Produced by Al Haines
HOW TO STUDY
BY
GEORGE FILLMORE SWAIN, LL. D.
GORDON MCKAY PROFESSOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN HARVARD
UNIVERSITY; PAST-PRESIDENT, AM. SOC. C. E.; FORMERLY
CHAIRMAN OF THE BOSTON TRANSIT COMMISSION;
CONSULTING ENGINEER
FIRST EDITION
FOURTEENTH IMPRESSION
TOTAL ISSUE, 45,000
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE
LONDON: 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4
1917
COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY THE
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
{v}
PREFACE
The present paper has been suggested by a long experience in teaching,
in which the writer has been continually surprised at the ignorance
manifested by students in the higher classes of our technical schools
and universities, or graduates from such schools, with reference to
proper methods of study. If his experience is a reliable guide, &
large majority of the graduates from such schools, as well as some
teachers in them, have not acquired proper habits and methods of study,
and have devoted little or no attention to the consideration of the
subject, vital though it is.
It is undoubtedly true that training in the proper habits and methods
of study should be inculcated by each individual teacher in the course
of his work, and exemplified by the occurrences in his class room. The
individual teacher can do much in this direction, and indeed the writer
may say that probably the most important part of his instruction during
the past thirty-five years has been teaching his students how to study
and how to think logically, by constant reiteration of principles in
the class room and by making any failure {vi} on the part of a student
the occasion for pointing out how such failure arose from improper
methods of study or reasoning.
Nevertheless, it has seemed to the writer desirable to formulate, in a
brief but simple manner, certain fundamental principles which he has
been in the habit of pointing out in the class room, and that such a
statement might perhaps be found useful with students of any grade as a
set subject of study in itself, occupying one or more lessons. With
this object in view, the present paper has been written, and it is
hoped that it will prove useful to teachers as well as to students,
suggesting to the former directions in which they may seek to discover
defects in their students and in which they may urge improvement. Most
students desire to learn but do not know how. A student will
frequently answer a question correctly, perhaps in the words of the
book, but upon further probing the teacher will very likely find that
he fails entirely to understand what he is talking about. The teacher
should seek to discover if such is the case and should, if practicable,
point out the cause of the trouble.
The writer believes that if the students in our colleges will read this
paper carefully and thoughtfully, and will endeavor to follow its
precepts, {vii} they will derive some benefit. If such proves to be
the case, and if this paper affords help in enabling students to save
time and to study more understandingly, the aim of the writer will have
been accomplished.
{ix}
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I. THE PROPER MENTAL ATTITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
(_a_) Distinction between reading and understanding . . . . 8
(_b_) Distinction between facts, opinions, and logical
conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
(_c_) Importance of the questioning habit . . . . . . . . . 11
(_d_) Inquiring into methods of ascertaining facts . . . . 14
(_e_) Studying evidence of reliability of a writer . . . . 15
(_f_) Importance of caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
(_g_) Importance of the scientific attitude of mind . . . . 19
(_h_) Intellectual modesty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
(_i_) Wisdom rather than knowledge the aim . . . . . . . . 21
II. STUDYING UNDERSTANDINGLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
(_a_) Importance of definite ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
(1) Use of the dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
(2) Practice in definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
(3) Importance of the study of logic . . . . . . . . 28
(_b_) Stating a thing in different ways . . . . . . . . . . 31
(_c_) Stating a thing negatively as well as positively . . 32
(_d_) Observation of necessary qualifying words or phrases 34
(_e_) Reflection, illustration, and application . . . . . . 35
(_f_) Keeping the mind active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
(_g_) Study of causes of differences of opinion . . . . . . 40
(_h_) Discrimination of mere assertion from proof . . . . . 40
III. SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
(_a_) Importance of grasping the fundamental idea . . . . . 42
(_b_) Preliminary arrangement of ideas . . . . . . . . . . 44
(_c_) Classification and arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . 45
{x}
IV. MENTAL INITIATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
(_a_) Interest in subject of study essential . . . . . . . 48
(_b_) Formulation of problem essential . . . . . . . . . . 49
(_c_) Independent work essential . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
(_d_) Drawing conclusions independent of author . . . . . 51
(_e_) Independence in arriving at conclusions . . . . . . 52
(_f_) Generalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
(_g_) Going beyond the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
(_h_) Visualizing results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
V. HABITS OF WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
(_a_) Selection of book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
(_b_) Proper number of subjects to be studied at once . . 55
(_c_) Haste undesirable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
(_d_) Taking studies seriously . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
(_e_) Judicious skipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
(_f_) Systematic program of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
(_g_) Cultivation of concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
(_h_) Applying what is learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
(_i_) Avoidance of indifference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
(_j_) Thorough knowledge of a few books . . . . . . . . . 58
(_k_) List of references should be made . . . . . . . . . 59
(_l_) Frequent reviews desirable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
(_m_) Regular times for recreative study . . . . . . . . . 60
(_n_) Physical exercise essential . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
IMPORTANCE OF REFUSING TO BE DISCOURAGED,
AND OF SEEKING THE WORK ONE CAN DO BEST . . . . . . 63
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
{1}
HOW TO STUDY
"For the end of education and training is to help nature to her
perfection in the complete development of all the various
powers."--_Richard Mulcaster_, 1522-1611.
