“Teachers of the Agadah.” Weiss makes no attempt at apology for that which
seems to us strange, or even repugnant in this part of the Rabbinic
literature. The greatest fault to be found with those who wrote down such
passages as appear objectionable to us is, perhaps, that they did not
observe the wise rule of Johnson, who said to Boswell on a certain
occasion, “Let us get serious, for there comes a fool.” And the fools
unfortunately did come in the shape of certain Jewish commentators and
Christian controversialists, who took as serious things which were only
the expression of a momentary impulse, or represented the opinion of some
isolated individual, or were meant simply as a piece of humorous by‐play,
calculated to enliven the interest of a languid audience. But on the other
hand, as Weiss proves, the Agadah contains also many elements of real
edification and eternal truths as well as abundant material for building
up the edifice of dogmatic Judaism. Talmudical quotations of such a nature
are scattered by thousands over Weiss’s work, particularly in those
chapters in which he describes the lives of the greatest Rabbinical
heroes. But the author lays the student under special obligations by
putting together in the concluding pages of this volume some of these
sentences, and classifying them under various headings. I give here a few
extracts. For the references to authorities I must direct the reader to
the original:—
“The unity of God is the keystone of dogmatic Judaism. The Rabbis give
Israel the credit of having proclaimed to the world the unity of God. They
also say that Israel took an oath never to change Him for another God.
This only God is eternal, incorporeal, and immutable. And though the
prophets saw Him in different aspects, He warned them that they must not
infer from the visions vouchsafed to them that there are different Gods.
‘I am the first,’ He tells them, which implies that he had no father, and
the words, ‘There is no God besides me,’ mean that he has no son. Now,
this God, the God of Israel, is holy in every thinkable way of holiness.
He is merciful and gracious, as it is said, ‘And I will be gracious to
whom I will be gracious,’ even though he who is the recipient of God’s
grace has no merit of his own. ‘And I will show mercy to whom I will show
mercy,’ that is, even to those who do not deserve it. His attributes are
righteousness, loving‐kindness, and truth. God speaks words of eternal
truth, even as He himself is the eternal life. All that the Merciful One
does is only for good, and even in the time of His anger He remembers His
graciousness, and often suppresses His attribute of judgment before His
attribute of mercy. But with the righteous God is more severe than with
the rest of the world, and when His hand falls in chastening on His saints
His name becomes awful, revered, and exalted. This God of Israel, again,
extends His providence over all mankind, and especially over Israel. By
His eye everything is foreseen, yet freedom of choice is given, and the
world is judged by grace, yet all according to the works wrought. Hence,
know what is above thee, a seeing eye and a hearing ear, and that all thy
deeds are written in a book.
“They [the Rabbis] believed that God created the world out of nothing,
without toil and without weariness. This world was created by the
combination of His two attributes, mercy and justice. He rejoices in His
creation, and if the Maker praises it, who dares to blame it? And if He
exults in it, who shall find a blemish in it? Nay, it is a glorious and a
beautiful world. It is created for man, and its other denizens were all
meant but to serve him. Though all mankind are formed after the type of
Adam, no one is like his fellow‐man (each one having an individuality of
his own). Thus he is able to say, ‘For my sake, also, was the world
created’; and with this thought his responsibilities increase. But the
greatest love shown to man is that he was created in the image of God. Man
is a being possessed of free will, and, though everything is given on
pledge, whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow. Everything is in
the gift of Heaven except the fear of God. In man’s heart abide both the
evil inclination and the good inclination; and the words of Scripture,
‘Thou shalt not bow down before a strange god,’ point to the strange god
who is within man himself, who entices him to sin in this world, and gives
evidence against him in the next. But the Holy One—blessed be He!—said, ‘I
have created the evil inclination, but I have also created its antidote,
the Torah.’ And when man is occupied with the Torah and in works of
charity, he becomes the master of the evil inclination; otherwise, he is
its slave. When man reflects the image of God, he is the lord of creation,
and is feared by all creatures; but this image is defaced by sin, and then
he has no power over the universe, and is in fear of all things.
