AEROPLANES TO-DAY
OUR BOY FRIEND AND THE SCIENTIST LOOK OVER MODERN AEROPLANES AND
FIND GREAT IMPROVEMENTS OVER THOSE OF A FEW YEARS AGO--A MODEL
AEROPLANE.
Every effort of the aeroplane inventors these days is bent toward
making the power flier useful--a faithful servant to man in his
day-to-day life--and to this end greater carrying capacity is one
of the chief objects," said the scientist one day in answer to a
question from his young friend as to what the future of aviation
would be.
"No one can tell what the future will bring forth," he continued.
"You or one of your friends might invent the ideal aeroplane. There
is one way of telling how the wind blows, though, and that is by
watching the new developments of aeroplanes very carefully. Let's
look at some of them."
Of course it was impossible for the boy to study every improvement or
every make of aeroplane, but the scientist pointed out a few examples
that served to show how science is trying to improve on aviation as
we know it to-day.
The boy's friend said that probably the most wonderful accomplishment
in the art of air navigation since power fliers became an
accomplished fact was the work of Orville Wright in the fall of 1911
with his new glider, which he tested at the Wright brothers' old
experiment station at Kitty Hawk, N. C.
"Never before in the history of aviation, so far as is known," said
the scientist, "has man come so near to the true soaring flight which
we have seen is the third stage of aeroplaning."
Not only did this wonderful glider sail into the wind and reach an
altitude of 200 feet, but, under the control of the pilot, it stayed
in the air 10 minutes and 1 second, most of the time hovering over
one spot, without the use of any propelling device.
On the day of the great test the glider was taken to the top of Kill
Devil Hill, which is 110 feet high, and while the wind was roaring
through the canvas at 42 miles an hour the machine was launched. To
those unaccustomed to the actions of gliders it would have seemed
that the engineless biplane would be blown backward over the edge of
the hill. Instead, it shot forward and upward into the teeth of the
hurricane. The force of the wind on the planes, which were presented
diagonally to it, caused the flier to rise and go ahead by just about
the same principle that a ship can sail almost into the teeth of the
wind by having her sails set at the proper angle.
When it had reached the altitude of 200 feet it stopped motionless
and to those below who saw Orville Wright sitting calmly in the
pilot's seat it seemed that some unseen hand was holding him aloft.
Suddenly the pilot pressed a lever and the glider darted 250 feet to
the left, returned to her original position, sank to within a few
feet of the hillside and hovered there for two minutes.
The Wrights had been working on the principles involved for a long
time and at the testing grounds were Orville Wright, his brother
Loren, who up to that time had not been known to the world of
aviation, and Alexander Ogilvy, an English aviator.
After the remarkable test Orville Wright was asked, "Have you solved
real bird flight?"
"No," he replied, "but we have learned something about it."
The aviator went on to explain that had he been up 3,000 feet or so,
where the wind currents are always strong, he probably could have
stayed up there all night, or as long as he cared to.
This greatest of all feats of soaring was accomplished in a glider
that looked to the ordinary person very much like the modern Wright
biplane without the engine. There were skids but they were very low.
In general outline the machine was composed of two main planes, a
vertical vane set out in front, two vertical planes at the rear
of the tail, and behind these the horizontal plane. The details of
the construction of the glider were not made public and only a few
persons saw it, but from all accounts the curve of the main planes
was much greater than is usual, thus gaining the glider a greater
degree of support from the air, and the planes were capable of being
warped much more than in the ordinary Wright biplane. The vertical
vane in front, which does not appear on any of the Wright power
fliers, was a foot wide and five feet tall. It acted as a keel and
gave the machine greater side-to-side stability because the wind
passing at a high speed to each side of it tended to keep it vertical.
In working out a biplane that could rise from or alight on the water,
Glenn Curtiss practically doubled the usefulness of aeroplanes.
The experiments, conducted under the auspices of the United States
Navy so impressed the officers that several have been added to its
equipment. Curtiss has been experimenting with hydro-aeroplanes
for several years, but before actually completing one he conducted
a number of experiments with ordinary biplanes in the vicinity of
Hampton Roads, Va., in 1911, to prove them available for use on
battleships. Finally, Lieutenant Ely flew from the deck of the
cruiser _Birmingham_ over the water and to a convenient landing spot
on land.
Later on Curtiss went to California to perfect his hydro-aeroplane,
and while conducting the work Lieutenant Ely made a flight from shore
to the deck of the battleship _Pennsylvania_ which was lying in San
Francisco Harbour. These two incidents were more in the nature of
"stunts" than developments, but they showed what an aeroplane could
do if attached to a battleship fleet as a scout.
Even more convincing was the proof when Curtiss finally worked out a
form of wooden float which was put between the mounting wheels. The
float was flat-bottomed with an upward inclination at the prow so
that when skimming over the water the tendency was to rise from the
surface rather than to cut through it. Small floats at the outer tips
of the lower main plane helped to keep the machine on an even balance
while floating at rest upon the water. The wheels served their
regular purpose if the machine started from or alighted upon land.
The experiments were conducted on San Diego Bay, and it was only
after long and patient labour that the work of Mr. Curtiss and his
military associates was rewarded with success. In the course of the
experiments he tried a triplane, which had great lifting power, but
this later was abandoned in favour of the regular biplane fitted
with a float. After the machine had been perfected, Curtiss flew his
hydro-aeroplane out into the bay to the cruiser _Pennsylvania_, upon
which Ely had landed a month before, and after landing on the water
at the cruiser's side was pulled up to her deck and later was put
back into the water from where he sailed to camp. The machine was
named the _Triad_ because it had conquered air, land, and water.