Education is an opportunity, nothing more. It will not guarantee
success, or happiness, or contentment, or riches. Everything depends
upon what development is produced by it and what use is made of it. It
does not mean morality or usefulness. It may make a man more capable
of doing harm in the world, for an educated scoundrel is clearly more
dangerous than an ignorant one. Properly employed, however, and
combined with high character, with a due regard for the rights of
others, and with simple and practicable but high ideals, it should help
a man very greatly in making himself of service in the world and so in
making his life really successful in the highest sense. What the
student gets out of his education depends largely upon what he puts
into it. The student is not an empty vessel to be pumped full of
learning; he is a complex machine which education should help to run
properly.
{2}
The aim of education is purely utilitarian, and is expressed more
clearly by the word power than by any other. Its object is to give the
man power to meet the problems of life, and to develop all his
faculties to the greatest degree. The word "utilitarian," however, is
to be interpreted in its broadest sense. It is not simply
bread-and-butter utility that is aimed at. Whatever makes a man more
capable of legitimate enjoyment, or helps to make him contented and
happy, or to enlarge his breadth of view, is really useful and helps to
give him power. "The true order of learning should be first, what is
necessary; second, what is useful; and third, what is ornamental. To
reverse this arrangement is like beginning to build at the top of the
edifice."
The only way that power and strength can be developed is by effort on
the part of the student. The only real education is self-education.
The best that the teacher can do for the student is to show him what he
can do for himself and how he can do it.
"If little labor, little are our gains;
Man's fortunes are according to his pains."
But labor alone will not produce gains unless properly and
intelligently directed. Misdirected labor, though honest and
well-intentioned, may {3} lead to naught; just as any virtue, such for
instance, as perseverance, if misdirected or misapplied, or in the
wrong proportion, may become a vice. Hegel's dictum that anything
carried to its extreme tends to become its opposite, has profound
significance. A student may work hard and earnestly in school or
college and yet accomplish little or nothing. He should, therefore, be
made to see--not only the necessity for hard work, and how to work--but
also how to work _effectively_.
Among the most important things, then, for a student to learn, is how
to study. Without a knowledge of this his labor may be largely in
vain. He may pass his examinations and yet know nothing thoroughly and
have little power. The importance of knowing how to study is evident
when we realize that the amount of knowledge that a student can acquire
in college, compared with the whole mass of human knowledge, even that
bearing upon a single specialty, is entirely insignificant; and
furthermore, that a student is generally quite unable to foresee with
any degree of correctness what his work in life will be. Unless,
therefore, his education has enabled him to take up a new subject or a
new problem and to study and master it {4} himself--that is to say,
unless he has learned how to study, how to use his mind properly and to
direct it efficiently upon the subject in hand--his education may have
benefited him little and may not have fitted him for the career in
which he finally finds himself.
Important as it is to learn how to study, it is singular that most
students do not learn it, and that little effort is made to teach it.
It is assumed that children know how to study because they have brains.
Probably a large majority of our college graduates today have not
learned how to study properly, and find it difficult or impossible to
take up a new study and master it. They have only learned how to do
certain routine things in a mechanical way. They have learned by rote.
It is with the hope of emphasizing this subject and of calling
attention to some rules for proper study, that this article has been
written.
In its broadest sense, the question to be considered is, "How to
Investigate a Problem." In doing this the first step is to get
together all available information regarding the problem, including
books, experimental data and results of experience, and to consider and
digest this material. Personal investigations and inquiry, {5} further
experimental research, correspondence, travel, etc., may then be
necessary. This will be based, however, in general, upon a study of
books, and with this part of the subject we are here particularly
concerned.
Let us, therefore, consider the elements requisite for a proper method
of study.
{6}
I
THE PROPER MENTAL ATTITUDE
The first essential is that _the student should have the proper mental
attitude_. That attitude should not be one of subservience, of blind
believing, but should be one of mental courage and determination. His
object is to understand the subject, not simply to read a book. If the
book is a proper one for him to read, that is to say, if he has the
proper preparation, and requisite mental power, then he is capable of
mastering it. He is to master the book, the book is not to master him.
