HEROISM IN THE AIR
Somebody censored was engaged in a long reconnaissance trip into the
enemy’s country, and had already turned home when a shrapnel shell
burst immediately beneath his aeroplane, smashed part of the body of
the machine, and shattered the pilot’s leg. Rendered unconscious, he
lost control, the aeroplane began to nose-dive to the earth, and fell
5000 feet. From this point the observer takes up the story:--
“I have given up all hope, the earth seemed rushing up to meet
us, and I prayed that our agony might not be prolonged. I
shut my eyes and waited for the final crash, when, wonder of
wonders, the machine began to right herself. Hardly daring to
believe my eyes, I looked to the pilot’s seat. The headlong
rush through the cool air must have brought him round, and he
was making strenuous efforts to regain control.
“Luckily the enemy had given us up for lost, had ceased to
shoot, and we immediately began to climb again. Then the
Germans opened fire, and we only escaped with our lives through
the superb pilotage of L----, with one leg shattered and blood
flowing in streams. At 8000 feet he again seemed to be sinking.
I hastily scrawled a note urging him to descend. He read it,
shook his head decidedly, pointed to me with a smile on his
white drawn face, then pointed in the direction of our lines,
and carried on.
“At times he would faint, and then, recovering himself,
redouble his efforts. At last we were over the lines, but it
seemed utterly impossible that he should be able to land the
machine in his condition. But he did. Choosing a large green
meadow about three miles behind the trenches, he landed as
gently and as easily as if he had only been up for a practice
flight, brought the machine to a stop, and fainted dead away.”
This gallant pilot, as he lay mortally wounded in the field hospital,
and knowing that he was dying, thought only of the terrible time his
observer must have had. Thus he wrote to his mother in England:--
“MUMMY DEAR,
“Don’t be alarmed at my little escapade; will be all right
again soon and be with you.... Poor P----, what an awful time
he must have had after I fainted and we were nose-diving
headlong for the ground!
“P. S.--Please don’t go talking about this business to all the
old dowagers of your acquaintance.”
Officer R---- M---- was on a bomb-dropping and reconnaissance
expedition in the neighborhood of Y---- in the late summer of 1915.
When twenty miles from our lines he was hit by shrapnel and mortally
wounded in the thigh, but making up his mind not to be taken prisoner,
he kept bravely on, crossed the lines, and disdaining to take advantage
of the cover thus afforded and land in the first available spot, kept
resolutely on to the aerodrome from which he had set out, though losing
blood rapidly and knowing he had not long to live. There he made a
beautiful landing, handed in his report, and fell unconscious, never to
come round again.
* * * * *
Early in the present year an air raid was organized to bomb a town not
far from Constantinople. The raid was duly carried out, but on the
journey home one of our aeroplanes was hit by a shell and forced to
come to earth in marsh lands beside a small river. Immediately a party
of Turkish infantry rushed up to take charge of the craft, but before
they could reach it another of our machines swooped down on the scene
and landed close by. The pilot jumped out, ran across a field swept by
Turkish rifle fire, picked up the wounded pilot, and placing him on his
back, staggered across to his own machine. Still subjected to a violent
fusillade, he unthrottled his engine, and with the wounded man carried
before him, bravely flew off and made his own base again.
PART III
OTHER CRAFT AND THE FUTURE
CHAPTER XXIII
THE EVOLUTION OF THE AIRSHIP
The airship is the aristocrat of the air. In jealousy and scorn the
aeroplane may refer to her as “gasbag,” “sausage”; may poke fun at
her by reason of her unwieldy size, and laugh at her lack of speed;
she still looks down on that craft with as much haughty disdain as a
duchess of royal blood would bestow on a _nouveau riche_. Has she not a
pedigree as long as may be forgotten?
She may trace her genealogy back to the Greek mythology and may
number among her progenitors such men as Leonardo da Vinci, Cyrano de
Bergerac, Francisco de Lana, Joseph Montgolfier, Blanchard, Santos
Dumont and Count Zeppelin. The aeroplane is but an invention of the
Twentieth Century!
Italy was the birthplace of the lighter-than-air craft; throughout
the interesting history of the airship the names of famous Italian
scientists predominate, and particularly those of the monastic order.
Perhaps it was that convent life was inducive to study; untrammeled
by the cares of the outside world, men turned their attention to the
sciences and developed their imaginations. Be that as it may, we find
that to-day the Italian airships are the finest in the world.
But although Italy may have done more than the other nations, history
tells us that it was two Frenchmen, Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, who
were the first to bring the lighter-than-air craft prominently before
the world.
The story goes that while rowing, Stephen’s silk coat fell overboard
into the water. It was placed over a hot oven to dry, and watching it,
Joseph noticed that the hot air tended to make it rise. The upshot of
the affair was the Montgolfier balloon.
