SELF-EXPRESSION AND DEVELOPMENT
We have already seen that the mind and the body are associated in a
copartnership in which each is an indispensable and active member. We
have seen that the body gets its dignity and worth from its relation
with the mind, and that the mind is dependent on the body for the crude
material of its thought, and also for the carrying out of its mandates
in securing adaptation to our environment. We have seen as a corollary
of these facts that the efficiency of both mind and body is conditioned
by the manner in which each carries out its share of the mutual
activities. Let us see something more of this interrelation.
1. INTER-RELATION OF IMPRESSION AND EXPRESSION
_No impression without corresponding expression_ has become a maxim in
both physiology and psychology. Inner life implies self-expression in
external activities. The stream of impressions pouring in upon us hourly
from our environment must have means of expression if development is to
follow. We cannot be passive recipients, but must be active participants
in the educational process. We must not only be able to _know_ and
_feel_, but to _do_.
[Illustration: FIG. 20]
THE MANY SOURCES OF IMPRESSIONS.--The nature of the impressions which
come to us and how they all lead on toward ultimate expression is shown
in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 20). Our material environment is
thrusting impressions upon us every moment of our life; also, the
material objects with which we deal have become so saturated with social
values that each comes to us with a double significance, and what an
object _means_ often stands for more than what it _is_. From the lives
of people with whom we daily mingle; from the wider circle whose lives
do not immediately touch ours, but who are interpreted to us by the
press, by history and literature; from the social institutions into
which have gone the lives of millions, and of which our lives form a
part, there come to us constantly a flood of impressions whose influence
cannot be measured. So likewise with religious impressions. God is all
about us and within us. He speaks to us from every nook and corner of
nature, and communes with us through the still small voice from within,
if we will but listen. The Bible, religious instruction, and the lives
of good people are other sources of religious impressions constantly
tending to mold our lives. The beautiful in nature, art, and human
conduct constantly appeals to us in æssthetic impressions.
ALL IMPRESSIONS LEAD TOWARD EXPRESSION.--Each of these groups of
impressions may be subdivided and extended into an almost indefinite
number and variety, the different groups meeting and overlapping, it is
true, yet each preserving reasonably distinct characteristics. A common
characteristic of them all, as shown in the diagram, is that they all
point toward expression. The varieties of light, color, form, and
distance which we get through vision are not merely that we may know
these phenomena of nature, but that, knowing them, we may use the
knowledge in making proper responses to our environment. Our power to
know human sympathy and love through our social impressions are not
merely that we may feel these emotions, but that, feeling them, we may
act in response to them.
It is impossible to classify logically in any simple scheme all the
possible forms of expression. The diagram will serve, however, to call
attention to some of the chief modes of bodily expression, and also to
the results of the bodily expressions in the arts and vocations. Here
again the process of subdivision and extension can be carried out
indefinitely. The laugh can be made to tell many different stories.
Crying may express bitter sorrow or uncontrollable joy. Vocal speech may
be carried on in a thousand tongues. Dramatic action may be made to
portray the whole range of human feelings. Plays and games are wide
enough in their scope to satisfy the demands of all ages and every
people. The handicrafts cover so wide a range that the material progress
of civilization can be classed under them, and indeed without their
development the arts and vocations would be impossible. Architecture,
sculpture, painting, music, and literature have a thousand possibilities
both in technique and content. Likewise the modes of society, conduct,
and religion are unlimited in their forms of expression.
LIMITATIONS OF EXPRESSION.--While it is more blessed to give than to
receive, it is somewhat harder in the doing; for more of the self is,
after all, involved in expression than in impression. Expression needs
to be cultivated as an art; for who can express all he thinks, or feels,
or conceives? Who can do his innermost self justice when he attempts to
express it in language, in music, or in marble? The painter answers when
praised for his work, "If you could but see the picture I intended to
paint!" The pupil says, "I know, but I cannot tell." The friend says, "I
wish I could tell you how sorry I am." The actor complains, "If I could
only portray the passion as I feel it, I could bring all the world to my
feet!" The body, being of grosser structure than the mind, must always
lag somewhat behind in expressing the mind's states; yet, so perfect is
the harmony between the two, that with a body well trained to respond to
the mind's needs, comparatively little of the spiritual need be lost in
its expression through the material.