He is to learn what the writer of the book thinks in matters of
opinion, but he is never to accept such views blindly, and is to
believe them only when he sees them to be true. Many students accept
blindly as truth whatever they see on a printed page that they are
required to read. To do this, even if what is read be remembered, is
to study by rote; it makes a routine, rule-of-thumb man, who merely
imitates or copies. He should realize that nothing is true simply
because it is in a book, but should accept it only when it passes the
test of his own understanding. Mental courage, therefore, is essential
for a proper {7} method of study, without which the student will become
little more than a parrot. He must possess self-confidence, a
consciousness of his power to master the subject, and a firm
determination to master it. Of course, nobody should read a book that
he is incapable of mastering or unprepared to understand. A suitable
preparation and sufficient mental power are of course essential, and
are here assumed. The point is that the sense of his own power and the
determination to use it should be constantly in his mind.
Students are of course frequently, if not generally, limited in the
time which they have available for any given lesson, and they may not
be able to follow out completely the methods recommended in this paper.
It may therefore be necessary for a student frequently to accept a
statement which he reads, although he is not at the time able to see
the reason for it. In all cases, however, he should endeavor to
perceive whether it is a mere fact or definition, or whether it has a
reason, and if he cannot at the time understand the reason he should
accept the statement only tentatively, making a note of it as something
which he must return to and study further if he wishes thoroughly to
master the subject.
{8}
(_a_) THE STUDENT MUST DISTINGUISH CLEARLY BETWEEN READING AND
UNDERSTANDING.--Reading alone, no matter how extensive, or how
retentive the memory, will not give wisdom or power.
"Who reads
Incessantly, and to his reading brings not
A spirit and judgment equal or superior
Uncertain and unsettled still remains,
Deep versed in books, and shallow in himself."
No doubt every one finds himself at times reading merely words or
phrases without understanding them, reflecting about them, or
translating them into terms which are intelligible to his
understanding. Such reading is worse than useless; it leads to actual
mental injury. Whenever we find ourselves doing this we should
therefore arouse ourselves, make an effort of will, and concentrate our
attention upon the subject, insisting upon understanding it. If for
any reason we are unable to do this, we should close the book, take
some exercise or recreation, or at any rate do something else, for we
are not at the moment fitted for study. We might as well eat sawdust
and deceive ourselves with thinking that we are taking nourishment. It
is not what is read or what is remembered, but only what is understood,
that gives power,
{9}
"In this quest of knowledge ... there are two faults to be
shunned--one, the taking of unknown things for known, and giving an
assent to them too hastily, which fault he who wishes to escape (and
all ought so to wish) will give time and diligence to reflect on the
subjects proposed for his consideration. The other fault is that some
bestow too great zeal and too much labor on things obscure and
difficult, and at the same time useless."--_Cicero: de Officiis_.
(_b_) THE STUDENT MUST CLEARLY DISTINGUISH MERE FACTS FROM CONCLUSIONS
OR OPINIONS.--Mere facts, some of which may be the result of laborious
investigation, may be accepted without verification, if the authority
is good. When the student reads that the river Nile rises in
Equatorial Africa, flows in a northerly direction through Egypt into
the Mediterranean sea, he cannot verify this statement nor reason out
that it must be so. It is a mere fact and a name, and he simply
accepts it, perhaps looking at the map to fix the fact in his mind.
So, too, if he reads that the atomic weight of oxygen is 16, or that a
cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds, he cannot be expected to
perform the experiments necessary to verify these statements. If he
were to do this throughout his reading, he would have to make all the
investigations made in the subject since man has studied it, taking no
advantage of the labor of others.
{10}
Very different are conclusions or opinions deduced from facts; and
logical conclusions are very different from mere opinions. The facts
may be sufficient to prove logically a certain conclusion. On the
other hand, the facts may simply give reasonable ground, or appear to
give reasonable ground, for a certain opinion, though they may fall far
short of demonstration. The student must, therefore, discriminate
constantly between mere statements of facts, necessary conclusions
which follow therefrom, and mere opinions which they seem to render
reasonable.
Some conclusions also, like those of mathematics or logic, may be
arrived at by the unaided reason without the previous accumulation of
facts deduced from experiments or observation. Such truths or
conclusions should be distinguished from those which are based upon
facts, experiments or observation. If the student reads, therefore,
that the sum of the angles of a plane triangle is equal to two right
angles, he should see that this is not a mere fact, but an inevitable
truth, the reason for which he should perceive, and not accept simply
because he reads it.
The continual exercise of this discrimination, which comes from an
attitude of mental courage and independence, is an essential of proper
study.
{11}
(_c_) THE STUDENT'S MIND SHOULD BE A CONTINUAL INTERROGATION
POINT.[1]--He should always ask himself, regarding any statement which
he reads, whether there is a reason for it, and if there is, whether it
is inherent in the nature of things, so that he might independently
arrive at it, or whether it follows from facts which the writer has
observed. For instance, there is at first sight no reason why a cubic
foot of water should weigh 62.4 pounds. It simply does and that is all
there is to it; it does, because it does. But if he reads that a cubic
foot of water at one point on the earth's surface weighs less than it
does at another point, or that in the Northern Hemisphere the wind in a
storm revolves around the storm center in a direction contrary to the
motion of the hands of a clock, he should perceive that these facts, if
true, have a reason for them, and he should endeavor to perceive that
reason.
