SAILING YACHTS
BEFORE attempting to construct model sailing yachts the young worker
should become thoroughly conversant with the different types of yachts
and their fittings. In the following pages the author briefly outlines
the general science of yacht-making and sailing.
Sailing yachts are made in four principal types. There is the cutter
rig, yawl rig, sloop rig, and the ketch rig. The cutter rig is shown in
Fig. 136. It consists of four sails so arranged that the top-sail may be
either removed altogether or replaced by sails of smaller area. In all
yachts it is necessary to haul the sails up into position by ropes known
as halyards. The halyards must be led down to the deck. The
model-builder, however, can dispense with much of the gear used on
larger boats.
A sloop rig is illustrated in Fig. 137. By studying the drawing the
worker will see that the sloop rig differs from the cutter rig only in
that she carries a single sail forward of her mast.
[Illustration: FIG. 137]
[Illustration: FIG. 136]
The yawl rig (See Fig. 138) is similar to a cutter rig, but has a small
sail set up on another mast abaft the mainsail. The sheet is led aft to
a spar that projects beyond the counter. The mast upon which the smaller
sail is set is known as the mizzenmast. In this rig it will be seen that
the main boom must be made considerably shorter than was the case in
the cutter rig. This is done so that it will not follow the mizzenmast
when it swings from one position to another.
[Illustration: FIG. 138]
[Illustration: FIG. 139]
The ketch rig differs greatly from the yawl rig. The mizzenmast always
occupies a position forward of the rudder-post. In the yawl the
mizzenmast is always stepped aft of the rudder-post. This will be seen
by referring to the drawings of the two boats. The ketch rig is
illustrated in Fig. 139.
The prettiest rig of all is the schooner; but, owing to the fact that it
is difficult to get them to go well to windward unless the hull is
perfectly rigged, the author has decided not to deal with this type of
boat. When the reader becomes proficient in building and sailing the
simpler types described in this book, he may turn his attention to the
construction and sailing of more complicated types.
_Model Yacht Parts_
The submerged portion of a yacht is, as in all other boats, termed the
hull. The backbone of the hull is called the keelson. Attached to the
keelson is a piece of lead, which is put in place to give the boat
stability and power to resist the heeling movement created by the
wind-pressure upon the sails. This is known as the keel.
Yachts always have an opening in the deck giving access to the interior
of the hull. These openings are known as hatchways. When sailing in
rough weather the hatchway is closed by a hatch to prevent the yacht
from shipping water.
The extreme forward end of a yacht hull is called the stern, while the
portions forward and aft of the midships section are known as the fore
and after-body respectively.
[Illustration: A TWIN CYLINDER STEAM ENGINE FOR MODEL MARINE USE
This engine will drive a boat several feet long]
In all yachts a portion of the hull extends out over the water. These
portions are known as overhangs. The overhang aft is sometimes called
the counter-stern. The sides of the hull that rise above the deck are
called bulwarks, and the part of the bulwarks that cross the stern is
called the taffrail. The taffrail is always pierced with holes to allow
water to run off the deck quickly, so that the additional weight will
not in any way affect the course of the boat. It is understood that
yachts raise great quantities of water upon their decks when traveling
in rough sea.
The bowsprit is passed through a ring at the top of the stern, and this
ring is termed the gammon iron. Its end is secured in a socket or
between a pair of uprights called the bowsprit bits. These are fixed to
the deck. Metal bars are fixed a short distance above the deck to take
rings attached to the sheets. This is done so that the sails may swing
freely from one side of the boat to the other. Metal eyes are screwed
into the sides to take the shrouds, and are called chain-plates. The eye
in the stern is called the bobstay plate. In the stern-post are two eyes
called gudgeons. The rudder is hooked to this by means of two hooks
called pintles. The bar or lever that is fixed to the top of the
rudder-post is called a tiller.
[Illustration: A CUP-WINNING MODEL SAIL BOAT
Designed and constructed by the commodore of the Central Park Model
Yacht Club, New York, N. Y.]
The parts and fittings of a mast follow: the step, the head, the caps,
crosstrees, truck, topmast, boom, and gaff. The part of the gaff that
rests on the mast is called the throat; the end of the gaff is called
the peak. The jib-boom is a term used only in connection with model
yachts. In larger boats the jib-boom is an extension of the bowsprit.
The small boom that projects over the stern of a yawl is called the
bumpkin. The spar is rather a general term applied to practically all
wooden supports of sails. The spar of a lug-sail is called the yard. It
is different from a boom or gaff, by reason of its lying against the
mast instead of having one end butting on the mast. Anything belonging
to the mainmast should be distinguished by the prefix main. Thus, there
are the mainsail, the mainboom, main-topsail, etc.
