu den latein. Glossen" in _Wiener Stud._ xxv. 90
sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann, _Notes d'etymol. lat._ (Macon,
1902), _Contribut. a la critique des glosses latines_ (Neuchatel,
1905); Pokrowskij; Quicherat; Otto B. Schlutter (many important
articles in _Anglia, Englische Studien, Archiv f. latein.
Lexicographie_, &c.); Scholl; Schuchardt; Leo Sommer; Stadler;
Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener (_Rhein. Mus._ xxiii. 496, xxiv.
382); A. Way, _Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum_ (3 vols.,
London, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in _Rhein. Mus._ xxiv. 363);
Wolfflin in _Arch. fur lat. Lexicogr._; Zupitza. Cf. further, the
various volumes of the following periodicals: _Romania_; _Zeitschr.
fur deutsches Alterthum_; _Anglia_; _Englische Studien_; _Journal of
English and German Philology_ (ed. Cook and Karsten); _Archiv fur
latein. Lexicogr._, and others treating of philology, lexicography,
grammar, &c. (J. H. H.)