Of the machine Curtiss says: "I believe the hydro-aeroplane
represents one of the longest and most important strides in aviation.
It robs the aeroplane of many of its dangers, and as an engine of
warfare widens its scope of utility beyond the bounds of the most
vivid imagination. The hydro-aeroplane can fly 60 miles an hour, skim
the water at 50 miles and run over the earth at 35 miles."
It was not long after the Curtiss hydro-aeroplane had been
successfully demonstrated, before all the other leading makers
brought out air craft that could sail from and alight on water as
well as on land. The Wright hydro-aeroplane, which is equipped with
two long air-tight metal floats instead of one, has achieved great
success in the United States. In Europe all the leading biplane types
are now made with hydro-aeroplane equipment, and flying over water
became as popular last year as flying over land did in 1910.
The first American monoplane to be equipped with the floats of a
hydro-plane was shown by the "Queen" company at the New York Aero
show in May, 1912. It was called an aero boat as the front part of
the fuselage was enclosed like a boat and the operator sat in it,
under the wings. The propeller was at the rear and there was a small
pontoon at each end of the wings to keep it on an even keel when
stationary in the water. A short time after this the Curtiss company
turned out the flying boat which was described on page 90.
[Illustration: THE WORLD'S LONGEST GLIDE
This photograph shows the new Wright glider, driven by Orville
Wright, being held above Kill Devil Hill, N. C., in the face of a
high wind, for 10 minutes 1 second.]
[Illustration: THE END OF A GLIDE
After remaining aloft the new glider was allowed gently to settle
to earth.]
[Illustration: LANDING ON A WARSHIP
Lieutenant Ely is here shown landing in a Curtiss biplane on the
platform built on the deck of the cruiser _Birmingham_, at anchor
in Hampton Roads.]
[Illustration:
Courtesy of the _Scientific American_
BOARDING A BATTLESHIP
Glenn Curtiss being hoisted aboard the battleship _Pennsylvania_
in San Diego Harbour after alighting alongside in his
hydro-aeroplane.]
In general outline the aeroplanes in use to-day differ greatly from
those seen several years ago, but the difference is in form rather
than in principle. There have been many improvements, of course, in
construction, control of the fliers, and in the powerful engines that
drive them. In fact the tendency of aeroplane builders has been to
adopt the successful devices on other machines rather than to work
out original ones.
The most noticeable change in the present-day aeroplanes is the way
in which builders nowadays are enclosing the bodies and landing
framework in canvas or even light metal, so that they shall offer as
little resistance to the air as possible. It gives the machines the
appearance of being armoured, as will be noticed from the pictures
of the new planes, so the term has come to be used in that sense,
although, of course, the covering would not protect them against
bullets. This armour has become particularly popular with the
designers who are making aeroplanes for the French Army, and at the
recent military tests in France most of the machines were covered to
some degree, and many of them looked for all the world like great
long-bodied gulls or mammoth flying fishes.
Several aeroplanes have been equipped with twin motors and double
steering systems so that either or both could be used. This, of
course, is a great advantage in case one fails. Also designers are
figuring on wing surfaces that can be reefed or telescoped for
better stability as well as wings that can be folded for easier
transportation.
Experts do not agree on the respective merits of the two great
general types of aeroplanes--that is, monoplanes and biplanes. Some
claim that the monoplane is the best and others that the biplane
is the most successful flier. Records show that so far monoplanes
are the faster of the two types, but biplanes can be fitted with
hydro-aeroplane floats, whereas it is impractical with most
monoplanes. Many declare the biplane to have the greater lifting
power, but the Blériot "Aero-Bus" has carried a jolly family party of
eight without difficulty. Each type has its champions as to safety,
reliability and endurance, but time will have to decide the question.
WRIGHT BIPLANE
First let us look at one of the latest Wright biplanes as it is
brought out on the aviation field and is being tuned up by its
keen-eyed young American pilot. The description of the 1909 Wright
will be remembered. Also it will be remembered how the Wright
brothers in 1910 discarded the forward horizontal elevating rudder
entirely, and substituted in its place a single elevating rudder
at the rear end of the tail, which also served to give fore and aft
stability. Also in 1910 the Wright brothers added wheels to the skids
that hitherto had been used for starting and alighting. Thus the
old system of having the machine skidded along a rail by a falling
weight, as previously described, was done away with in favour of its
running over the ground on its wheels.
After noting these improvements, we will look at the general outlines
of such a Wright racing machine as contested for the James Gordon
Bennett Cup in 1910. The two main planes are the smallest yet used
on a biplane, being only 21-1/2 feet wide from tip to tip, and only
3-1/2 feet from front to rear. Thus, the aspect ratio, it will be
seen is 7. They are the same general shape as the planes on the
other Wright machines, and their total area is 145 square feet. The
machine is steered up or down by the horizontal elevator rudder in
the rear, which is oblong-shaped, 8 by 2 feet. The rudder that steers
the machine from right to left is set vertically at the tail and is
worked in combination with the levers that work the warping of the
tips of the planes. On this little machine the twin-screw propellers,
8-1/2 feet in diameter, sweep practically the whole width of the
machine. They are connected by chains to the 60-horsepower 8-cylinder
Wright engine (in ordinary biplanes of this type the engine is
30 horsepower) and make 525 revolutions per minute (in ordinary
machines of this type they make 450 revolutions per minute). The
machine weighs a total of 760 pounds and is capable of more than 60
miles an hour.