It must be observed at this point that, strictly speaking, there must
be a reason for any truth, even for what we may term mere facts,
excepting those which are mere definitions. There is some reason,
lying in the constitution and arrangement of its atoms, why a cubic
foot of water at a given {12} spot and at a given temperature weighs
62.4 pounds. But there is no reason why New York is 90 miles from
Philadelphia; those two points 90 miles apart are simply so named or
defined. Many truths which are accepted as mere facts, the explanation
being unknown, in the course of time are explained by the progress of
science. Thus, for many years the fact that a magnetic needle pointed
toward the North was a mere unexplained fact, but later the reason was
discovered. The same is true of the fact that the pollution of
drinking water by sewage may cause typhoid fever. The point is that
the student must continually discriminate, continually inquire, and, as
he reads, keep a list of points, the reason for which he cannot then
discover, but which he perceives must have a discoverable reason. He
should not go too deeply into this, but should preserve his sense of
proportion; for if he follows every possible line of inquiry back to
its source he will progress but slowly. Thus, if he is studying
descriptive astronomy and reads that the sun is ninety-two million
miles from the earth, or that Jupiter has nine moons, or that the star
Sirius is moving away from the earth with a velocity of eleven miles
per second, or that the moon always turns the same half toward the {13}
earth, he should perceive that he cannot at that stage try to get back
of these facts, but he may well make a note of them as questions to be
later examined, if not as to the cause, at least as to how the fact is
ascertained.
It does not follow that he should never leave the subject until he has
found a reason, for it may depend upon facts or principles of which he
is not at the moment informed; but if such is the case, he should
accept the fact tentatively, but make a mental note that it is
something which clearly must have a reason which he is capable of
perceiving, and which he will look up at some future time. In studying
his book he may well make a list of such questions to ask the teacher
or to look up later.
Students must of course proceed in a systematic way, and a student who
has not studied physics cannot be expected to perceive reasons that
depend upon the laws of physics, and yet without a knowledge of physics
he may still perceive that a statement is not of a mere fact, but of
something that must have a reason. To primitive peoples nature was a
closed book. The simplest phenomena were beyond their understanding,
and they, therefore, imagined deities of whose personal activities
these phenomena {14} were supposed to be manifestations. With the
progress of science many phenomena once mysterious and looked upon as
facts have become easily explained. The intelligent student, however,
can generally distinguish between statements of the different kinds
which have been described, and he should constantly endeavor to explain
or seek the reason for new statements by relating them to the body of
knowledge which he has previously gained. Unfortunately, the average
student reads only to accept what is written, whether fact, conclusion,
or opinion, perhaps memorizing it verbatim under the impression that by
so doing he is learning; he does not examine or reflect upon it, and
often even accepts as facts what are explicitly stated to be mere
expressions of opinion. Thus palpable mistakes, or even typographical
errors, which a careful student should detect at once, are often
accepted and believed. It is for this reason that it is so easy to
deceive most people, at least for part of the time. They do not think
for themselves, and all that is necessary to make them believe what you
say is in some way to get them to think you are an authority.
(_d_) REGARDING FACTS WHICH HE DOES NOT THEN INVESTIGATE THE REASON
FOR, HE SHOULD ASK How THEY ARE ASCERTAINED.--This will {15} draw his
attention to methods of observation and experiment, or to the technique
of the subject. How, for instance, is it ascertained that New York is
90 miles from Philadelphia, or that the sun is ninety-two million miles
from the earth? It is always possible to ascertain, at least in a
general way, how a fact is ascertained, though it may not be possible
to determine the reason for the fact. This applies not alone to
physical sciences, but to questions of an economic, historic or
sociological character. If we read that at the Battle of Gettysburg
3072 Union soldiers were killed, we do not inquire why; such a question
is clearly meaningless; but we may well inquire how this was
ascertained, whether by counting the dead upon the field or by the roll
call, etc.; or if we read that following the issue of large quantities
of paper currency during the Civil War, the amount of gold in the
country decreased, we may in this case also inquire how it was
ascertained, and we may further perceive that this is a fact for which
there must be a reason, and we may then or later ascertain why it is
true.
(_e_) THE STUDENT MUST TRAIN HIMSELF TO BE CONSTANTLY ON THE WATCH FOR
EVIDENCE OF RELIABILITY IN THE WRITER HE IS STUDYING, IN ORDER THAT HE
MAY GET A CORRECT {16} IMPRESSION AS TO WHETHER HIS STATEMENTS OF FACT
MAY BE ACCEPTED, AS WELL AS HIS CONCLUSIONS AND OPINIONS.--Many writers
are careless, some are entirely unreliable, and some wilfully distort.