Throughout history the lighter-than-air craft has figured prominently
in warfare. In the Franco-Prussian War, during the siege of Paris
alone, as many as 66 balloons left the stricken city, carrying 60
pilots, 102 passengers, 409 carrier pigeons, 9 tons of letters and
telegrams, and 6 dogs.
Gaston Tissandier went over the German lines and dropped 10,000 copies
of a proclamation addressed to the soldiers, asking for peace, yet
declaring that France would fight to the bitter end.
In the American Civil War an aeronaut named La Fontaine went up in a
balloon over an enemy camp, made his observation, rose higher into the
air, and succeeded in getting into a cross-current, which carried him
back to his place of departure.
The first cross-channel flight was made by balloon in 1785, by
Blanchard, who had with him an American doctor named Jefferies,
together with a large supply of provisions, ballast and oars. This
weighed the balloon down to such an extent that she almost sank into
the sea a few moments after starting. Ballast was thrown overboard, and
she rose, only to sink again. More ballast was dropped. Then they rose
into the air and eventually landed in safety on the hills behind Calais.
* * * * *
Having thus shortly outlined the development of the one, we will
endeavor to discover the fundamental difference between aeroplane and
airship. It is simply the matter of “lift” obtained in the case of the
latter from the property of being lighter than air, whereas the other
craft being heavier than air must obtain its “lift” by mechanical
propulsion.
The airship is merely an improvement on the old-fashioned balloon: a
balloon to which mechanical propulsion has been applied. Different in
shape, indeed, and fitted out with many modern improvements, its flight
is still governed by the same laws of “aerostatics.”
For practical purposes we will divide the airship into two portions:
the envelope or balloon, and the car. Atmospheric conditions influence
the envelope to no small degree. The effect of heat upon gas--with
which the envelope is filled--is to make it expand, and consequently
cause the craft to rise. Cold, on the other hand, causes the gas to
contract, and the craft to descend. Air pressure is another factor
which must be taken into account, and this is greatest at sea-level.
The greater the altitude, the less the pressure becomes, and the less
pressure on the outside surface of the envelope the easier it is for
the gas to expand; but this is compensated for by the fact that the
atmosphere is considerably cooler at a high altitude.
There are three types of airship: the “non-rigid,” in which the two
portions, the car and the envelope, are entirely separate portions,
being held together by means of rigging; “semi-rigged,” in which the
car is partly attached to the envelope, a type greatly favored by
French and Italians; and the “rigid” airship, of which both car and
envelope are in the same framework. The Zeppelin is of the latter class.
Like other great airships the Zeppelin does not rely on one single
balloon for “lift.” Instead, the envelope forms merely the outer
covering for eighteen balloonettes, which can be regulated in the
matter of expansion and contraction from the control-car of one of the
three gondolas below.
We have by no means yet seen these wonderful craft at their deadliest;
the German pilots are extremely brave men, yet lack that initiative and
dash peculiar to the British Air Service. Were the position reversed,
one dreads to think what might happen to this country.
The future is all with the airship, in the rôle of commerce-bearing
aircraft. The aeroplane and all heavier-than-air craft are of little
value save as units of war, and even then their uses are infinitesimal
when compared with those of the Zeppelin. And the secret of the success
of the Zeppelin is that she has the “lift,” double and treble the
lift of the aeroplane, and is developing beyond belief, whereas, in
proportion, the aeroplane develops little year by year.
Taking everything into consideration we must have Zeppelins! It is
imperative for the future safety of our nation. The longer we submit
thus meekly to these aerial invasions, the longer will the war go on.
The German people in the past have been intoxicated with Zeppelins.
Weak, hungry and dispirited, their flagging spirits have again and
again been whipped up into martial ardor by the fantastic and bragging
reports issued by the General Staff in Berlin. One Zeppelin raid was of
more value to the moral of the German nation than two great victories
on the land. The giant craft to them is more than a mere engine of
warfare and destruction, it is a fetish, almost a religion; thus after
every raid the bells are rung. The streets are beflagged and decorated,
and the inhabitants become mad with joy. And we must not consider
the moral effects alone. From a military point of view, at the time
of writing the enemy air-raids necessitate the authorities retaining
numbers of valuable aircraft and many trained and expert pilots, not
to mention anti-aircraft guns and their crews, which would all be of
great value on the other side. Further, Germany defeated on land, and
deprived of her fleet at sea, but still in possession of her Zeppelins,
is a military power, and a very strong military power of the future.
We, in Great Britain, have lost for ever the natural advantage we once
possessed of being an island. Thanks to the vigilance and strength
of our Navy, we have held the narrow seas with a firm hold, that so
far no other nation has been able to overcome. Now we are always open
to invasion from the air; and the sea, which formerly afforded us
protection, is a serious disadvantage, in that invading aircraft can
creep over those broad lonely spaces, and come down upon us before we
are even aware of their proximity.