The elevation rudder is controlled by a lever set either at the right
or left hand of the operator. The direction rudder is controlled by
a lever that also controls the warping of the planes, as in turning
it is necessary to cant the machine over to the inner side of the
curve being made, in order to prevent slipping sidewise through the
air. However the handle of the direction and warping lever is so
arranged by a clutch system that by moving the lever simply from
side to side the direction lever can be worked independently of the
warping. The direction and balancing system then, we see, is worked
in this manner. Say, while flying, a gust of wind causes the biplane
to dip at the right end. The operator quickly moves his warping lever
forward. This pulls down the tips of the right planes, and at the
same time elevates the tips of the left planes. The change of the
angle makes the right side lift to its normal position while it makes
the left side drop. Consequently the machine is restored to an even
keel and the operator lets the planes spring back to their normal
shape.
The large 1911 Wright biplanes, model B, are designed the same as the
small racing models except that the wings have a spread of 39 feet,
and a depth of 6-1/4 feet--a total area of 440 square feet. The
perpendicular triangular surfaces in front like two little jib sails,
are a distinguishing feature, although the latest Wright models
substitute narrow vertical fins about six feet tall and six inches
wide. They are placed immediately in front of the main planes. The
hydro-aeroplane substitutes two aluminum floats for the wheels.
CURTISS BIPLANE
The Curtiss biplane, which we have seen has had a great deal to
do with the development of aviation, is one of the simplest and
most successful machines known to-day. The main planes of the
regular-sized machines have a spread of 26-1/2 feet, are set 5 feet
apart, and have a depth from front to rear of 4-1/2 feet. The total
wing area is 220 feet. The direction rudder is a single vertical
vane at the rear, which is turned by the steering wheel connected
by cables. The elevation rudder consisting of one horizontal plane
24 square feet in area is at the front and is turned up or down
by the pilot as he desires to sail up or down, by means of a long
bamboo pole connecting the elevation rudder with his pilot wheel. He
pushes the wheel forward or back to rise or descend, while he twists
it from right to left to turn in either of those directions. The
side-to-side balance was maintained in the early Curtiss machines by
flexible wing tips, but these later were replaced by ailerons placed
between and at the outer tips of the main planes. Each aileron had an
area of 12 square feet and they were operated by a brace fitted to
the operator's body. Thus, if the machine tipped to the right, the
operator would swing to the left, turn the ailerons, and right the
machine. In some later Curtiss biplanes these ailerons were replaced
by others, like flaps attached to the rear outer edges of the main
planes. By raising the flaps on one side and lowering them on the
other the balance was well preserved.
As before stated, these machines are driven by Curtiss engines. In
most of them the engines are 4-cylinder, 25-horsepower motors. The
cylinders in this type, of course, are stationary, but the engine
shaft is directly connected with the 6-foot propeller at the rear,
which makes 1,200 revolutions per minute. The pilot sits between the
two main planes of his engine. On large Curtiss machines seats for as
many as three passengers have been arranged at the sides of the pilot.
The most important work Curtiss has done in the last few years is the
development of the hydro-aeroplane, which has been explained.
VOISIN BIPLANE
The next biplane with which we are familiar is the Voisin, which
Henri Farman demonstrated as the first really successful aeroplane
seen in Europe. This machine was a standard of what was called the
cellular type because it was composed of cells, like a box kite. The
two main planes, which were the same size, 37 feet by 6-1/2 feet,
were connected at the outer edges so as to make the plane a closed
cell--i. e., a box with the ends knocked out. Two other vertical
surfaces between the main plane gave the machine the appearance of
three box kites side by side. The tail out behind was composed of a
square cell. In the centre of it was a vertical vane for steering it
from right to left, while out in front was a single horizontal rudder
for raising or lowering the plane. The control was much the same as
in the Curtiss machine. The steering wheel turned the plane from
right to left, and was connected by a rod with the elevator, so that
by pushing it forward or back, the machine was raised or lowered.
There was no device for maintaining a side-to-side balance as the
cell formation was supposed to keep the machine on an even keel. The
motor drove a propeller at the rear.
The later Bordeaux type of Voisin which was built for military
purposes does away with the side curtains and box tail. On the outer
rear edge of the upper main plane are ailerons for maintaining the
balance, which are operated by foot pedals. The elevator is a single
horizontal plane at the rear of the tail, while the direction rudder
is a vertical plane beneath it. This machine carries two persons, and
is frequently driven by a Gnome engine.
Still another and later type of the Voisin Bordeaux is the front
control. In this the ailerons are used as previously described, but
also there are side curtains enclosing the outer edges of the main
planes. Out in front at the end of a long framework or fuselage are
the horizontal elevating planes, and the vertical direction planes.
Both these machines have double control systems.
FARMAN BIPLANE
Dissatisfied with the work of his first Voisin biplane in the early
days of flying Henri Farman designed and built a machine that bore
his own name, of which the military type is now looked upon with
great favour by many of the European experts.
The two main supporting planes in the regular Farman models were 33
feet by 6-1/2 feet, set 7 feet apart, and with a total area of 430
square feet. These dimensions have been varied slightly in other
machines. The elevating rudder, which was set well out in front of
the body of the machine, was a horizontal plane controlled by a wire
and lever. In the rear was a tail of two parallel surfaces, slightly
curved like the main planes of the biplanes. These two surfaces
steadied the machine from front to rear. At their two sides were two
vertical surfaces, giving the tail the appearance of a box kite,
so familiar in the Voisin. These two vertical surfaces, however,
comprised the direction rudder, and were turned from side to side by
the operator with a foot lever. In some of the later Farman biplanes
the two vertical surfaces were done away with in favour of a single
one, extending between the centres of the two horizontal surfaces of
the tail. The side-to-side balance was maintained by ailerons in the
form of wing tips set at the outer rear edges of the main planes.