Not only are the opinions sometimes expressed entirely unwarranted by
the facts, but often statements of mere fact, such as those of
statistics, may be grossly perverted, sometimes intentionally.
Erroneous conclusions or opinions which are the result of illogical
reasoning from correct facts may be discovered by the student who
himself knows how to reason, but perversions of fact may escape
detection, if not traced back to original authorities or observations,
which the student may not have time or opportunity to do. Statistical
results, or statements made in books on economics, history, and
sociology, are particularly liable to distortion, intentionally or
unintentionally. Indeed by selecting certain statistics and excluding
others, almost anything depending upon statistics may be proved.
The importance is thus obvious of being able to detect signs of
reliability and accuracy, and of discarding a writer who cannot be
depended upon. It is also important to make it a rule to ask whether
any result when reached appears to be reliable in the light of common
sense. {17} Sometimes a suggestion of error will be observed if the
subject is looked at in this light, which if traced back will lead to
the discovery of some mistake in observation or some error in reasoning.
Evidence of unreliability shown by a writer may generally be
discovered, if care is exercised. His temperament, age, environment,
training, religion and other facts will contribute. One who is
dogmatic or abusive in stating what are obviously mere opinions which
cannot be demonstrated, or who is intolerant of those who reach
different conclusions, is obviously by temperament untrustworthy. A
writer who in a single instance can be shown to have intentionally
distorted facts should, of course, be at once and forever rejected;[2]
one who has distorted facts unintentionally may perhaps be forgiven
once. So a writer who, in a matter not capable of mathematical
demonstration, and to some extent a matter of opinion, sets out to
prove a preconceived idea, shows himself in general not possessed of
the qualities which should inspire confidence.
By these and other tests the student should constantly be on the watch
to form his opinion of the credibility and reliability of a writer or
experimenter whose work he is studying. He {18} may thus guide himself
as to the books which he should pursue carefully, remembering the
dictum of Bacon that "Some books are to be tasted, others to be
swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested," except that very
few, if any, are to be literally swallowed without digestion. By
careful observance of the injunction to study constantly the
credibility of a writer one may become what may be termed a
discriminating student.
(_f_) ANOTHER ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF A PROPER ATTITUDE OF MIND IS
CAUTION.--Always realize the possibility of error both in another and
in yourself. Be on your guard against intentional or unintentional
deception. As Bacon said, "Read not to contradict and to confute, nor
to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to
_weigh and consider_."[3] The author you are reading may have made a
mistake, or may be trying to mislead you. "When we think of the
difficulty of finding the way, when we are most desirous to go right,
how easy to mislead those whom we wish to go wrong!" Be, therefore,
always suspicious of {19} your author, and subject all his statements
to the test of your own intelligence.[4]
(_g_) STUDY WITH AN OPEN MIND, AND WITH NO PRECONCEIVED
IDEAS.--Cultivate the scientific attitude of mind, which means, first
to formulate clearly a problem, then to get together all the pertinent
facts, and then to draw the logical conclusions. Be ready to accept
gladly any logical conclusion from the facts, even if unpalatable.
Truth is, or should be, the sole object of study.[5]
(_h_) BE MODEST INTELLECTUALLY, YET SELF-RELIANT. TRAIN YOURSELF TO
LOVE CORRECTION.--Remember these sayings from wise men:
"Whoso loveth correction loveth knowledge;
But he that hateth reproof is brutish."
--_Proverbs_.
"Poverty and shame shall be to him that refuseth correction;
But he that regardeth reproof shall be honoured."
--_Proverbs_.
{20}
"The beginning of wisdom is the knowledge of one's faults."
--_Epicurus_.
"He that being often reproved hardeneth his neck
Shall suddenly be broken, and that without remedy."
--_Proverbs_.
"Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee;
Reprove a wise man and he will love thee."
--_Proverbs_.
"Be not wise in thine own eyes."--Proverbs.
"The true beginning of wisdom is the desire of discipline."
--_Wisdom of Solomon_.
"Censure and criticism never hurt anybody. If false they can't hurt
you unless you are wanting in manly character; and if true, they show a
man his weak points, and forewarn him against failure and
trouble."--_Gladstone_.
"If there's anything worse than knowing too little, it's knowing too
much. Education will broaden a narrow mind, but there's no cure for a
big head. The best you can hope is that it will swell up and bust, and
then, of course, there's nothing left. Poverty never spoils a good
man, but prosperity often does. It's easy to stand hard times, because
that's the only thing you can do, but in good times the fool-killer has
to do night work."--_Lorimer: Letters from a Self-made Merchant to his
Son at College_.
Intellectual modesty is quite consistent with self-reliance and mental
courage.
The study of books too often leads to intellectual arrogance, which is
the surest bar to real mental progress. Realize the limitations of
your own knowledge; see clearly what you know and what you do not know,
otherwise you will see the things you know out of {21} proportion.