“Another principle of Judaism is the belief in reward and punishment. ‘I
am the Lord, your God,’ means, ‘it is I who am prepared to recompense you
for your good actions, and to bring retribution upon you for your evil
deeds.’ God does not allow to pass unrewarded even the merit of a kind and
considerate word. By the same measure which man metes out, it shall be
meted out to him. Because thou drownedst others, they have drowned thee,
and at the last they who drowned thee shall themselves be drowned. Though
it is not in our power to explain either the prosperity of the wicked or
the affliction of the righteous, nevertheless know before whom thou
toilest, and who thy employer is, who will pay thee the reward of thy
labour. Here at thy door is a poor man standing, and at his right hand
standeth God. If thou grantest his request, be certain of thy reward; but
if thou refusest, think of him who is by the side of the poor, and will
avenge it on thee. ‘God seeketh the persecuted’ to defend him, even though
it be the wicked who is persecuted by the righteous. The soul of man is
immortal, the souls of the righteous being treasured up under the throne
of God. Know that everything is according to the reckoning, and let not
thy imagination give thee hope that the grave will be a place of refuge
for thee, for perforce thou wast formed, and perforce thou wast born, and
thou livest perforce, and perforce thou wilt die, and perforce thou wilt
in the future have to give account and reckoning before the Supreme King
of kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.
“The advent of the Messiah is another article of the belief of the Rabbis.
But if a man tell thee that he knows when the redemption of Israel will
take place, believe him not, for this is one of the unrevealed secrets of
the Almighty. The mission of Elijah is to bring peace into the world,
while the Messiah, in whose days Israel will regain his national
independence, will lead the whole world in repentance to God. On this, it
is believed, will follow the resurrection of the dead.
“Another main principle in the belief of the Rabbis is the election of
Israel, which imposes on them special duties, and gives them a peculiar
mission. Beloved are Israel, for they are called the children of God, and
His firstborn. ‘They shall endure for ever’ through the merit of their
fathers. There is an especial covenant established between God and the
tribes of Israel. God is their father, and He said to them, My children,
even as I have no contact with the profanity of the world, so also
withdraw yourselves from it. And as I am holy, be ye also holy. Nay,
sanctify thyself by refraining even from that which is not forbidden thee.
There is no holiness without chastity.
“The main duty of Israel is to sanctify the name of God, for the Torah was
only given that His great name might be glorified. Better is it that a
single letter of the law be cast out than that the name of Heaven be
profaned. And this also is the mission of Israel in this world: to
sanctify the name of God, as it is written, ‘This people have I formed for
myself, that they may show forth my praise.’ Or, ‘And thou shalt love the
Lord thy God,’ which means, Thou shalt make God beloved by all creatures,
even as Abraham did. Israel is the light of the world; as it is said, ‘And
nations shall walk by thy light.’ But he who profanes the name of Heaven
in secret will suffer the penalty thereof in public; and this whether the
Heavenly Name be profaned in ignorance or in wilfulness.
“Another duty towards God is to love Him and to fear Him. God’s only
representative on earth is the God‐fearing man. Woe unto those who are
occupied in the study of the Torah, but who have no fear of God. But a
still higher duty it is to perform the commandments of God from love. For
greater is he who submits to the will of God from love than he who does so
from fear.
“Now, how shall man love God? This is answered in the words of Scripture,
‘And these words shall be upon thy heart.’ For by them thou wilt recognise
Him whose word called the world into existence, and follow His divine
attributes.
“God is righteous; be ye also righteous, O Israel. By righteousness the
Rabbis understand love of truth, hatred of lying and backbiting. The seal
of the Holy One, blessed be He, is Truth, of which the actions of man
should also bear the impress. Hence, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay, nay.
He who is honest in money transactions, unto him this is reckoned as if he
had fulfilled the whole of the Torah. Greater is he who earns his
livelihood by the labour of his hands than even the God‐fearing man;
whilst the righteous judge is, as it were, the companion of God in the
government of the world. For upon three things the world stands: upon
truth, upon judgment, upon peace; as it is said, ‘Judge ye the truth and
the judgment of peace in your gates.’ But he who breaks his word, his sin
is as great as if he worshipped idols; and God, who punished the people of
the time of the Flood, will also punish him who does not stand by his
word. Such a one belongs to one of the four classes who are not admitted
into the presence of the Shechinah; these are the scoffers, the hypocrites
(who bring the wrath of God into the world), the liars, and the
slanderers. The sin of the slanderer is like that of one who would deny
the root (the root of all religion, _i.e._ the existence of God). The
greatest of liars, however, is he who perjures himself, which also
involves the sin of profanation of the name of God. The hypocrite, who
insinuates himself into people’s good opinions, who wears his phylacteries
and is enwrapped in his gown with the fringes, and secretly commits sins,
equally transgresses the command, ‘Thou shalt not take the name of the
Lord thy God in vain.’