The tips were hinged and connected with wires which led to the lever
that worked the elevating rudder. Thus by pulling this lever toward
him the operator tilted the rudder up, and the machine rose, and by
moving it from side to side the biplane was kept on an even keel. For
instance, if the machine were to tip to the right he would move the
lever to the left, pulling _down_ the hinged ailerons on the right.
The ones on the left would still remain standing straight out at the
same angle as the main planes. The increase in the lifting power on
the right side would cause that end to rise, righting the machine.
Most Farman biplanes these days are driven by the well known
7-cylinder Gnome rotary air-cooled engines, set at the rear of the
main plane. They are directly connected with the single propeller,
which is 8-1/2 feet in diameter. The seat for the aviator is in front
of the engine at the front edge of the lower plane, and there also
frequently are placed seats for two other passengers. The machine is
mounted on wheels and skids.
The "Farman Militaire" type is one of the largest and heaviest
machines made to date, having a total area of supporting plane of 540
square feet. The chief difference is that instead of two direction
rudders there are three, and that the lower main plane is set at
a dihedral angle. It was on such a machine ("Type Michelin") that
Farman flew steadily for eight and a half hours. It also has made
remarkable distance, endurance, and weight-carrying records, although
it is a slow machine, making but 34 to 35 miles an hour. The "Type
Michelin" is distinguished by the fact that the upper main plane has
a spread of 49 feet, 3 inches, while the lower plane had a spread of
only 36 feet.
MAURICE FARMAN BIPLANE
Soon after Henri Farman had become famous as an aviator and
constructor of aeroplanes, his brother Maurice began to build
air craft. The Maurice Farman biplane was the result. After
conducting their business separately for several years the brothers
consolidated, and each type is known by the name of the brother
designing it. The Maurice Farman biplane has some remarkable records,
among them the winning of the Michelin prize in 1910 by Tabuteau, who
flew 362-1/2 miles in seven and a half hours without stopping.
The main planes have a spread of 36 feet and a depth of 7-1/2 feet.
They have not as great a curve or camber as most biplanes, which
increases their speed. The tail is of the well-known Farman cell
formation--that is, it has four sides. The two vertical surfaces
swing on pivots and are controlled by wires connecting with the
direction steering wheel. The horizontal surfaces of the tail, except
for the tips, are stationary, and steady the machine from front to
rear. The rear tips of these two surfaces, however, work on pivots in
connection with the main elevating plane which is set out in front.
The elevator is a single plane controlled by a rod connected with the
steering wheel, while the tips of the horizontal tail surfaces are
controlled in unison with the main elevator by wires, also connected
with the steering wheel. Ailerons are set into the rear outer tips
of the main planes, for the control of the side-to-side balance, and
these are worked by foot pedals. In order to give greater safety in
case of the breakage of a wire, all the controlling parts in the
Maurice Farman machine are duplicate, which is a big step toward the
much-desired double controlling system in aeroplanes. The biplane
is mounted on both skids and wheels. The operator sits well forward
on the lower plane in a comfortable little pit enclosed in canvas.
Thus, the Maurice Farman machine was the first to adopt this device
for shielding the pilot from the wind. The engine used usually is an
8-cylinder air-cooled Renault, which drives a propeller nearly 10
feet in diameter.
BREGUET BIPLANE
Only slightly known in the United States but well and favourably
known in Europe, particularly in France, is the Breguet biplane,
which made wonderful records in the French Army tests in 1911. A
brief description will show the difference between this machine and
others of the biplane type. It has won many prizes for its stability
and lifting powers, and also has shown great speed. The framework is
mostly metal and is so elastic that it gives under the pulsations
for the wind, so that the machine is not so badly strained by gusts
as the more rigid kinds. Also it is thought the elasticity increases
its lifting capacity. Of the two main planes the upper one spreads
43-1/2 feet, while the lower one spreads 32-1/2 feet. They are 5-1/2
feet deep, and set 7 feet apart. The body and tail of the machine are
made on delicate graceful lines, terminating in the elevation and
direction rudders at the rear. There are no rudders, vanes, or other
rigging out in front. The lateral balance is maintained by warping
the planes. The propeller is at the front of the machine, and is of
the tractor type, pulling it through the air instead of pushing it.
In the latest machines a metallic three-bladed Breguet propeller, the
pitch of which is self-adjusting, is used, but in others a two-bladed
wooden propeller, such as is familiar in this country. The long body,
or fuselage, as the framework of the tail is called, is enclosed
on the latest types of Breguets in use by the French Army, greatly
adding to its gracefulness, and decreasing the wind pressure.
There are several other makes of biplanes that could be described
to advantage but space prevents it, and the descriptions here given
serve to illustrate the principle of the biplane type of aeroplane.
BLÉRIOT MONOPLANE
The first and probably best known monoplane, the Blériot, still holds
many records for both speed and endurance. The Blériot machines have
so many variations that it would be impossible to describe all the
types of monoplanes this versatile Frenchman has turned out. We are
familiar in a general way with the Blériot, the single widespreading
main plane, set at a slight dihedral angle, with its long, graceful
body out behind terminating in the horizontal elevating and vertical
direction rudders, giving it the appearance of a great soaring bird
as it sails through the air as steadily as an automobile on a smooth
road--much more steadily in fact, for as soon as the wheels of an
aeroplane leave the ground all jolting disappears, and not even the
vibration of the engine is noticeable, although the roar of its
explosions can be heard a great distance. There is nothing but the
breeze and the earth streaming along behind you, as if it were moving
and you were hovering motionless high up in the sky.
