the head is directly over a point midway between the two ankles; and
the plane of gravity, represented by the vertical line in the figure,
descends, from the head, through the spine, pelvis, and lower limbs,
to the key-bone of the instep. And you observe that, between the head
and the ankle, the skeleton is not quite straight, but is arranged in
six curves, which are, alternately, in front of and behind the line
of gravity. Of these curves the upper three are in the spine. They
are well marked; the uppermost (_a_) is in the neck and is directed
forwards; the next (_b_) is in the back and is directed backwards;
the third (_c_) is in the loins and is directed forwards. The fourth
curve (_d_), less distinct than those above it, is in the pelvis and
is directed backwards. The fifth and sixth curves are very slight; the
fifth (_e_), directed forwards, is at the hip-joint; and the sixth,
(_f_), directed backwards, is at the knee. The last two curves, though
slight, are not unimportant; and they contribute very much to our
comfort and to prevent fatigue when we are standing: they do so in the
following way. The strong ligaments of the hip are placed towards the
_fore_ part of the joint, that is, in _front_ of the line of gravity;
and the strong ligaments of the knee are placed towards the _back_
part of the joint, that is, _behind_ the line of gravity. It follows
that when these joints are fully extended they are “locked,” as it is
termed, just as is a hinge when opened to a little beyond the straight
line; and, by this means, the muscles are set at rest, and we are able
to maintain the erect posture, for some time, steadily and without
fatigue.
When standing upright in this way, at rest on both legs, or on one leg
in the military position of “at ease,” and the muscles are off their
guard, if a sudden and unexpected, though slight, pressure be made upon
the ham, so as to bend the knee a little and throw the joint in front
of the line of gravity, the man will drop, unless the muscles come
quickly to the rescue--a tendency which has not escaped the observation
of school-boys.
In BENDING or BOWING (fig. 27) the head is carried forwards; and,
to maintain the balance, the opposite pole of the trunk is carried
backwards, so as to preserve the line of gravity still over the ankles.
In STOOPING (fig. 28) or SQUATTING (fig. 29), as in picking
up any thing from the ground, the lower limbs and the trunk are bent in
a zigzag manner; the heels are raised; and the plane of gravity falls,
in front of the ankles, over the balls of the toes. Now we recognise
one of the advantages which accrues to man from the great length of his
thigh. For the head and upper part of the trunk are advanced so far in
_front_ of the feet, that it would be impossible to maintain a balance
at all, even upon the balls of the toes, and we should necessarily fall
forwards, were it not that, owing to the length of the thigh, the lower
part of the trunk is carried backwards to a plane _behind_ the heels,
and so serves to maintain the equilibrium.
_Walking._
[Illustration:
Figs. 30. 31. 32.
Walking.]
[Illustration:
Figs. 33. 34. 35.
Walking.]
Let us next consider the part which the foot performs in WALKING.
To understand this it is necessary to consider its positions and
movements in the several stages of a step. When first placed upon the
ground the foot (R, fig. 30) is a little in advance of the body;
and the heel comes first (fig. 33) into contact with the ground.
The toes quickly follow; and the body, then, passes, vertically, over,
the ankle and the key-bone of the instep. The foot (R, fig. 31
and fig. 34) now rests steadily upon the heel and the balls of
the toes; the other foot (L) leaves the ground, so that the whole
weight is borne by one foot; and the plantar arch of that foot expands
a little, so as to cause slight lengthening of the foot, under the
weight that is laid upon it. Much yielding of the arch is, however,
prevented by the ligaments that brace the arch (fig. 7), and by
the muscles that are disposed beneath it. Next, the heel (fig. 35)
is raised by the action of the calf muscle, and the weight of the body
is thrown forwards, over the balls of the toes, while the other foot
(L, fig. 32) is carried onwards, and is placed upon the ground
ready to receive the weight and commence its carrying work. When this
has been done the foot is withdrawn from the ground; and, in the
withdrawal, a final impulse onward is given, so as to throw the weight
of the body fairly over to the other foot. The fore part of the foot
is then raised, and the knee is bent a little. By these means the toes
are kept clear of the ground, while the foot is swung forward, beside
the other, so as to be ready again to rest upon the ground and bear the
weight of the body.