“God is gracious and merciful; therefore man also should be gracious and
merciful. Hence, ‘Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself,’ which is a
main principle in the Torah. What is unpleasant to thyself, do not unto
thy neighbour. This is the whole Torah, to which the rest is only to be
considered as a commentary. And this love is also extended to the
stranger, for as it is said with regard to Israel, ‘And thou shalt love
thy neighbour as thyself,’ so is it also said, ‘And thou shalt love him
(the stranger) as thyself.’ And thus said God to Israel, ‘My beloved
children, Am I in want of anything that I should request it of you? But
what I ask of you is that you should love, honour, and respect one
another.’ Therefore, love mankind, and bring them near to the Torah. Let
the honour of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own. Condemn not thy
fellow‐man until thou art come into his place, and judge all men in the
scale of merit. Say not ‘I will love scholars, but hate their disciples;’
or even, ‘I will love the disciples, but hate the ignorant,’ but love all,
for he who hates his neighbour is as bad as a murderer. Indeed, during the
age of the second Temple, men studied the Torah and the commandments, and
performed works of charity, but they hated each other, a sin that
outweighs all other sins, and for which the holy Temple was destroyed. Be
careful not to withdraw thy mercy from any man, for he who does so rebels
against the kingdom of God on earth. Walk in the ways of God, who is
merciful even to the wicked, and as He is gracious alike to those who know
Him, and to those who know Him not, so be thou. Indeed, charity is one of
the three pillars on which the world is based. It is more precious than
all other virtues. The man who gives charity in secret is greater even
than Moses our teacher. An act of charity and love it is to pray for our
fellow‐man, and to admonish him. ‘Thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy
neighbour, and not suffer sin upon him’ (Lev. xix. 18), means it is thy
duty to admonish him a hundred times if need be, even if he be thy
superior; for Jerusalem was only destroyed for the sin of its people in
not admonishing one another. The man whose protest would be of any weight,
and who does not exercise his authority (when any wrong is about to be
committed), is held responsible for the whole world.
“Peacefulness and humility are also the fruit of love. Be of the disciples
of Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing peace. Let every man be cautious in
the fear of God; let him ever give the soft answer that turneth away
wrath; let him promote peace, not only among his own relatives and
acquaintances, but also among the Gentiles. For (the labour of) all the
prophets was to plant peace in the world. Be exceeding lowly of spirit,
since the hope of man is but the worm. Be humble as Hillel, for he who is
humble causes the Divine presence to dwell with man. But the proud man
makes God say, ‘I and he cannot dwell in the same place.’ He who runs
after glory, glory flees from him, and he who flees from glory, glory
shall pursue him. Be of those who are despised rather than of those who
despise; of the persecuted rather than of the persecutors; be of those who
bear their reproach in silence and answer not.
“Another distinctive mark of Judaism is faith in God, and perfect
confidence in Him. Which is the right course for a man to choose for
himself? Let him have a strong faith in God, as it is said, ‘Mine eye
shall be upon the faithful (meaning those possessing faith in God) of the
land.’ And so also Habakkuk based the whole Torah on the principle of
faith, as it is said, ‘And the just shall live by his faith’ (ii. 4). He
who but fulfils a single commandment in absolute faith in God deserves
that the Holy Spirit should rest on him. Blessed is the man who fears God
in private, and trusts in Him with all his heart, for such fear and trust
arms him against every misfortune. He who puts his trust in the Holy One,
blessed be He, God becomes his shield and protection in this world and in
the next. He who has bread in his basket for to‐day, and says, ‘What shall
I have to eat to‐morrow?’ is a man of little faith. One consequence of
real faith is always to believe in the justice of God’s judgments. It is
the duty of man to thank God when he is visited with misfortune as he does
in the time of prosperity. Therefore, blessed is the man who, when visited
by suffering, questions not God’s justice. But what shall he do? Let him
examine his conduct and repent.