In the famous Blériot XI, in which the designer made the first trip
across the English Channel, the main plane had a spread of a little
more than 28 feet and a depth of 6-1/2 feet, a total area of 151
square feet and a low aspect ratio of about 4.6. At the end of the
stout wooden framework, that made up the body and tail, was the
vertical direction rudder 4-1/2 square feet in area which was turned
from right to left by a foot lever. The elevation rudder was divided
into two halves, one part being put at each side of the direction
rudder. The total area of the elevator was 16 square feet, while the
horizontal stabilizing plane to which the elevator was attached was
about the same. The balance was maintained by warping the main plane,
but instead of warping the tips of the plane, as is done in the
Wright biplanes, the two sides of the main plane were warped from the
base, so that the operator could change the angle of incidence--that
is, the angle at which the planes travel through the air. Thus, if
the machine should tip down on the right side, the operator would
warp the planes so as to increase the angle of incidence on the right
side and lessen it on the left side. In other words, the rear part
of the right wing would be bent downward, while on the left side the
rear edge would be raised. The forward edge remains stationary. The
increase of the angle on the right side would cause an increase of
the lifting power on that side and also the decrease of the angle
on the left side would lessen the lifting power of the left wing
so the right side, which was tipping down, would be lifted, and the
machine restored to an even keel. This warping was done by moving
from side to side the same lever on which was mounted the steering
wheel. The whole machine was mounted on a strong chassis with wheels
for starting and alighting. The pilot sat in the framework above
the main plane. The monoplane was propelled by a single propeller
of the tractor type 6 to 7 feet in diameter, placed at the front of
the machine. It was driven in the early Blériots by a 23-horsepower
Anzani motor, but more lately the Blériot machines have carried Gnome
motors.
One of the important improvements which appeared on the No. XI _bis_
was the changing of the main plane so that the upper side was curved
but the under side was nearly flat. This gave the machine much more
speed and the designers found that the flattening out of the curve on
the under side did not greatly lessen the lifting power. This same
type of machine also was made later to carry three passengers. The
machine known as the "Type Militaire" was just about like the others
except that the tail instead of being rectangular was fan-shaped. It
carried seats for two and was equipped with all the latest aviation
accoutrements, such as tachometers, barographs to record altitude,
instrument to record inclination, various other gauges, map cases and
thermos bottles.
The most distinctive feature of the Blériot No. XII, which was the
first aeroplane to carry three passengers, was the long vertical
keel, shaped like the fin of a fish at the top of the framework. The
direction rudder was at the rear of this keel, while the elevation
rudder was at the rear and a little below it. Immediately below the
direction rudder was a small horizontal plane about the size of the
elevation rudder which helped to maintain a fore and aft stability.
Then there was the famous Blériot aerobus which would carry 8 to
10 people. The machine was very large, the wings having a spread
of 39 feet and a total area of 430 square feet. It was driven by
a 100-horsepower Gnome motor and a propeller 10 feet in diameter,
which was placed at the rear of the main plane. Thus the propeller
drove the machine through the air from the rear instead of pulling it
from the front as do the tractor propellers on most of the Blériot
monoplanes. The passengers were seated underneath the main plane on
the framework which extended out to the rear. The tail terminated
in the vertical direction rudder and a large stationary horizontal
surface which gave the necessary front-to-rear stability. The
elevating plane of this type was placed out in front.
[Illustration: THE FLYING BOAT STARTING
The latest aeroplane is here seen cutting through the water
preparatory to ascending into the air.]
[Illustration: THE CURTISS FLYING BOAT
This is the very latest development in the hydro-aeroplane, and
moreover it is claimed by its inventor, Glenn Curtiss, to be the
first absolutely safe aeroplane.]
[Illustration: GLENN CURTISS ALLOWING HIS HYDRO-AEROPLANE TO
FLOAT ON THE WATER AFTER ALIGHTING]
[Illustration: HYDRO-AEROPLANE AT MONTE CARLO
At the hydro-aeroplane meet at Monaco practically every
well-known type of biplane was equipped with pontoons and entered
the contest.]
The Blériot Canard or "duck" is one of the latest developments of
the pioneer constructor, and the chief difference between it and
the other Blériot machines is that the body extends out in front
of the main plane instead of behind, something like Santos-Dumont's
first machine. The main plane has a spread of 29 feet, and has a
total supporting surface of 129 square feet. At the forward end of
the body is placed the horizontal elevating rudder, while two small
vertical rudders, placed on the top of the outer ends of the main
plane and working in unison, serve to steer it from side to side. The
balance in this machine is preserved by large hinged ailerons at the
outer rear edges of the main plane. The pilot sits in front of the
engine underneath the plane, which is a military advantage, giving
him ample chance for looking down and observing everything over which
he is passing.
ANTOINETTE MONOPLANE
No machine that ever was flown has excited more admiration from those
on the ground than the graceful Antoinette monoplane, designed by the
famous French motor-boat builder, Levavasseur. Its great tapering
wings and long fan-shaped tail give it the appearance of a huge
swallow or dragon-fly as it sails through the air, and whenever this
type has appeared at the American meets it has received tremendous
applause.