How can airships’ raids be encountered? There are three methods.
The first is, by anti-aircraft artillery; secondly, by airship; and
lastly, by aeroplane. The first method--that of gun-fire--is extremely
unreliable. This is not the fault of the men so much, nor of the guns
with which they fire, but rather of the conditions under which they
work. Practice with anti-aircraft guns is rare and insufficient; and
the best part of the firing takes place at night at a rapidly moving
object, many thousands of feet up in the air. Aeroplanes are greatly
handicapped by want of “lift”--a quality which goes far to render
aircraft either useful or useless. To obtain “lift” the latter craft
relies solely on the high power of its engine, whereas, with the
Zeppelin, “lift” is obtained by two means: one by the envelope, which
contains gas several times lighter than air; and the other, as with the
aeroplane, by engine power. Thus we have double the lifting power with
a dirigible than with an aeroplane, and hence double, and in actual
fact treble, the war lift; and treble the amount of bombs, ammunition,
and machine-guns can be carried.
The effect the enemy hopes to gain by his constant Zeppelin raids, is
partly moral, partly military. To achieve the latter it is necessary
that the enemy airman destroy some position or place of military
importance, as a powder-factory, an arsenal, a large camp, an important
railway junction, a munitions factory, a naval dockyard, an ordnance
factory, or a similar area. But in very few instances have the raiding
Zeppelins touched either of these places. Thus they have achieved
but little military result. The moral result attempted has been to
frighten and harass the inhabitants of this country until--Germany had
a mental vision--they would be groveling on their knees in the dust,
begging the Government to sue for peace. We have already dealt with
the moral effect these raids have on their own people. By aid of lying
and bombastic reports the enemy do not fail to impress--and greatly
impress--neutral countries. Some readers will perhaps remember it was
after a big Zeppelin raid on this country that Bulgaria joined the
Central Powers. The Germans know only too well that we do not possess
large airships of our own. Suppose we did; what would be the panic and
consternation caused in Berlin by the appearance over that city of a
squadron of British bomb-dropping Zeppelins, and how far would it go to
shorten the war?
During the last few months we have seen the Zeppelin in a more useful
and more dangerous aspect, namely in the capacity of Naval Scout. Let
us consider what are the main duties of a light-cruiser fleet at sea;
they are of a very similar nature to those of the cavalry, namely to
form a protective screen to the main body, and to advance as nearly as
possible to the enemy to discover the exact disposition of his forces.
In one word, their main duty is scouting. In this respect the enemy
went one better than ourselves. He built Zeppelins, and succeeded in
accomplishing with a single Zeppelin that which in former days had
required a fleet of light cruisers. Without necessarily running any
risk, the giant airship at a height of 10,000 feet has a view extending
on a clear day to as much as thirty miles, and some three-hundred
square miles of sea surface. What cruiser look-out can claim a
perspective equal to that? At thirty miles, or twenty-five or even
twenty, the Zeppelin pilot is well out of range of the enemy shells,
and with his wireless instrument, which has another range of thirty
miles, can signal to the admiral of the fleet when the enemy is yet
sixty miles off. This view explains the fact why the two fleets have so
seldom been at grips in the two years of war. The enemy, by means of
his aerial scouts, must oft and again have been warned of the proximity
of the British Fleet. The official account of the Jutland battle stated
that the weather was dull and misty; hence the Zeppelins would have
been unable successfully to perform their usual duties.
The extreme radius of Zeppelin activity is usually considered to be 600
miles out, 600 miles home, and judged from the three principal Zeppelin
centers--Heligoland, Brussels and Friedrichshaven--embraces, with the
possible exception of a small and unimportant portion of the west
coast of Ireland and north coast of Scotland, every city, military
camp, munition factory, dockyard and industrial center in Great
Britain.
CHAPTER XXIV
LAWS OF THE AIR
At a recent coroner’s inquest on the death of a young Service pilot
in England, an instructor of the flying school at which he was being
trained, stated in the course of his evidence that if the pilots--there
had been a horrifying collision in mid-air--had only been familiar with
aerial rules and regulations, the accident would never have occurred.
In this particular instance one machine had been coming down, while
another was just leaving the ground. Both of the pilots were aware of
the danger they were in, but neither knew the right course to pursue.
Result--collision and death. Had both of them carried out the Royal
Aero Club’s regulation: that an aeroplane passing another aeroplane
in mid-air must leave at least ten meters’ space between the extreme
wing-tips and always pass to the right of the approaching craft, both
of them would have been alive to-day.
So very few of the public outside the flying world are aware that, as
navigation of the sea is ordered by the Navigation Act, so is the
navigation of the air by the Aerial Navigation Acts of 1911 and 1913,
and by the rules and regulations of the Royal Aero Club, which latter
organization previous to the war controlled all matters aeronautical
and still controls the granting of pilot’s certificates.