Make sure, however, that you know the fundamentals. Socrates said that
a knowledge of our ignorance is the first step toward true knowledge,
and a Persian proverb says:
"He who knows not, and knows not that he knows not,
is a fool; shun him.
He who knows not, and knows that he knows not, is a
child; teach him.
He who knows, and knows not that he knows, is asleep;
wake him.
He who knows, and knows that he knows, is wise; follow
him."
Ask yourself, which of these classes you belong to.
(_i_) REMEMBER THAT THE OBJECT OF STUDY SHOULD BE TO GAIN WISDOM,
RATHER THAN KNOWLEDGE.--Facts are important and must be learned; but
far more important is it to gain wisdom and to train the mind and
judgment so that truth may be distinguished from error. As the poet
says:
"Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one,
Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells
In heads replete with thoughts of other men;
Wisdom, in minds attentive to their own.
Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much,
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more."
The above points all have to do with the mental attitude of the
student, and may be summarized by simply stating that the student must
be possessed of _mental courage, self-reliance, discrimination,
modesty, and caution, all in proper proportion_.
[1] "He that questioneth much shall learn much."--_Bacon_.
[2] "Mendax in uno praesumitur mendax in alio."
[3] "There are always people ready to assume that things are what they
are called, because it is much easier to deal with names than to
examine facts."--_Bryce: South America_.
[4] "A wise man knows an ignorant one, because he has been ignorant
himself, but the ignorant cannot recognize the wise, because he has
never been wise."--_Persian Proverb_.
[5] "Table talk proves that nine out of ten people read what amuses
them, rather than what instructs them, and proves also, that the last
thing they read is something which tells them disagreeable truths or
dispels groundless hopes. That popular education results in an
extensive reading of publications which foster pleasant illusions
rather than of those which insist on hard realities, is beyond
question."--_Spencer: The Coming Slavery_.
{22}
II
STUDYING UNDERSTANDINGLY
The second essential which may be named, connected with the first, and
already mentioned, but now to be discussed, is that _the student should
understand what he reads_. This may seem almost a needless injunction,
yet it is very surprising how commonly it is disregarded. It is,
however, easy to understand why this should be so. A child, as it
grows up, must gain all its knowledge either by the exercise of its own
reasoning powers or from its senses. How does it learn the meaning of
words? Certain nouns like "papa" or "cat" it may easily be made to
understand by pointing at the object referred to and uttering the word,
but how does it learn the meaning of abstract nouns, or of verbs and
other parts of speech which cannot be illustrated by pantomime? It is
almost inevitable that the child should use many words the meaning of
which it does not understand, and when young children in school recite
poetry at class-day exercises, it is almost certain that they do not
understand the meaning of many of the words they use. Thus, it happens
that they come {23} into the habit of using words and phrases without
carefully examining their meanings. This tendency should be
counteracted from the earliest stage. The child should be continually
asked the meanings of words which it uses, and should be encouraged
itself to inquire as to those meanings and to take the proper mental
attitude. The use of the dictionary should be insisted upon even from
an early age, the object being to avoid the formation of the habit of
using words or phrases unintelligently, which is one of the worst
habits that one can acquire.
Professor James, in his interesting book, "Talks to Teachers,"
illustrates this habit by an amusing anecdote:
"A friend of mine visiting a school, was asked to examine a young class
in geography. Glancing at the book, she said: 'Suppose you should dig
a hole in the ground, hundreds of feet deep, how should you find it at
the bottom--warmer or colder than on top?' None of the class replying,
the teacher said: 'I'm sure they know, but I think you don't ask the
question quite rightly. Let me try.' So, taking the book, she asked:
'In what condition is the interior of the globe?' and received the
immediate answer from half the class at once; 'The interior of the
globe is in a condition of igneous fusion!'"
Perhaps it may be thought that an incident like the foregoing would
only occur in an elementary school. As a matter of fact, college
students and graduates, and indeed most of us, {24} do this very thing
more often than we realize, even in subjects like mathematics or
mechanics; and terms like "energy," "momentum," "rate of change,"
"period of vibration," "value," "social justice," etc., are often used
without a clear understanding, and sometimes without any understanding
at all, of what they mean.
(_a_) THE STUDENT SHOULD ACQUIRE AND INSIST UPON EXERCISING THE HABIT
OF FORMING DEFINITE IDEAS.--This is one of the most important
injunctions to be observed as an essential principle of intelligent
study.[1] It is self-evident that facts or things cannot be reasoned
about intelligently unless a definite idea is formed of the facts or
things themselves. Vagueness of idea not alone precludes a proper
conception of the thing itself, but may vitiate all reasoning regarding
it. The student must resolutely make up his mind that he must not rest
satisfied with hazy, uncertain, half-formed ideas. A half knowledge of
a thing may not be useless, but it is generally found that it is the
other half that is needed. If the student could learn this one precept
and continually apply it, he would have little difficulty in studying
properly.