The two best known models of the Antoinette are the type used by
Latham in this country, and the "armoured" type, entered in the
French military tests. The bow of the first-mentioned machine
is shaped very much like the prow of a boat with the 50 to 100
horsepower 8-or 16-cylinder water-cooled Antoinette engine occupying
the extreme forward part. The propeller is set in front of this,
and is of the tractor type, drawing the machine through the air
behind it. In the recent models of the Antoinette, the main plane,
set at a slight dihedral angle, spread a little more than 49 feet
(compare this with the spread of 28 feet of the Blériot). The two
sides of the main plane taper from the body of the machine, but have
an average depth from front to rear of 8 feet, which gives a fairly
high aspect ratio of about 6. The total area is 405 square feet. The
main plane also tapers in thickness, being nearly a foot through
close to the body and tapering down to a few inches at the outer
tips. The graceful tail at the rear has both vertical and horizontal
surfaces gently tapering to the height and width of the elevating
and direction rudders. The elevating rudder is a single horizontal
triangular surface at the rear controlled by cables running to a
pilot wheel at the operator's right hand. It has an area of 20 square
feet. The direction rudder is composed of two triangular surfaces
with an area of 10 square feet each. One is above the elevator and
the other below, but both are worked in unison by wires connecting
with a foot lever. The machine is balanced by a warping system
much like that on the Wright biplanes we know so well. This is
accomplished by wires connecting with a steering wheel at the pilot's
left hand, so that he uses his right hand to steer his machine up
or down, his feet to steer from right to left, and his left hand to
maintain the balance. Of course, in making a sharp turn he uses his
warping wheel as well as his direction wheel, because, as previously
explained, it is necessary to incline the machine over toward the
inside of the curve desired to be made. The pilot sits in the
framework, above and a little back of the supporting plane.
The "armoured" Antoinette, which was designed for military purposes,
is entirely enclosed, even increasing the already great resemblance
to a bird, while the direction rudder is made of a single surface,
and the elevating rudder of two rhomboid-shaped rudders. The pilot
sits in a cockpit with only his head and shoulders protruding above
and has a view below through a glass floor. Its most important
feature is the total elimination of cross wires, struts and the like.
The resistance is greatly decreased, but the weight increased. In
addition, a peculiar wing section is used, flat on the under side
and curved on the upper side. The wings are immensely thick, being
entirely braced from the inside. At the body the wings are over
two feet thick. Their thickness decreases toward the tips, which
are about eight inches thick. The shape of each wing is called
trapesoidal, and they are set at a large dihedral angle. The motor
is a regular 100-horsepower Antoinette.
The oddest feature of this type is the landing gear, which is
entirely enclosed to within a few inches of the ground; the landing
wheels at the front are six in number, three on each side of the
centre, enclosed in what is called a "skirt." At the rear are two
smaller wheels.
The dimensions are roughly as follows: Spread, 52-1/2 feet, wings,
602 square feet; length over all, 36 feet; depth of wings (from front
to rear) at tips, over 9 feet, increasing to almost 13 feet at the
centre. The total weight is nearly 2,400 pounds.
NIEUPORT MONOPLANE
The Nieuport monoplane is one of the newer machines that has
attracted a great deal of attention for its speed with low-powered
engines. Among the achievements of this monoplane was Weyman's
winning of the James Gordon Bennett Cup and prize in England in 1911,
and the demonstration of its remarkable passenger carrying abilities.
The Nieuport also is a wonderful glider, for Claude Grahame-White
took his new one up 3,000 feet at Nassau Boulevard, Garden City,
during the 1911 meet there and glided down the whole distance without
power, the downward sail taking him nearly as long as the upward
climb.
[Illustration: THE WRIGHT BIPLANE
Baby Wright model. Orville Wright is in front of seat, while
Wilbur Wright is holding back on the fuselage.]
[Illustration: STANDARD CURTISS BIPLANE
For reliability and stability the Curtiss biplane is one of the
best known models.]
[Illustration: CURTISS STEERING GEAR
Sitting in front of the engine the aviator controls the ailerons
by straps over his shoulders, and the direction and elevation
rudders by the steering wheel.]
The passenger machine has a spread of 36 feet with a length of
about 24 feet from front to rear. This machine is generally equipped
with a 50 or 70 horsepower Gnome motor, although the plane with
which Weyman won the Gordon Bennett contest was equipped with a
100-horsepower Gnome motor. The smaller machine has a spread of 27
feet, 6 inches and a length of 23 feet. An engine of the 3-cylinder
Anzani type is usually mounted on this monoplane.
The body of the flier gracefully tapers to a point at the rear where
are placed the elevating and steering rudders.
The chief characteristics of the Nieuport are strength, simplicity in
design, and great efficiency of operation. The smaller machine, which
is equipped with an engine of from 18 to 20 horsepower, has acquired
a speed of 52-1/2 miles an hour. The Nieuport is constructed along
original lines throughout. The wings are very thick at the front
edge, while the rear edges are flexible so that in gusts of wind they
give a little.
The fuselage, or body of the machine, which is extraordinarily large,
and shaped like the body of a bird, is entirely covered with canvas.
The weakest part of the Nieuport monoplane is the alighting and
running gear, which is so designed as to eliminate head resistance,
but unfortunately this simplicity is carried to an extreme which
makes the machine the most difficult one to run along the ground,
and to this construction may be traced most of the accidents which
have occurred to the Nieuport machines.
The Nieuport control differs from that of the majority of other
machines inasmuch as the wing warping is controlled by the feet,
while hand levers operate the vertical and elevating rudders.
MODEL AEROPLANES
After having taken in such a lot of information about aeroplanes the
scientist's young friend considered himself fairly well equipped to
build a flier.
"Why couldn't I build a little model aeroplane?" he said one day.
"No reason why young couldn't," answered his friend in the
laboratory. "You have a little workshop at home and your own simple
tools will be plenty. You will have to buy some of your materials,
but they are all cheap.