Even in the ballooning days a charter was drawn up at a conference at
Brussels, which ordained that every private balloon--that is to say,
one not in the hands of the naval or military authorities--must be
registered and have a name and number, which should be printed in large
letters on the body of the balloon. The place of residence of the owner
must also be stated, and the number and the place of origin be printed
in red. Every ascent by a private person must be under the control
of a state official. Government balloons, on the other hand, are not
expected to carry papers, but private balloons must have a copy of the
official particulars and a list of the passengers. A balloon must be
identified in the same way as a ship, and must carry a flag, fastened
to the net half-way down the balloon, and this must be recognizable
both by its shape and coloring, and be properly mounted in position. A
journal must be kept and the man in charge must produce his certificate
on demand.
These latter rules also apply to airships, but not to aeroplanes.
These types of aircraft are too numerous to be able to identify
singly, but there are many other rules to which they must submit. For
instance--flying over London and similar crowded areas is prohibited;
or, in the words of the R. A. C.: “Flying to the danger of the public
is prohibited, particularly unnecessary flights over towns, or thickly
populated areas, or over places where crouds are temporarily assembled,
or over public enclosures at aerodromes at such a height as to involve
danger to the public. Flying is also prohibited over River Regattas,
Race meetings, meetings for public games and sports, except flights
specifically arranged for in writing with the promoters of such
Regattas, Meetings, etc.”
If he disregard any of these regulations, the airman is liable to a
fine not exceeding £20 and suspension of his flying certificate.
The first Aerial Navigation Act of 1911 was not in reality a Navigation
Act at all, but although that was its title, it was described as “An
Act to provide for the protection of the public against dangers arising
from the Navigation of Aircraft.” The penalties attached thereto were
exceedingly heavy and provided that any airman disregarding the Act
would be liable after conviction on indictment or on summary conviction
to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to a fine not
exceeding £200, or to both such imprisonment and fine.
The Act included various prohibited flying areas, mostly in the
neighborhood of arsenals, munition factories, and naval dockyards, or
similar military areas.
Certain conditions were imposed on aircraft landing in this country
from abroad, as that the person in charge of the aircraft, before
commencing a voyage to the United Kingdom, must apply for a clearance
to a duly authorized British Consular Officer. He must make a written
application, which states clearly the name and registered number of the
craft; the type, the name, nationality, and the place of residence of
the owner or person in charge, and of every member of the crew; and the
name, profession, nationality and place of residence of every passenger
(if any), the nature of the cargo (if any), the approximate time of
departure, place of departure, the intended landing-place in the United
Kingdom, the proposed destination, and the object of the voyage.
Having settled the matters of procedure, it was further added that
“no person in any aircraft entering the United Kingdom should carry,
or allow to be carried, in the aircraft, any goods, the importation
of which is prohibited by the laws relating to customs; any goods
chargeable upon importation into the United Kingdom with any duty or
customs, except such small quantities as have been placed on board
at the place of departure, as being necessary for the use during the
voyage of the persons conveyed therein, any photographic apparatus,
carrier or homing pigeons, explosives or firearms, or any mails.”
On the return journey the aircraft is not permitted to leave unless
there be at least one British representative, approved by the
authorized officer, on board. No photographic or wireless apparatus,
etc., shall be carried, and no mails.
Foreign, naval, or military aircraft must not pass over, nor land
within any port of the United Kingdom, nor the territorial waters
thereof, except on the express invitation, or with the express
permission, previously obtained, of His Majesty’s Government.
None of the foregoing orders applies to naval or military aircraft,
belonging to, or employed in the service of His Majesty.
CHAPTER XXV
AERIAL COMBAT
With every combat in mid-air some new theory is set up, some new
conclusion arrived at, and as yet nothing can be definite. We may
say for practical purposes that the strategical work is confined
to seaplane and airship-scouting with the fleets at sea, and
long-distance aeroplane raids into the enemy’s country; tactical work
to reconnaissance trips over the neighborhood of the lines and the
direction of artillery fire. The battle formation of the aeroplane
squadron is now, and will in the future be similar to that of a fleet
at sea. Even now the two methods of battle are closely akin.
There are three distinct phases of aerial combat to be
considered--aeroplane _versus_ aeroplane, airship against airship, and
aeroplane against airship. It is a difficult matter to decide which is
the more useful as a fighting unit, but thus far one is inclined to say
the light, high-powered aeroplane. Zeppelins and airships are for the
most part clumsy and unwieldly. Seaplanes, again, are usually heavy
and slow to answer to their controls.