{25}
It is not easy to state just how the habit of forming definite ideas
may be acquired. To a certain extent it is intuitive. Some students
have it, while others do not; some can cultivate it, while others
apparently cannot. It is probably safe to say, however, that a student
who cannot cultivate it should not study books, or enter into a
profession, but should go to work with his hands instead of taking a
college course. Such a man will be always likely to be misled, his
conclusions can never be depended upon, and what we term education may
do him harm rather than good.
A definite idea is one that leaves no room for ambiguity--which means
just one thing. The habit of forming such ideas habitually may be
cultivated in several ways, as for instance:
1. STUDY THE DICTIONARY.--By study of the dictionary, the student may
train himself to distinguish slight differences in meaning between
words, and habitually to use precisely the word with the proper meaning
to express his idea. A knowledge of the derivation of words will often
assist, and such books as Archbishop Trench's on "The Study of Words,"
or a course in English composition under a good teacher, accompanied by
exercises in expression, will all contribute to {26} the formation of
the habit.[2] Sometimes, however, the dictionary may give little
assistance, for it may be found that one term is defined by means of
another and on looking up that other, it will be found to be defined by
means of the first. Sometimes also a definition of a word will be
given in terms even more difficult to understand than the one which is
defined. There are differences in dictionaries. The study of
language, and particularly of the classics, if properly pursued, may be
of great benefit, because it involves translating {27} from one
language into another, and should include much practice in discovering
the precise word or phrase to express an idea. The reason why a study
of the classics may be better than that of modern foreign languages, is
that in studying the latter the object is more often considered--by the
student at least--to become able to read professional books in a modern
language, or to get a smattering which will be of use in travel or in
business; while in the study of the classics these objects are entirely
absent, and the attention is more apt to be concentrated on studying
delicate shades of meaning. However, everything depends upon the
teacher and the way the subject is taught.[3]
2. The habit of forming definite ideas may also be cultivated by each
day attempting to define a certain number of common words, and after
making as good a definition as possible comparing the result with that
in the dictionary. If the student will practise this, he will at first
receive many surprises, for any word may be defined in various ways,
all correct as far as they go, but only one of which is a true
definition. For instance, a cow may be defined as a {28} four-legged
animal, but this, while correct, obviously does not define a cow, for
the same definition would apply to many other animals that are not
cows. What constitutes a definition?
This subject is clearly allied with the discussion of the question as
to what constitutes perfect knowledge; what elements, for instance, go
to make up what may be called a perfect conception of a thing.
According to Liebnitz, perfect knowledge is clear, distinct, adequate,
and intuitive. The student will do well to look up the discussion of
this subject in Jevon's "Elementary Lessons in Logic" (Lesson VII).
The importance of forming definite ideas, as an essential of proper
study, and of understanding what is read, cannot be exaggerated.
Without it one cannot acquire more than a partial knowledge, and one is
always liable to those errors of reasoning which arise from the use of
equivocal language, which may lead us unconsciously from one meaning of
a word to another--a logical error which is perhaps the most fruitful
cause of fallacious reasoning.
3. STUDY LOGIC.--Logic is the science of correct reasoning. It teaches
us how to discover truth, how to recognize it when discovered, how to
arrive at general laws from facts collected by {29} observation or
experiment, and how to deduce new facts from those already found to be
true. It is thus the science of sciences, and finds its application in
every branch of knowledge. The training of his power of logical
thought is, therefore, one of the things that should be constantly
aimed at by the student.
Now all thinking is concerned, first of all, with _terms_ or names for
things or qualities or conceptions of some sort. Then, it is concerned
with comparisons of things, and the discovery of their identity or
dissimilarity, as when I say "Iron is a metal" or "all metals are
elements," each of which statements is a _proposition_, the truth or
falsity of which I must be able to discover. Finally, it is concerned
in deducing new propositions from old ones, and so arriving at new
truths, as when I discover from the two propositions stated above, the
new truth that "Iron is an element."
But there are many chances for error in this process; for instance, I
might say:
"To call you an animal would be to state the truth"--to which you would
agree; and, "To call you an ass would be to call you an animal"--to
which you would also agree; from which I might conclude that, "To call
you an ass would {30} be to state the truth"--which you might have a
vague idea was not true. If you wish to be sure that this conclusion
is incorrect, you must be able to show just why it is incorrect. The
study of logic would enable you to see just where the error lies. You
must not be governed by vague ideas, or you will be intellectually at
anybody's mercy.
In the logical study of _terms_, they are classified and distinguished,
and the importance made manifest of having in mind a clear definition
of the meaning of a term before reasoning about it. Many terms are
ambiguous, as already explained, and may mean many different things, as
for instance the terms "bill," "church," "evil," "value," "social
justice." Here, then, the importance of definite ideas will be
manifest.