"There is no sport like model aeroplane flying, but to the average
American boy the flying is not half so much fun as meeting and
overcoming the obstacles and problems entailed in making the little
plane. These days nearly any boy would scorn to enter a model
aeroplane tournament with any machine that he did not make himself,
and a great many of the amateur aviators even prefer to make their
own designs and plans.
"When we begin to take up the construction of a glider or an
aeroplane, we must, like the Wright brothers, reluctantly enter upon
the scientific side of it, because in model building we cannot simply
make exact reproductions of the great man-carrying fliers, but must
meet and overcome new problems. The laws that govern the standard
aeroplanes apply a little differently to models, so it is necessary
for the model builder to figure things out for himself.
"For instance," explained the scientist, "most amateurs have decided
that monoplane models fly much better than biplanes. The reason
for this is probably that with the miniature makes the air is so
disturbed by the propeller that its action on the lower plane
tends to make it unsteady rather than to give it a greater lifting
capacity. This could be avoided by placing the two planes farther
apart, but they would have to be so far separated that the machine
would be ungainly and out of all proportion. Moreover, the second
plane, with the necessary stays and trusses, adds to the weight of
the machine, and this is always bad in models.
"There are as many different types of model aeroplanes as there are
of the big man carriers, but you had better make a small flier first,
experiment with it, and then work out your own variations just as you
think best."
"Will you help me build one?" asked the boy.
"No, for you don't need my help and you will have more fun doing it
alone. I will tell you how to go about it, and with what you know of
the principles of aviation from our conversations it will be easy to
make a successful model."
Then taking a piece of paper and a pencil the scientist began to draw
rough plans for the building of a little model monoplane something
like the Blériot, except that it was driven tail first, with the
propeller at the rear. As he worked he explained how the plan shown
below should be followed, saying that the beginner would find that a
length of about one foot would be the most convenient for this first
model. Later on he can make the big ones with a spread of wings of
three feet, and a length of forty or more inches.
[Illustration: A SIMPLE MODEL AEROPLANE]
First, the three main parts of the model should be made. Those are
the two main planes and backbone. The simplest way of making the
planes for a model of this kind is to use thin boards of poplar or
spruce, which will not split easily and which can be worked with a
jackknife. The large plane should be rectangular, with a spread
of eight inches and a depth of two inches, while the smaller plane
should be the same shape, four by one inch. They should be one eighth
of an inch or less in thickness. Plane and sandpaper them down as
thin and as smooth as possible without splitting them, and round off
the corners just enough to do away with sharp edges. Now draw a line
parallel with the side that is eight inches long, three quarters of
an inch from the edge. Measure off two inches toward the centre from
the outer edges, along this line, and draw lines parallel with the
edges that are two inches deep. At the corners which are to be the
rear we find the lines make two rectangles three quarters of an inch
by two inches, and these corners are to be cut away in a graceful
curve from the corners of the rectangles. When it is done the main
plane will be shaped like a big D with the curved edge to the rear.
The front edge of the small plane also should be curved, but not
nearly so much as the larger plane. This done, the planes can be
steamed or moistened with varnish, and given a slight curve or camber
by laying them on a flat board with a little stick underneath and
weights at the front and back to hold down the edges while they dry
and set. The sticks should be about one third of the way back from
the front edges, from there tapering down to the level of the rear
edge. Of course, in this process great care must be used not to split
the delicate planes.
[Illustration: STANDARD FARMAN BIPLANE
Note the box tail and the single elevating plane.]
[Illustration: FARMAN PLANE WITH ENCLOSED NOSE
This type is sometimes used in Europe, and it led to the Farman
"canard" with the box tail in front.]
[Illustration: A MODERN BLÉRIOT
This machine has the enclosed fuselage and other recent
improvements. Note the four-bladed propeller.]
[Illustration: A STANDARD BLÉRIOT
This is the regular type of Blériot made famous by long
over-water flights.]
[Illustration: PASSENGER-CARRYING BLÉRIOT
This type has tremendous capacity for carrying great weights.]
There are many other ways of making planes. If one does not care to
round off the edges, he can make very light wooden rectangular frames
of the size indicated, and cover them with cloth, or silk, afterward
varnishing them to make them smooth and air-tight. It is difficult
to give such planes a camber, but if the framework is made of strong
light wire, such as umbrella ribs, and then covered, the camber can
be obtained by putting light wire or light wooden ribs in the planes,
much like on the big standard makes. Plane building can be developed
to a high art, and after a boy makes one or two models he will see
any number of ways that he can make them lighter, stronger and more
professional looking.
With the planes finished, the next work is to make the backbone of
the machine by planing and sandpapering a light strong stick one
foot long and not more than a quarter of an inch square. Cut out a
neat block of the same wood, the same thickness as the backbone, and
one inch square. Glue it to the end of the backbone and reinforce it
by wrapping it with silken thread moistened with glue or varnish.
Be sure to have the grain of this block, which is the motor base,
run the same as the backbone. Three quarters of an inch from the
backbone, and parallel with it, bore a little hole for the propeller
shaft or axle. Unless you are sure of your drill, heat a thin steel
wire and burn the hole, rather than risk splitting the block.