The important factors are the lifting power of the machine and weather
conditions. The property of “lift” is determined on the one hand by
mechanical devices, and on the other by the balloon portion of the
craft which is lighter than the air. Lift spells speed, endurance, and
climbing powers, and therefore the machine with the greater lift is the
better equipped for fighting purposes.
WIND AND CLOUD
Next in order of importance is wind. The engine may be giving a speed
of sixty miles per hour, and the craft be flying in the teeth of a 20
m.p.h. wind, thus its actual speed would be forty, not sixty, miles an
hour. Again, two enemy machines, A and B, are approaching one another
to give battle. Both have a speed of 60 m.p.h., but A is flying “down”
with a fifteen-mile wind at the back of him. Their relative speeds
would be: A seventy-five, B forty-five, or an advantage of thirty miles
an hour for A; but on the turn--the majority of aerial combats are
fought out on the principal of circling and wheeling--the advantage
would be transferred to B. Good pilotage is of extreme importance; the
pilot who is able to get the most out of his machine and knows it best
will almost invariably gain the day.
Clouds are often made great use of by pilots. Almost every day we
read of a machine dashing out from behind a bank of cloud, and taking
another by surprise. On the other hand, clouds may prove disastrous
to both combatants, owing to the peculiar property they possess of
influencing the stability of the machine.
Lift, however, is still the great factor, since the fight always
develops into a struggle for the upper berth, and is usually fought in
an upward direction. It is climb, climb, climb; then, with the wind
at his back, a last swoop down on the enemy--taking him in his most
vulnerable position--and the fight is over. Various expedients are made
use of to gain this end, such as getting between an opponent and the
sun, “diving” suddenly and “looping.” With either aeroplane or airship
it is the uppermost position that counts.
The type of craft most useful for this work is the high-engined biplane
of the “tractor”--propeller to the fore--type, the machine-gun firing
through the blades of the propeller. The essentials of these machines
are speed and ability to climb quickly. The slower machines, with
greater powers of endurance, are more useful for bomb-raiding and
reconnaissance purposes.
“LIFT” THE FACTOR
Airship combat has yet to materialize. Many opinions and theories,
often widely conflicting, have been put forward concerning the
possibilities and probabilities of such conflicts, but nothing
definite can be advanced until a battle between airships has taken
place. The opinion of the majority of the experts is that an airship
would be little better than useless to meet an airship, and for our
own particular requirements--that is, the repelling of Zeppelin
raids--aeroplanes are of more use; which brings us to the combat
between aeroplane and airship.
Considering first their main qualities: the airship has great “lifting”
powers, is more heavily armed, can climb at a faster rate, and has
greater powers of endurance; whereas the aeroplane has greater speed,
is more easily maneuvered, and is less unwieldy.
The tendency of the Zeppelin commanders is to increase rather than
decrease altitude with every raid, which renders attack by aeroplane
more difficult; but, on the other hand, aeroplanes are being built
which can develop so remarkable a speed that they will soon be able to
climb above Zeppelin altitude. When that occurs the Zeppelin menace
will end for ever.
CHAPTER XXVI
THE AIR--THE WAR--AND THE FUTURE
Had either Orville or Wilbur Wright, when they first glided down the
low sand-dunes of the Pacific shore on a frail, uncontrollable air
machine, in the earlier part of this century, or Count Zeppelin, as
he worked unceasingly on his giant airship, been blessed with the
imagination and the gifts of a seer--what remarkable vision would have
been theirs!
To see that frail glider increase and grow into a motor-propelled,
double-winged aeroplane, darting through the air with the speed of a
cyclone: that unwieldy airship, capable at the most of remaining for
half-an-hour in the air at a time, develop into a craft, to which the
crossing and re-crossing of the wide expanse of the North Sea was an
everyday occurrence: to see the aeroplane climb up to 18,000 feet in
the sky, to attain a speed of over 100 miles per hour, and remain in
the air for hours on end....
The Zeppelin originally intended to be a peaceful carrier of the
commerce of the world, converted into a ship of war, with machine-guns
mounted fore and aft; and with a cargo on board deadly enough to wreck
the half of a city....
The far-flung battle-line of Flanders, over which there creep, like
great gray wasps, French, Belgian, German and British aeroplanes alike;
the elongated shapes of raiding Zeppelins, darting hither and thither
over a darkened London, among piercing searchlight rays and bursting
shrapnel! Yet a few years, and the shapes and structures may undergo
even more marvelous change; for every talent and accomplishment,
every art and science of modern civilization will be devoted to the
development of this new science of aeronautics.
THE WAR AND AVIATION
One may say, without much fear of contradiction, that the war has done
more towards the development of aviation, and has rendered more things
possible to be done in two years than would have been accomplished in
ten years under pre-wartime conditions.
It has necessitated the production of many thousands of craft of
varying degrees of size and shape, and the number of factories engaged
upon the production of aeroplanes, airships, and spare parts for the
respective craft has trebled. For one trained and experienced aviator,
in 1914, there are to-day at least ten, if anything more capable, and
certainly better experienced.