[Illustration: FIG. 140]
A sail for a model cutter-rigged yacht is shown in Fig. 140. The
bowsprit and masts are, when necessary, given support by ropes that are
stretched tightly to some point where they can be conveniently anchored
to the hull. The following are those largely used on model yachts:
topmast stay, bobstay, topmast shrouds, and forestay.
The sails are pulled up and fastened by ropes termed halyards. The
halyards are fastened to the upper portions of the sail, and they are
named according to the sail to which they are attached. For instance,
there is the jib halyard and the foresail halyard. A mainsail carried by
a gaff has two halyards, the throat and peak. The movement of the sails
is controlled by ropes, called sheets, which take their names from the
sails they control. There is a mainsheet, a jibsheet, and a foresheet.
The reader should take note of this term and refrain from confusing it
with the sails.
_Sailing Model Yachts_
The sailing of model yachts is a real art, and the author warns the
reader that he cannot hope to become a proficient yachtsman by merely
digesting the information given in this book. His real knowledge must be
earned by experience in handling a model yacht on the water. However,
there are few sports that will afford more pleasure than that of sailing
model yachts. Being an outdoor sport it is very healthful.
In sailing a model yacht the sails are set, or "trimmed," so that she
will continue to sail along the course previously decided upon by the
yachtsman. She must do this in as speedy a manner as possible and with
as little deviation from her original course as possible. The trim of
the sails will depend upon the wind. If the boat is to sail against the
wind, that is termed "beating to windward"; with the wind is called
"scudding." With the wind sideways it is called "reaching." If the boat
is sailed with the wind blowing midway between one of the sides and the
stern in such a way that it sweeps from one side of the stern across the
deck, this is called "three-quarter sailing" in a "quartering" wind. A
model yacht will continue for a great distance on a reach or while
scudding; but, on the other hand, it will not be possible for her to
sail directly against the wind. If a yachtsman is to make headway
against the wind, he must sail his boat as near dead against the wind as
it will go.
The cutter type of yacht will move against a wind that is blowing at a
very small angle on her bowsprit. As soon as she reaches the limit of
her course, the yachtsman turns her bow at a small angle so as to bring
the wind on the opposite side of the vessel, and in this way a second
course is started. These courses are repeated in a zigzag fashion until
the yacht arrives at her destination. This zigzagging, or "tacking," as
it is called, is illustrated in Fig. 141. It will be seen that the yacht
starts at _B_, and makes 3 tacks before she arrives at her destination,
_A_. Each time she touches the shore she is "put about" and set upon a
new course, or "tack."
[Illustration: FIG. 141]
It will be understood that tacking is slow work, and a greater distance
must be traveled than would be covered by a power-boat, which would be
able to go in a straight line. However, with wind-propelled craft this
is the only way in which progress can be made against the wind. The
left-hand side of a yacht viewed from the stern is called the port side,
while the right-hand side is called the starboard side. Thus a yacht
sailing with the wind blowing on her port side is on the port tack,
while if the wind is blowing on the starboard side she is said to be on
the starboard tack. From this the reader will see that Fig. 142 shows an
impossible case.
[Illustration: FIG. 142]
[Illustration: FIG. 143]
[Illustration: FIG. 144]
[Illustration: FIG. 145]
The sails in front of the mast that are placed nearest the stern of the
yacht act in such a manner as to turn the bows in the direction of the
arrow, as illustrated in Fig. 146, and the sail or sails abaft the mast
turn the boat in the direction of the arrow _A_. The boat thus revolves
upon the center of the mast much as a weathercock revolves upon its
pivot. If there is more than one mast, all the sails carried abaft the
mainmast serve to turn the boat in the direction _A_. The work of
sailing depends greatly upon the skill in balancing these two effects so
that the boat will progress in a straight line. To do this the sails are
set in a greater or less angle in relation to the center line of the
boat. The less the angle that a sail makes with the center line of the
boat, the greater is its power to determine in which direction the boat
will steer. The more the yachtsman slackens out his jib and foresail, or
the smaller he makes these sails, the less their power will be to turn
the boat in the direction _B_. On the other hand, the larger they are
and the more tightly they are pulled in, the greater will be their
power. When the mainsail and all of the sails abaft the mainsail are
slackened out and the smaller they are made, the less their power will
be to swing the boat in the direction _A_.
The influence of a sail upon the speed of a boat also increases with the
angle that it makes with the center line of the hull. The more the
yachtsman slackens out his sail, the more it will help the boat along.
The reader will see that these two conditions interfere with each other,
and therefore the trimming of the sails becomes a compromise. It is good
for the young yachtsman to remember to sail his boat with the sails as
slack as possible, as long as she keeps a good course. He should also
remember not to overload her with sails, since the nearer to an upright
position she maintains the faster she will go.