In each complete step, therefore, there is a period during which the
foot rests upon the ground, and a period in which it is swinging in
the air. In walking the former period is considerably longer than
the latter; and at the commencement, and at the end, of that period
(figs. 30 and 32) the other foot is also upon the ground, so that
it is only during the middle of the time (fig. 31) in which the
foot rests upon the ground that it has to bear the whole weight of the
body.
_Running._
In RUNNING the process is much the same as in walking. The chief
difference is that, whereas in walking _both_ feet are never _off_
the ground at the same time, and both are _upon_ the ground at the
beginning and end of each step; in running _both_ feet are never _on_
the ground at the same time, and both are _off_ the ground, and the
body is flying unsupported through the air, at the beginning and end
of each step (figs. 36 and 38). Thus, you may always distinguish
running, though it be ever so slow, from walking, because, in the
latter, the two feet are upon the ground at the same time; while, in
the former, only one foot touches the ground at a time.
[Illustration:
Figs. 36. 37. 38.
Running.]
The period during which the body rests upon the ground in running is
comparatively very short, being merely the time when one foot is set
down in the middle of each step (fig. 37); and great force has,
consequently, to be exerted to propel the body through the air during
the whole remainder of the step. Hence the exertion of running is much
greater than that of walking. In slow running the same parts of the
foot are applied upon the ground as in walking, and in the same order;
but in quick running the balls of the toes only touch the ground. The
quicker we run the shorter, relatively to the rest of the step, is the
time during which the foot rests upon the ground, and the greater,
consequently, is the effort.
After the foot leaves the ground, in running, it is thrown up behind;
and, at the same time, the fore part of the sole and the toes are
turned a little obliquely _in_wards, so as to prevent their catching
against adjacent objects. If the toes were turned _out_, when thrown
up behind, it would present a very awkward appearance, and we should
frequently be tripped up by their coming in contact with substances
near which we pass. While the foot is being swung forwards the toes
are gradually turned a little the other way. Thus, by the time they
pass the other leg the toes have lost the inclination inwards, and are
directed straight _for_wards; and when the foot has reached a point in
advance of the other leg, and the sole is preparing to present itself
to the ground, the toes are turned a little _out_wards. This turning of
the foot _in_wards and _out_wards during its movement _back_wards and
_for_wards, in each step, is a graceful movement, and may be compared
to the “feathering” of an oar. It takes place, also, in walking, but
is less marked than in running; and in many persons it can scarcely be
discerned during walking.
The distinction between the paces of other animals resembles that
between the walking and the running of man, and is equally definite.
Take, for instance, the WALKING, TROTTING, and GALLOPING of the Horse.
In WALKING the fore and the hind limbs of the _same_ side are moved
together, or nearly together, but they do not leave the ground till the
limbs of the opposite side are placed upon it; so that at one period
all four limbs are upon the ground together. In TROTTING the fore and
the hind limbs of _opposite_ sides move together; but, as in walking,
neither of them are withdrawn from the ground till the opposite one has
reached it[4].
[4] In WALKING the hind leg moves first, then the fore leg of the
same side; and both reach the ground before the hind leg of the
opposite side is raised. So that at one time there are three feet on
the ground, at another two, but never less than two.
In TROTTING, especially quick trotting, one foot is raised at the
same instant that the opposite one is put down. This renders it
difficult to make out the sequence of the movements.