As a test of the durability and the capabilities of aircraft, flying
under war conditions cannot be equaled, for various reasons. Firstly,
maneuvers, which in times of peace would be considered risky to life
and thus avoided, must be endured daily by pilots flying over the
battle area. Flying under shell-fire frequently necessitates maneuvers,
entirely unaccounted for by the constructors of the machine, which put
a very great strain on the framework, wings, struts, etc. To compensate
for such strain, every wire, strut, and part of the framework is
constructed of a strength at least eight times greater than that of
the actual strength required. Thus the weak points of the machine are
discovered, also the centers at which the greatest strain takes place.
FUTURE TYPES OF CRAFT
The shape and general build of the aeroplane has not thus far changed
materially from the original models of Orville and Wilbur Wright, save
that the majority of the modern machines are tractors (_i. e._ with
the engine in front), whereas the older types were “pushers” (with
engine at the rear). The new principle has naturally both advantage and
disadvantage. With the tractor engine, the machine has a great speed,
and is able to climb at a much faster rate, but the inherent stability
of the craft is seriously affected--by shifting the engine 80 per
cent. of the total weight is moved from the center to the nose of the
aeroplane. To compensate for this the wings have had to be extended,
and this has added considerably to the weight in aggregate. But this
evil has again been remedied, by bringing the extreme ends further to
the rear, and slightly indenting each wing-tip: in a word, constructing
the aeroplane more and more after the fashion of a bird in flight. Such
is the peculiar working of the human mind, however, that when some new
theory or substance is evolved, similar to the one in question, it
is content to concentrate on the original formula, and develops that
rather than apply the same principles to an entirely new formula. Thus,
after some twelve years of flying, we have only four distinct types of
craft: the balloon, the airship, the aeroplane, and the seaplane--the
two former being very similar both in principle and shape, as also
the two latter. Exception cannot be made for the “triplane,” for that
machine, with three planes, has the same shape as the aeroplane.
The principles of aero-statics, and aero-dynamics by no means confine
the constructor to these two standard forms; and in the near future
the aeroplane will be built on similar lines to the ocean-going liner,
and the airship very much on the same principle.
Development in size and speed depend on future experimenting, and
flights have already been made both in France and Russia by giant
aeroplanes, in which, in one case nine, and in the other fifteen
passengers, exclusive of the pilot were carried at one time; while the
later Zeppelins are capable of lifting to a height of over 12,000 feet,
a crew of thirty odd, with a further weight of bombs and war material
aboard, and flying distances of over 800 miles. Again, there are the
orthropic and the ornithropic types of craft, which their inventors
claim to be capable of rising vertically from the ground to a height
of 10,000 feet. Combining these principles we ought within the space
of ten years to be in possession of aircraft capable of flying at
over 150 miles an hour, with a cargo of many hundred tons aboard, and
with a radius of over 3,000 miles, able to start and land with ease
in a confined space about the size of Leicester Square. The aerial
landing grounds will be the flat roofs of gigantic buildings specially
constructed in the center of London. Automatic lifts will convey the
passengers from the air level to the street level, where they will be
deposited in electric trains, running in all directions. Impracticable,
say the critics, but so they said when Count Zeppelin and the Wrights
first started their experiments.
PROPERTIES OF WAR AND PEACE MACHINES
There is not, and there never was, on this earth a new idea so well
deserving of examination as the science of Aeronautics. The history of
that science deals with the most momentous invention in the history of
civilization. No other science allures the imagination so far forward
into the dim future, when the business of the world will be carried up
from the level of the sea and the land to that of mid-air, and when
travel will be so rapid and safe that space will almost cease to be an
obstacle to man’s communications.
The proudest inventions of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries are but of yesterday when compared with those of the
aeroplane and airship. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that
we should consider how the development of aeronautics will affect
the future of the human race. Under the present war-time conditions,
there exists a grave danger that the aeroplane and the airship will
be developed too much for war purposes to the detriment of future
commercial uses. The qualities mainly required by the war machine,
speed, ability to climb quickly, and compactness, differ entirely from
those required by the peace time or commerce-bearing aircraft, which
have ability to remain in the air for a great space of time, and to
fly greater distances. The extra speed required by the war machine may
easily be dispensed with in the commerce-bearing machines, as also may
altitude, for whereas the war machine must fly at a height of over
12,000 feet, a height of between 2000 and 3000 will suffice under
ordinary conditions, and it will be at this altitude that the best part
of the flying will take place after the war.