Pascal laid down the essentials of logical method in the statement
"Define everything and prove everything." In other words, do not
attempt to think about a term until you have defined the term and have
a clear idea what it means; and insist upon proving every statement at
which you arrive, before accepting it finally and definitely; although
for want of time, you may be obliged sometimes to accept or form a
conclusion tentatively or provisionally. You may be able to draw
correct conclusions from stated {31} premises even though you do not
understand the terms of the premises. For instance, if I say,
"Selenium is a dyad element" and "A dyad element is one capable of
replacing two equivalents of hydrogen," I can correctly draw the
conclusion that, "Selenium is capable of replacing two equivalents of
hydrogen," but I cannot know that the conclusion is correct unless I
understand the meaning of the terms in the premises and so can be sure
of the correctness of those premises.
Every student should, therefore, in the writer's opinion, take a
systematic course in logic, or carefully study by himself such books as
Jevons' "Elementary Lessons in Logic" or John Stuart Mill's "Logic."[4]
(_b_) LEARN TO STATE A THING IN DIFFERENT WAYS OR FROM DIFFERENT POINTS
OF VIEW.--Almost anything may be looked at from different points of
view, or a truth stated in different ways, {32} and it may appear very
different from different viewpoints. A student should practise doing
this, first stating a principle perhaps from the mathematical point of
view, and then in simple untechnical language that can be understood by
one who is not a mathematician. The habit of stating even technical
matters in simple untechnical language should be practised continually.
As Bishop Berkeley urged, we should "think with the learned and speak
with the vulgar." If you clearly understand a proposition, you can
state it in clear and unambiguous language, though perhaps not in
Addisonian English. Students frequently say "I understand that, but I
cannot explain it." Such a student deceives himself: he does not
understand it. If he understands it thoroughly, he can explain it
clearly and without ambiguity, and so that others will understand him.
For this reason an acute observer can get the mental measure of a man
after a few minutes' conversation. Inaccurate or slipshod thinking
will surely show itself in speech.
(_c_) STATE A THING NOT ONLY POSITIVELY BUT NEGATIVELY.--That is to
say, state not only what it is, but what it is not, even if
incompletely. Perceive not only what it includes, but what it
excludes. When a result or a {33} principle is arrived at, it is
essential not only to see that it is true, but how far the _reverse_ is
_untrue_. The student does not really understand a thing unless he
recognizes it from any point of view, can describe it from any point of
view, can state it in language to suit the particular emergency, and
can see why the other thing is untrue. As Aristotle says:
"We must not only state the truth, but the cause of the untrue
statement; this is an element in our belief; for when it is made
apparent why a statement not true appears to be true, our belief in the
truth is confirmed."
In other words, we must analyze every statement which is the result of
reasoning, or a statement of opinion, and see what objections, if any,
can be brought against it, and then convince ourselves where the truth
lies and why. The lawyer has excellent practice in doing this, for in
making his own argument he is obliged to scrutinize it closely to
discover what objections he would make to it, if he were the counsel on
the opposite side. The lawyer, however, does not always limit himself
to the discovery of the truth, but often seeks to discover and bring to
bear unsound but plausible arguments to refute the other side; and by
his skill in dialectics he may often deliberately "make the worse
appear {34} the better reason." The student of mathematics, on the
other hand, does not gain in that study much practice in weighing
evidence or seeking objections to an argument, for he deals with
principles which are rigid and not open to question. Professor Palmer,
in his interesting book, "The Problem of Freedom," says: "Until we
understand the objection to any line of thought, we do not understand
that thought; nor can we feel the full force of such objections until
we have them urged upon us by one who believes them." This is
precisely what the advocate endeavors to do beforehand, and in the
court room he is very sure to have the objections to his line of
thought urged upon him and the jury by one who at all events _appears_
to believe them.
(_d_) IN STUDYING A STATEMENT, OBSERVE WHICH ARE THE NECESSARY WORDS
AND WHETHER THERE ARE ANY UNNECESSARY ONES WHICH MIGHT BE OMITTED.--For
instance, in the following sentence, "When a force acts upon a body,
and the point of application of the force moves in the direction of the
line of action of the force, the force is said to do work on the body,"
what is the necessity and significance of the qualifying phrase "in the
direction of the line of action of {35} the force?" Are these words
necessary, or could they be omitted?
Note whether another word could be substituted for one used, without
rendering a statement incorrect, or whether such change would improve
it and make it more accurate. For instance, in the definition "Matter
is that which can occupy space" would it be proper to substitute "does"
for "can" or "occupies" for "can occupy"?
Note what word or words should be emphasized in order to convey the
intended meaning. In the sentence "Thou shalt not bear false witness
against thy neighbor," several widely different meanings may be
conveyed according to the word which is emphasized.
Students frequently seem to lack all sense of proportion and fail to
acquire definite ideas because they do not see the meaning or necessity
of qualifying words or phrases, or because they do not perceive where
the emphasis should be placed.