In GALLOPING, or CANTERING, the horse springs or bounds with all four
limbs at the same time; all the feet are thrown up nearly together;
all are off the ground together; and all reach the ground again nearly
at the same time ready for another spring. I say that the feet are
all thrown up _nearly_, and not _quite_, together, because the fore
and the hind limbs of one side take the precedence a little of the
others, or “lead,” as it is called. The trained horse is taught to
lead, habitually, with one, usually the right, side, because the motion
is more steady when the horse is accustomed to gallop in one way than
if he be allowed to vary it. Directly the horse begins to gallop, the
rider knows, by the motion, whether he is leading with the proper
leg. In some animals, as the DEER, the two fore and the two hind feet
move together exactly in galloping. Anthony Trollope tells us that in
Panama, Cuba, and other Spanish countries in the West, the horses are
“taught to pace, that is, move with the two off legs together, and then
with the two near legs. The motion is exceedingly gentle, and well
fitted for those hot climates, in which the rougher work of trotting
would be almost too much for the energies of debilitated mankind.” This
_pacing_ is probably only a quick walk.
When we walk the heels follow one another nearly in a straight line,
as is shewn by “walking a chalk,” or more readily by walking along the
line between the curb and the flagstone pavement; and the plane of
gravity of the body corresponds with this line. There ought, therefore,
to be no perceptible _swerving_ of the trunk from side to side in
walking. There should, also, be scarcely any _rising_ or _falling_;
inasmuch as there are provisions in the mode of bending the limbs
(which I cannot here discuss) to prevent the body from being moved up
and down during the step. The head and shoulders should be carried
along nearly in a straight line. If it were otherwise, if they were
moved in a zigzag or undulating manner, from right to left, or up and
down, the space traversed in a given distance would be much increased,
and there would be a proportionately greater expenditure of muscular
force. By a beautiful combination of movements this is prevented, and
a rectilinear course is maintained, while the weight of the body is
transferred from foot to foot, in a succession of steps.
Only observe a good walker for a minute or two, and you will see
how straight the head is carried along; and when your eye falls upon
a person who “rolls in his walk” you perceive how ungainly are his
movements, and you have an instinctive feeling that he is an awkward
fellow. Whether you are disposed to make an exception in favour of the
British tar, in consequence of his many other good qualities, I must
leave you to judge. His peculiar gait on shore is probably due to his
not being sufficiently practised in straight walking to counteract the
effect of the lounging manner and general disregard for appearances
which he acquires on board ship. Whatever the reason may be, though he
has the better of us in a storm at sea, he certainly does not always
appear to advantage on _terra firma_. Now that a general improvement
in gait and step may be expected among landsmen, as a result of the
volunteer movement, it becomes still more desirable that the sailor
should participate in the good influences of the drill.
Although the heels follow one another in a line the toes diverge a
little from the line, because the foot slants, as I have just said,
somewhat _out_wards when it is placed upon the ground. It results from
this position of the foot that the weight of the body descends upon it
with a slight obliquity, _in_wards as well as forwards; and that is
precisely the direction in which the foot is best prepared to receive
weight. For, when the foot rests upon the ground in this position
all the ligaments on the inner side (and they are very strong) as
well as those beneath, are on the stretch; and the joints, with the
exception of the ankle-joint, are as it were locked, so as to afford
a secure, steady basis of support to the leg. When the weight of the
body descends upon the foot in the direction mentioned a sprain rarely
occurs. It is when the weight falls in the opposite direction, that is,
more or less obliquely _out_wards, and throws the ankle out, that a
sprain easily happens. Thus a slight inequality of the ground, or any
other cause that tilts up the inner edge of the foot, is likely to lead
to a sprain, especially when we are going down hill or down steps.
Here let me remark that a SPRAIN is the result of a stretching of
some ligament, or other part, caused by an undue force being brought
to bear upon it. The ligaments are very strong, and under ordinary
circumstances are not very sensitive; and they are capable of offering
great resistance to force applied in the direction in which they are
calculated to meet it. But, if the force be applied in a direction in
which they are not calculated to meet it, they are easily injured, and
they become, then, very painful. The same is, also, likely to occur if
the force be severe or sudden.