It is not possible to depend entirely upon the trim of the sails to keep
a model in a given course. This is because the strength of the wind
varies so that the sails are in balance one moment and out of balance
the next. The sails abaft the mainmast overpower the sails before it
when the wind increases. The result of this is that the bow of the boat
will be repeatedly turned in the direction _A_, Fig. 146.
[Illustration: FIG. 146]
[Illustration: FIG. 147]
[Illustration: FIG. 148]
Some form of automatic rudder is therefore generally used to overcome
this tendency of the yacht to "luff" in the wind. Fig. 147 shows the
course of a yacht reaching from _A_ to _B_. The dotted lines show the
course she should follow. The full line shows the effect of puffs of
wind, which repeatedly take her out of her course. Many times she may
completely turn around and make a similar course back to the
starting-point, as in Fig. 148. There is also the danger of her being
taken back when pointing directly against the wind--the wind will force
her backward stern first for some distance, as illustrated in Fig. 149.
She will do this until she manages to get around on one tack or the
other.
The dotted line _B_ illustrates the course in which she would be driven
under these conditions. It is not practical to sail a model yacht dead
before the wind without an automatic rudder. With the use of an
automatic rudder the erratic movements shown in Fig. 148 can be entirely
overcome. The action of the rudder is such that every time the boat
leans over to luff up into the wind, the weight of the rudder causes it
to swing out, and thus prevents her from losing her course. As a
different type of rudder is required, according to the course in which
the yacht is sailing, the weight should be adjustable if the same rudder
is used.
[Illustration: FIG. 149]
[Illustration: FIG. 150]
[Illustration: FIG. 152]
Let us consider scudding before the wind. For scudding the heaviest
rudder should be used, or the weight on a loaded tiller should be in its
position of maximum power. All the sails abaft the foremast should be
slackened out as far as they will go, which will bring the booms almost
at right angles with the center line of the boat. If the craft is a
cutter or yawl with a light weight, the yachtsman should rig the
spinnaker. The head-sails may be left slack or can be tightened. Fig.
150 shows the position of the booms when scudding with a schooner and
yawl. The yawl is shown scudding goose winged. The cutter is illustrated
with the spinnaker set. The other craft is a two-mast lugger with
balanced lugs.
[Illustration: FIG. 151]
Attention is now directed to "reaching." For this particular work the
yachtsman should put on a medium rudder. When using a weighted tiller
the weight should be put in a midway position. The head-sails should be
pulled in fairly tight and the aft-sails made slack. The yachtsman,
however, should not slacken them as for scudding. Fig. 151 shows a
schooner reaching. The thick black lines represent the booms of the
sails. If the wind is very light a spinnaker-jib may be set or a
jib-topsail in light or moderate breezes. In the case of a wind that
comes over the stern quarter, as indicated by the arrow _A_, the next
heavier rudder, or its equivalent in weighted tiller, should be put in
operation, and the sails slackened out a little more than before. The
boat is then said to be free and sailing on the starboard tack. If the
wind is coming in the direction _B_ the jib and foresail may require
slackening and the aft sails pulled in more than when sailing with the
wind in the direction _C_. A still lighter rudder can be used as the
course gets near to beating windward, and the yacht is said to be
close-hauled on the starboard tack.
In beating to windward, if a rudder is used at all, it should be as
light as possible, just heavy enough to keep the boat steady. However,
this is just the condition of sailing when a boat can dispense with a
rudder. It depends entirely upon the characteristics of the particular
yacht being sailed, and for this the yachtsman must depend upon his own
experience. The jib-topsail should not be used in a case like this, and
if the wind is fairly strong a smaller jib should be set than that used
for reaching. It is advisable to slacken the jib and foresail out and
pull the aft-sails in somewhat tightly. Fig. 152 shows a cutter beating
to windward on a port tack. In this case she will have to pay out to
starboard a bit before her sails fill.
In sailing the weather must be watched very closely, and the amount of
sail carried will depend entirely upon the weather conditions. A yacht
should never be overloaded with sail. If she has more than she can
comfortably carry she will heel over and drag her sails in the water.
Not only this, but she will also drift to leeward when beating to
windward. When sailing a new boat, her best trim for various points of
sailing and force of wind must be found by painstaking experiments. The
boat should always be sailed with her sails as slack as she will take
them and keep in her course. In this way she will move faster than when
the sails are pulled in close.
The model yachtsman should always watch the wind and note whether it
shifts its direction or alters its force. The boat is trimmed
accordingly when the boat is put about. Easing or tightening the jib or
main-sheet slightly will make a very noticeable difference.
By taking down the top-sail or setting a jib-head top-sail in place of a
jack yard top-sail, the yacht will be caused to ride easier in puffs of
wind. In case she does not point well to windward when beating, the
yachtsman should try a smaller jib, or he can slacken the
foresail-sheet. If she runs off regularly to leeward on one tack only,
while keeping well to windward on the other, she has some defect in
construction or a bent keel.