“For repentance is the greatest prerogative of man. Better is one hour of
repentance and good deeds in this world than the whole life of the world
to come. The aim of all wisdom is repentance and good deeds. The place
where the truly penitent shall stand is higher than that of the righteous.
Repentance finds its special expression in prayer; and when it is said in
Scripture, ‘Serve God with all thy heart,’ by this is meant, serve Him by
prayer, which is even greater than worship by means of sacrifices. Never
is a prayer entirely unanswered by God. Therefore, even though the sword
be on a man’s neck, let him not cease to supplicate God’s mercy. But
regard not thy prayer as a fixed mechanical task, but as an appeal for
mercy and grace before the All‐Present; as it is said, ‘For He is gracious
and full of mercy, slow to anger, abounding in loving‐kindness, and
repenteth him of the evil.’ ”
The last two volumes of Weiss’s work deal with the history of Tradition
during the Middle Ages, that is, from the conclusion of the Talmud to the
compilation of the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro. I have already
indicated that with Weiss Tradition did not terminate with the conclusion
of the Talmud. It only means that a certain undefinable kind of
literature, mostly held in dialogue form and containing many elements of
Tradition, was at last brought to an end. The authorities who did this
editorial work were the so‐called _Rabbanan Saburai_(153) and the
_Gaonim_, whose lives and literary activity are fully described by Weiss.
But, while thus engaged in preserving their inheritance from the past,
they were also enriching Tradition by new contributions, both the Saburai
and the Gaonim having not only added to and diminished from the Talmud,
but having also introduced avowedly new ordinances and decrees, and
created new institutions.
Now, it cannot be denied that a few of these ordinances and decrees had a
reforming tendency (see the second and twentieth chapters of vol. iv.); in
general, however, they took a more conservative turn than was the case in
the previous ages. This must be ascribed to the event of the great schism
within the Rabbinical camp itself. I refer to the rise of Caraism, which
took place during the first half of the eighth century.
There is probably no work in which the Halachic or legalistic side of this
sect is better described than in this volume of Weiss. I regret that I am
unable to enter into its details. But I cannot refrain from pointing to
one of the main principles of the Caraites. This was “Search the
Scriptures.” Now this does not look very dissimilar from the principle
held by the Rabbis. For what else is the Talmud, but a thorough searching
through the Bible for whatever was suggestive by time and circumstances?
The light which the Caraites applied to the searching of the Scriptures
was the same which illumined the paths of the Rabbis’ investigations. They
employed most of the expository rules of the Tannaite schools. The fact is
that they were only determined to find something different from what the
Rabbis found in the Scriptures. They wanted to have gloomy Sabbaths and
Festivals, and discovered authority for it in the Bible; they wanted to
retain most of the dietary laws which had their root only in Tradition,
but insisted on petty differences which they thought might be inferred
from the Scriptures, and they created a new “order of inheritance,” and
varied the forbidden degrees in marriage, in all which the only merit was
that they were in contradiction to the interpretation of the Rabbis. They
also refused to accept the Liturgy of Rabbinical Judaism, but never
succeeded in producing more than a patch‐work from verses of the Bible,
which, thus recast, they called a prayer‐book. There were undoubtedly
among their leaders many serious and sincere men, but they give us the
impression of prigs, as for instance, Moses Darai, when he reproaches the
Rabbinical Jews for having an “easy religion,” or Israel Hammaarabi, when
he recommended his book on the laws regarding the slaughtering of animals,
as having the special advantage that his decisions were always on the more
stringent side. Those who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land were by the
Caraites canonised as “mourners.” The Rabbanite R. Judah Hallevi also
visited the ruins of Jerusalem, but he did something more than “mourn and
sigh and cry,” he became a God‐intoxicated singer, and wrote the “Zion‐
Elegy.” The novel terminology which they use in their exegetical and
theological works, was only invented to spite the Rabbanites, and marks
its authors as pedants. On the other hand, it is not to be denied that
their opponents did not employ the best means to conciliate them. The
Middle Ages knew no other remedy against schism than excommunication, and
the Gaonim were the children of their time. Nor were the arguments which
the latter brought forward in defence of Tradition always calculated to
convince the Caraites of their error. When R. Saadiah, in his apology for
the institution of the Second Day of the Festival,(154) went the length of
assigning to it a Sinaitic origin, he could only succeed in making the
Caraites more suspicious of the claims of Tradition than before. In a
later generation one of his own party, R. Hai Gaon, had to declare his
predecessor’s words a “controversial exaggeration.” The zeal which some of
the Gaonim showed in their defence of such works as the _Chambers_ and the
_Measure of the Stature_(155) was a not less unfortunate thing, for it
involved the Rabbanites in unnecessary responsibilities for a new class of
literature of doubtful origin, which in succeeding centuries was disowned
by the best minds in Judaism.