The muscles are a very great assistance to the ligaments, forasmuch
as, by placing and retaining the joints in proper positions, they
regulate the direction in which forces are brought to bear upon
the ligaments. Moreover, by steadying or bracing the joints, they
check or break the force and prevent its being suddenly imposed
upon the ligaments. And the muscles, by virtue of their contractile
property, have the capability of becoming tight in any position of
the joint, which is an immense advantage; whereas a ligament having
no contractility and, usually, no elasticity, is tight only in one
position. The office of a ligament is to limit the movement of a joint
in a particular direction; and, till the joint has assumed a certain
position--till it is bent or straightened to a certain angle--the
ligament does not come into play. During the bending or straightening
of a limb the muscles regulate the movement, and bring it to a stop or
check it before it has gone to its full extent; and, thus, the ligament
is relieved from that sudden imposition of force which would result if
it were required to check the movement of a joint in its full swing.
Accordingly, when the muscles are prepared and in proper action, that
is, when they place the joint in a suitable position and duly support
or brace it, a sprain very rarely occurs. It is when the muscles are
unprepared, when we make a false step, or when the foot encounters an
unexpected obstacle, and the weight falls suddenly upon the ligaments
in an unfavourable direction, that a sprain occurs. A man jumps from a
considerable height, or descends deep steps with a heavy weight upon
his back, and no harm results; but he slips off the curb-stone, or
treads unwarily upon a piece of orange-peel, or turns his foot hastily,
to avoid some object on the ground, and sprains his ankle.
In order that they may do their work well, be alert, and maintain good
guard, the muscles need to be kept in practice. A person unaccustomed
to throw a ball is very liable to sprain his elbow with the sudden
jerk which is required for that feat; or if a person takes to tumbling
and jumping, without proper training, he will probably suffer for his
temerity. Again, common experience tells us that a joint which has been
sprained is, for a long time, liable to be sprained again. This is
because the part remains tender as well as weak; and the muscles do not
brace it steadily and firmly, or come nimbly to its aid when it is in
danger.
In consequence of the foot, in walking, being placed upon the ground
with the toes slanting a little outwards, the _out_er and hinder edge
of the heel first touches the ground. Hence this part of the heel of
the shoe is usually worn down before the remainder. The ball of the
little toe next comes to the ground, and the balls of the other toes
follow in quick succession; and it is from the great toe--that is, from
the inner side of the foot--that the last impulse is given to propel
the body, forwards, over the other foot. In order to give full effect
to this final impulse an especial muscle, the “Long Fibular” muscle (I
in fig. 13), is provided. The tendon (i) of this muscle passes,
behind the outer ankle, beneath the sole of the foot, to the great
toe. It has the effect of pressing the ball of the great toe upon the
ground, while it raises the outer ankle, and so contributes to throw
the weight, across, in the direction of the other foot.
Thus the foot revolves upon the ground, from the heel to the balls of
the toes, and from the outer edge of the former to the inner edge of
the latter; and during the revolution, which has been compared, though
the comparison fails in many points, to the revolving of the segment of
a wheel, the ankle is raised and advanced forwards.
On the complete and steady execution of this movement good walking
chiefly depends, more particularly upon the full performance of the
last stage of the process, viz. the rising fairly upon the balls of
the toes and delivering the weight steadily over to the other foot.
This is the most difficult part of the process, the whole weight of
the body during its execution being borne upon the fore part of the
foot, that is, upon the longer pillar of the plantar arch; forasmuch
as the heel is being raised and the other foot is off the ground. For
the good performance of this part of the process, all the features of
the well-made foot are essential. There must be a high and firm plantar
arch, a heel set at a proper angle, and a strong great toe running
straight forwards. There must be also a fully developed calf to set the
machinery well in motion.