FUTURE NAVIES AND ARMIES OF THE WORLD
How will aviation affect warfare in the future? Will it abolish
entirely this undesirable condition of affairs, or will it serve to
provide added inducements? It is, indeed, a debatable point. If we
incline to the latter view, every known argument and theory points
to the fact that warfare of the future will be to all intents and
purposes instantaneous. There will be no preparatory delay caused
by the necessity of placing large armies in the field, of gradually
marching forward to establish contact with the enemy, and of carrying
out skirmishes which may be prolonged to weeks and months before the
actual battle takes place. The belligerent fleets will set off in the
dawn or in the darkness, as the case may be, and before twelve hours
have elapsed, after entering into the conflict, a definite decision
will have been reached. For the airman, there is no falling back to a
second line of trenches, to a natural position heavily defended, or to
a concrete fortress or emplacement, or to fight a rearguard action. The
fight in the air must be to the death, without quarter asked or given,
for no prisoners can be taken. The loss of men and material will be
tremendous.
It is doubtful whether aviation will entirely do away with fighting on
land and sea, but it is very obvious that either fleet or army of one
belligerent nation, at the mercy of the air fleet of another nation,
will be in a very helpless position. Should the warfare in the air
be indecisive, were such a condition within the realm of reasonable
argument, it might be possible for the fleet or army to be brought into
action with advantage, but even this is doubtful. As regards our own
nation, before 1926, the Royal Naval Air Service will be the largest
and most important service in Great Britain. Possibly there will be a
single Air Service, and before ten years will have elapsed it will be
the most important of all the British services, and will be composed
both of aeroplanes and airships. The only other form of aircraft, the
seaplane, being too slow, too clumsy, and too costly, will long ago
have been abandoned.
PEACE AND WAR USES OF AIRCRAFT
Before we enter upon the discussion which is the subject of this
paragraph we wish to guard ourselves against one misconception. It is
possible that readers of this chapter may already have come to the
conclusion that it is possible to develop aircraft for one purpose,
and one purpose only: that is, either for war or for commerce; and
impossible to develop them for both. This would be an entirely
erroneous idea. It is true that we have already laid stress upon
the fact that there is a very imminent danger that aircraft may be
developed too greatly for war purposes to the detriment of others, but
provided that the necessary precautions are taken, there is yet ample
time for the commerce-carrying machine to be developed at the same
time and in the same manner as the war machine. Within a very short
time we may find that the Super-Zeppelin of the air will have entirely
replaced not only the Dreadnought of the sea, but also the giant
passenger liners. Both the war and the peace craft will be considerably
larger in size than the 1916 type; the balloon portion of the Zeppelin
will have trebled itself in size; it will be, if anything, of greater
length and of slimmer formation, while the covering will be composed
of some light but durable metal, such as aluminium, to prevent the
possibility of explosion of gas caused by the firing of the guns. The
narrow gondola beneath will be wider, and will mount several guns of
4.7-inch or larger caliber: for although the Zeppelin of the future
will be a much more stable and airworthy craft, by reason of its
lateral stability it will never be possible to fire a gun of any size
from either bow or stern of an airship or a Zeppelin, without bringing
the whole craft canting over, and possibly breaking its back. Thus,
all Super-Zeppelins of the future will be heavily armed amidships,
that is to say, where the proportion of strain on the craft is least
felt. The passenger-carrying variety will differ very slightly from the
war machine, save that the gondola will be deeper, more graceful, and
more on the lines of the hull of the present-day ocean-going ship or
steamer. The Parseval and similar types of large airship will replace
the cruiser and the battle-cruiser; also the large cargo-bearing
steamers of to-day.
With regard to the aeroplane, we are already in possession of
super-craft, some of double engine variety, the Sykorsky, the giant
Russian machine, and the triplane, or three-planed aeroplane; but it is
extremely doubtful whether it is possible for the aeroplane, being a
heavier type of aircraft, to develop into a much larger size than it is
to-day; the reason for this being the abnormal engine-power that would
be required to lift such a craft from the ground, and the fact that the
extra weight thus occasioned would render the whole craft unairworthy.
However, the aeroplane will fulfill in the future the uses of the
light-cruiser and the torpedo-boat, while a sort of seaplane submarine
will fulfill the double purpose of both over and under water work.
As a commercial vessel the aeroplane will only be of use for the
conveyance of passengers and light cargoes on short voyages from Great
Britain to Ireland, Great Britain to France, Holland, Norway, or Russia.
THE BALANCE OF POWER
The new method of warfare will not influence to any material extent the
present condition of international politics. Of all the Great Powers,
however, Great Britain will be more nearly affected. For many centuries
past we have relied upon our natural geographical position, as an
island, to protect us from all invasion. And to retain this insular and
impregnable position we have relied upon our glorious Navy, which is,
and always has been, mistress of the seas. But now we are no longer an
island; that is to say, we are no longer protected from the attacks of
an enemy merely because we are surrounded by sea, even although we
maintain the supremacy of our naval power. Another element has now to
be considered, namely, the air, and that, unfortunately, we do not hold
with the same mastery that we did the sea. It will be seen, therefore,
that for the safety of the Empire, we must immediately build up a great
air fleet, and gain the supremacy of the air. Germany has already shown
us the lead in this respect, and we must not be content to follow, but
to improve, greatly improve, upon that lead. One thing is certain, that
the mad extravagant race for armaments among the nations will continue,
but with this difference--that it will be for great fleets of the air,
as to-day it is for large armies and great sea fleets.