The Gaonic period, to which we also owe the rise of the Massorah and the
introduction of points in the text of the Bible—of which Weiss treats
fully in the twenty‐third and twenty‐fourth chapters of vol. iv.—comes to
an end with the death of R. Hai. The famous schools of Sura and
Pumbeditha, over which these two Gaonim presided, fell into decay, and
Babylon ceased to be the centre of Judaism. To be more exact, we should
say that Judaism had no longer any real centre. Instead of dwelling in one
place for centuries, we now have to be perpetually on our journey,
accompanying our authors through all the inhabited parts of the
world—France, Italy, Spain, Germany, with an occasional trip to Africa and
Russia. There we shall meet with the new schools, each of which, though
interpreting the same Torah, occupied with the study of the same Talmud,
and even conforming more or less to the same mode of life, has an
individuality and character of its own, reflecting the thought and habits
of the country which it represents. Thus “geographical Judaism” becomes a
factor in history which no scholar can afford to neglect. It is true that
Judaism never remained entirely unbiassed by foreign ideas, and our author
points in many a place to Persian, Greek, and Roman influences on
Tradition; still, these influences seem to have undergone such a thorough
“Judaization” that it is only the practised eye of the scholar that is
able to see through the transformation. But it requires no great skill to
discriminate between the work produced by a Spanish and that of a French
Rabbi. Though both would write in Hebrew, they betray themselves very soon
by the style, diction, and train of thought peculiar to each country. The
Spaniard is always logical, clear, and systematising, whilst the French
Rabbi has very little sense of order, is always writing occasional notes,
has a great tendency to be obscure, but is mostly profound and critical.
Hence the fact that whilst Spain produced the greatest codifiers of the
law, we owe to France and Germany the best commentaries on the Talmud.
What these codes and commentaries meant for Judaism the student will find
in Weiss’s book, and still more fully in his admirable essays on Rashi
(Solomon b. Isaac), Maimonides, and R. Jacob Tam (published in his
periodical, _Beth Talmud_, and also separately). It is enough for us here
only to notice the fact of the breadth of Tradition, which could include
within its folds men of such different types as the sceptics, Maimonides,
Solomon b. Gabirol, and Abn Ezra on one side, and the simple “non‐
questioning” Rabbenu Gershom, Rashi, and Jacob Tam on the other.
The last three centuries, which occupy our author’s attention in the fifth
volume, are not remarkable for their progress. The world lives on the
past. The rationalists write treatises on Maimonides’ philosophical works,
whilst the German Talmudists add commentary to commentary. It is, indeed,
the reign of authority, “modified by accidents.” Such an accident was the
struggle between the Maimonists and Anti‐Maimonists, or the rise of the
Cabbalah, or the frequent controversies with Christians, all of which
tended to direct the minds of people into new channels of thought. But
though this period is less original in its work, it is not on that account
less sympathetic. One cannot read those beautiful descriptions which Weiss
gives of R. Meir of Rothenburg and his school, or of R. Asher and his
descendants, without feeling that one is in an atmosphere of saints, who
are the more attractive the less they were conscious of their own
saintliness. The only mistake, perhaps, was that the successors of these
“Chassidim or pious men of Germany” looked on many of the religious
customs that were merely the voluntary expression of particularly devout
souls as worthy of imitation by the whole community, and made them
obligatory upon all.