If the plantar arch be low it cannot bear the strain attendant
upon this movement; and the person, in consequence, shirks the full
performance of it. He does that by turning the toes too much out; and,
then, he contrives to roll over the inner side of the foot, instead of
rising upon the balls of the toes; and so he gets along with short,
shuffling, feeble steps. How many persons, owing to one cause or other,
hobble in this way! Some turn the toes very much in, and rise over the
ball of the little toe, instead of over the great toe. This is done
with comparative ease, because the ball of the little toe is nearer to
the ankle; but the step is, thereby, shortened, as well as rendered
less firm and less graceful.
The revolving movement of the foot, or the bringing of its several
parts into contact with the ground in succession, in a distinct manner,
is peculiar to man. Many animals do not bear upon the heel at all; they
only tread upon the toes, and are, therefore, called DIGITIGRADE. Some,
indeed, bear only upon the tips of the toes, as the Horse (fig. 5,
p. 15). Others go upon the balls of the toes, as the Cat, the
Hare, the Pig, and the Dog. Some animals bear upon the heels as well as
the toes, and are called PLANTIGRADE, as the Bear, the Badger, and the
Monkey; but these all flop the sole upon the ground in its whole length
at once. The foot in them is not sufficiently compact and strong to
bear the weight of the body first upon one part then upon another; and
they, consequently, walk in an ungainly manner, as compared with man.
_Character evinced by manner of Walking._
Bear in mind that for the firm vigorous walk there is required, not
only the well-formed limb, but also the manly and determined WILL,
acting in a decided and authoritative manner over the several members
of the body, so that these are accustomed readily, and steadily, to
obey its commands; just as the soldiers of a well-drilled regiment obey
the directions of the superior officer in an orderly and efficient
manner. And, as you may judge of the character of the officer by the
discipline of his men, so may you form an estimate of a man by the
movements of his limbs. You see a man walk along the street, and you
instinctively form an opinion of him by the mode in which he carries
himself and treads the ground. Be careful not to allow yourselves to
be inflexibly biassed by these first impressions, as that amounts to
prejudice. Nevertheless, experience tells us that they are not to be
altogether despised. They originate in a perception of the working of
the great laws by which body and mind are harmonized; and, if fairly
estimated, they rarely deceive us.
We have little difficulty in recognising three chief classes among
pedestrians. _First_, there are those who pay too much attention to
the movements, who walk with a pompous strut, or a mincing gait, or
affect some style or other. We are naturally very little inclined in
favour of such persons; indeed, we have usually to make an effort not
to be decidedly prejudiced against them. _Secondly_, there are those
who pay too little attention to their movements, who do not seem to be
sufficiently alive to the responsibility attaching to the possessors of
so noble a structure as the human frame, and who do not give themselves
the trouble to exert the powers of the glorious mechanism with which
they are charged. They slouch, or dawdle, along in a listless lazy
manner. Instinct tells us, and tells us rightly, to beware how we
trust such persons with the conduct of our affairs, or with any office
of responsibility. We feel that the lack of energy manifested in the
guidance of their limbs is, too probably, a feature of character,
which unfits them for the active duties of life; and we know that such
men are not usually successful in their calling. _Thirdly_, there are
those who shew, by the firmness and precision of their step, and by
the regularity in the succession of the movements by which the step
is made, that they are conscious of the dignity of their species, of
the responsibility attendant on that dignity, and of the respect due
to themselves. Such men we feel are likely to pursue their avocations
energetically and methodically, as well as with punctuality.
Many points of character peep out in the way men walk. Our poet tells
us that in one we may read
“rascal in the motions of his back
And scoundrel in his supple sliding knee.”
Another has a halting, shuffling, undecided gait; while a third walks
in a bold, determined, straight-forward, erect and independent manner.
One has a cautious, parsimonious step, as if sparing of shoe-leather,
or afraid to trust the ground; he has, however, probably, trusted the
funds with considerable investments. Some walk with long, pretentious,
measured strides; others make short, quick, insignificant steps. Some,
again, are hurried, fussy, noisy; while others glide along in a quiet,
shrinking, unpretending, it may be timid, manner.
I need not dilate upon these diversities. Your own observation will
supply abundant illustrations of the correspondence between character
and manner of walking.