FUTURE INFLUENCES
Thus far we have dealt solely with the influences of aviation upon
warfare and upon commerce; but such influences will by no means
be confined to these two phases; there are many other features in
international life that the development of aeronautics will influence
greatly. Foremost amongst them is that of travel. For the first few
years the cost of travel in the air will be appreciably greater than is
now the case. One of the leading aeronautical experts of the day has
computed that, to run a commercial service of aircraft, to cover the
heavy expenditure that will be incurred, and to allow for the wear and
tear of machines, it will be necessary to make a charge of 1½_d._ per
mile, or a 50 per cent. increase on the rates for present day travel by
steamer and railway. Once the project is in full swing, however, and
the initial outlay has been recovered, such charge will be reduced to
one halfpenny per mile, or 50 per cent. less than present conditions.
In the matter of speed and time, there will be a remarkable advantage;
for example, some of the proposed air routes are London to New York in
18 hours, London to Capetown in 54, and London to Sydney (Australia)
in four days. This added economy and speed will tempt the traveling
public, and for that matter the non-traveling public further afield,
and will serve greatly to help on education and the rapid development
of the remotest of our colonies, thus drawing closer the bond of union
between the different portions of our great Empire. Countries and
tracts of land hitherto undeveloped and unknown will be opened up by
the aerial explorer, and whole continents will, with the greatest ease,
be policed by aeroplane and by airship.
A FUTURE WAR WITH GERMANY
Will this war be followed by an aerial war between Germany and Great
Britain at a no distant date? This depends solely on the future course
and the conclusion of the present war.
After some fourteen years’ experimenting, inventing and developing,
and the expenditure of several millions of money, Count Zeppelin, or
rather the very considerable staff of experts which he has at his
disposal, produced the modern Zeppelin: that is to say, the craft that
has been in use since the outbreak of the war. What Germany’s policy
was in constructing these huge craft it is not difficult to discover.
Previous to August, 1914, when her navy was inferior to only one other
in the world, and that our own, and she was gradually gaining upon us
both in the number of ships and _personnel_, very little was heard of
the airship program: the industry was given State encouragement; but
then, to our cost, we know that the enemy has always encouraged any
new enterprise that was likely to prove of value from a military point
of view. War was declared. Our gallant Fleet, by a series of brilliant
engagements, succeeded in driving the enemy shipping from the seas of
the world, and in bottling up the Kaiser’s grand fleet in the Kiel
Canal, where it has ever since remained. What effect did this have on
the aircraft, and more particularly the Zeppelin, industry in Germany?
Labor was instantly withdrawn from the shipbuilding yards, and turned
over to the construction of Zeppelins. In the early stages of the war
the output stood at approximately one a month; this soon crept up to a
couple a month, then to three, then to one a week, and now to-day they
claim that two Zeppelins per week are being turned out by the factories
that have sprung up in nearly every large town in the German Empire.
What do all these events portend? Those who know the German and his
characteristics intimately, tell us that at the back of every German
mind, the keenest of all desires is an invasion of England. The reason
for this bitter hatred is that the British Empire is on every hand an
obstacle to the development of Germany; we were their keenest trade
rivals, their most dangerous enemy in the matter of world supremacy,
and we were successful in establishing colonies, an ambition dear to
every German heart.
There can only be two objects in view in the mind of the German
Imperial Staff: the one is a gigantic air raid on this country, as a
last resource during the present war; the other, a determination on the
part of Germany, after the present war is ended and forgotten, to gain
a considerable ascendancy in the air, and thus once more to take her
place as a martial power among the nations. To prevent this, it will be
necessary for us not only to destroy her armies on the land, and her
fleets at sea, but also her fleets of aircraft; for Germany, though
beaten by land and sea, and still in possession of her aircraft, will
remain for ever a menace to the civilized world.
Transcriber’s Notes:
--Text in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_).
--Punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently corrected.
--Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.
--Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.
--The Chapter titles in the CONTENTS were adjusted to match the titles
within the book's content for: Chapters XVII (THE GREAT RAID ON
ZEEBRUGGE -> A GREAT RAID) and XXVI (THE AIR--THE WAR--AND AFTER ->
THE AIR--THE WAR--AND THE FUTURE).
End of Project Gutenberg's The Way of the Air, by Edgar C. Middleton