The propeller is the next thing to make, while the glue on the
backbone is drying, and the camber of the plane is setting. Some
models have metal propellers, but most boys prefer to make wooden
ones, either from blocks of their own cutting or from blanks that
can be purchased. The blank should be four inches in diameter an
inch wide, and half an inch thick. It can be cut away very thin
with a sharp knife, and a fairly good whittler can make a propeller
that looks as businesslike as the great gleaming blades on the big
machines. A wire then should be run through the dead centre of
the propeller and bent over so that when the wire shaft turns the
propeller also turns. As a bearing or washer the simplest device
is a glass bead strung on the shaft and well oiled to lessen the
friction, between the propeller and the propeller base. The shaft is
then run through the hole in the motor base and bent into a hook for
the rubber strands that drive the propeller. Great care should be
taken in mounting the propeller and making the hook that the shaft is
kept in an absolutely straight line, and at an accurate right angle
with the propeller, so that the screw can turn free and true with
as little friction as possible, and no wobbling or unbusinesslike
vibration. Next a wire hook should be placed at the other end of the
backbone upon which to hook the other end of the rubber strands. This
hook can either be imbedded in another block the same size as the
motor base or can be set out by some other ingenious device, so that
the strands will turn free of the backbone, and will make an even
line parallel with it. Both hooks should be covered by little pieces
of rubber tubing to protect the rubber strands. Any friction whatever
in a model is bad, but it is worst of all upon the rubber strands of
the motor.
With the parts in hand the next step is attaching the planes to the
backbone. In this machine the motor should be above the planes, so
that the planes should be affixed to the upper side of the central
stick, with the rubber strands above them. The propeller is at the
rear, so the small front plane should be placed at the front, with
the slightly curved edge to the rear. It should be about an inch from
the tip of the stick and the front edge should be elevated slightly
to give the necessary lifting power. The main plane should be placed
about an inch from the rear tip of the backbone, with the curved edge
to the rear and the front slightly elevated. The planes should be
affixed with rubber bands so that it is possible to move them forward
or back, because the little monoplane might be lacking in fore and
aft stability and the rearrangement of the planes might correct it.
It might even be found more satisfactory in some models to change
the order and let the propeller, base, and strands of the motor come
below the planes instead of above them. Your own experience will tell
best.
[Illustration: THE ANTOINETTE MONOPLANE
New armoured Antoinette shown in the large picture, while the
small insert shows the old-style machine.]
[Illustration:
Photo by Philip W. Wilcox
THE NIEUPORT MONOPLANE
Comparatively a new make, the Nieuport monoplane has sprung into
great favour for its speed and passenger-carrying capacities.]
Of course, the planes must be placed on the backbone exactly evenly
or the airship will be lopsided, a fatal fault. By experimenting, the
boy can tell just how high the front edges should be elevated, or,
in other words, what angle of incidence he should give his plane.
A rudder, to keep the machine in a straight course, can be added
underneath the centre of the main plane. It should be about two
inches square, but shaved off to a curving razor edge. Also light
skids of cane or rattan may be added. They should be glued to the
under side of the backbone and curved backward like sled runners. The
front one should be two and a half to three inches high, while the
rear one should be about an inch to an inch and a half less.
After trying out the model as a glider by throwing it across
a room and making sure it is well balanced both laterally and
longitudinally, or from side to side, and fore and aft, the rubber
strands can be put on, and the motor wound up. About four strands
of rubber one eighth of an inch square, such as is sold for this
purpose, would suffice for good flights of more than one hundred
feet, if the machine were of the same weight and proportions as the
model from which this description was written. In models, however,
there are many little details that can change the conditions, and a
boy can only experiment, locate his mistakes, and try it over again.
This is one of the simplest and easiest model aeroplanes that can
be made. A trip to one of the model aeroplane tournaments will
reveal dozens of more elaborate ones, which will give any ingenious
boy ideas for development of the principles he can learn from the
simpler type. Probably the next step of the average boy would be to
build a machine with two motors, which can be done by elaborating
the single stick backbone or by making a backbone of two or three
sticks well braced with cross pieces at each end and in the middle.
Then there are interesting experiments with the size of planes,
number of planes, their aspect ratio--that is the proportion of their
width to their depth--ailerons for automatic stability, and rudders
for keeping the machine on a straight course. There are always new
things to be done with the motors, because, though the rubber motors
have driven models close to half a mile, there are now on the market
miniature gasoline motors to drive models, and experiments are being
tried with clockwork and compressed air. Indeed the model aeroplane
field is as broad in itself as that of the man-carrying machines.
Aviation has been reduced to an exact science, but it is yet in its
early growth, both in the field of models and in the field of the
various kinds of man-carrying machines. Not only are the designers
making great headway with aeroplanes, but also with dirigible
balloons so any one interested in aeronautics has a very wide field
for his work. As we said in an earlier chapter, the boy model
designer of to-day may be the inventor of to-morrow who gains undying
fame by some now undreamed-of development of the aeroplane.
The designers of the man carriers are trying to make their machines
stronger, safer, more reliable, capable of carrying more passengers,
and they hope at last to bring them to a more practical use in the
world than as a sport. The most thoughtful aviators do not favour
exhibition flying so strongly as they do long cross-country flights,
endurance tests, passenger-carrying tests, and other experiments that
will develop aeroplanes beyond their present limitations.
The next great feat of the aeroplane is the crossing of the Atlantic
Ocean, and that may not be far distant, for at the time of writing
half a dozen aviators are planning the attempt, but even more
important than that, even more important than the development of the
aeroplane for war scouting, is the development of the aeroplane as a
faithful servant of the people who are quietly going about their own
everyday business. The time will come when the readers of this may
send their mail by aeroplane, take pleasure rides in the aeroplane
instead of the automobile, and even make regular trips on regularly
established aeroplane routes, buying their tickets at the great
central aeroplane stations as they would buy railroad tickets in the
Grand Central or the Pennsylvania stations to-day, taking their seats
in comfortably arranged aero cars, and being whisked in a few hours
from one part of the country to the other, and even from one side of
the ocean to the other.