2. THE PLACE OF EXPRESSION IN DEVELOPMENT
Nor are we to think that cultivation of expression results in better
power of expression alone, or that lack of cultivation results only in
decreased power of expression.
INTELLECTUAL VALUE OF EXPRESSION.--There is a distinct mental value in
expression. An idea always assumes new clearness and wider relations
when it is expressed. Michael Angelo, making his plans for the great
cathedral, found his first concept of the structure expanding and
growing more beautiful as he developed his plans. The sculptor,
beginning to model the statue after the image which he has in his mind,
finds the image growing and becoming more expressive and beautiful as
the clay is molded and formed. The writer finds the scope and worth of
his book growing as he proceeds with the writing. The student, beginning
doubtfully on his construction in geometry, finds the truth growing
clearer as he proceeds. The child with a dim and hazy notion of the
meaning of the story in history or literature discovers that the meaning
grows clear as he himself works out its expression in speech, in the
handicrafts, or in dramatic representation.
So we may apply the test to any realm of thought whatever, and the law
holds good: _It is not in its apprehension, but in its expression, that
a truth finally becomes assimilated to our body of usable knowledge._
And this means that in all training of the body through its motor
expression we are to remember that the mind must be behind the act; that
the intellect must guide the hand; that the object is not to make
skillful fingers alone, but to develop clear and intelligent thought as
well.
MORAL VALUE OF EXPRESSION.--Expression also has a distinct moral value.
There are many more people of good intentions than of moral character in
the world. The rugged proverb tells us that the road to hell is paved
with good intentions. And how easy it is to form good resolutions. Who
of us has not, after some moral struggle, said, "I will break the bonds
of this habit: I will enter upon that heroic line of action!" and then,
satisfied for the time with having made the resolution, continued in the
old path, until we were surprised later to find that we had never got
beyond the resolution.
It is not in the moment of the resolve but in the moment when the
resolve is carried out in action that the moral value inheres. To take a
stand on a question of right and wrong means more than to show one's
allegiance to the right--it clears one's own moral vision and gives him
command of himself. Expression is, finally, the only true test for our
morality. Lacking moral expression, we may stand in the class of those
who are merely good, but we can never enter the class of those who are
good for something. One cannot but wonder what would happen if all the
people in the world who are morally right should give expression to
their moral sentiments, not in words alone, but in deeds. Surely the
millennium would speedily come, not only among the nations, but in the
lives of men.
RELIGIOUS VALUE OF EXPRESSION.--True religious experience demands
expression. The older conception of a religious life was to escape from
the world and live a life of communion and contemplation in some
secluded spot, ignoring the world thirsting without. Later religious
teaching, however, recognized the fact that religion cannot consist in
drinking in blessings alone, no matter how ecstatic the feeling which
may accompany the process; that it is not the receiving, but this along
with the giving that enriches the life. To give the cup of cold water,
to visit the widow and the fatherless, to comfort and help the needy and
forlorn--this is not only scriptural but it is psychological. Only as
religious feeling goes out into religious expression, can we have a
normal religious experience.
SOCIAL VALUE OF EXPRESSION.--The criterion of an education once was, how
much does he know? The world did not expect an educated man to _do_
anything; he was to be put on a pedestal and admired from a distance.
But this criterion is now obsolete. Society cares little how much we
know if it does not enable us to do. People no longer admire mere
knowledge, but insist that the man of education shall put his shoulder
to the wheel and lend a hand wherever help is needed. Education is no
longer to set men apart from their fellows, but to make them more
efficient comrades and helpers in the world's work. Not the man who
_knows_ chemistry and botany, but he who can use this knowledge to make
two blades of grass grow where but one grew before, is the true
benefactor of his race. In short, the world demands services returned
for opportunities afforded; it expects social expression to result from
education.
And this is also best for the individual, for only through social
service can we attain to a full realization of the social values in our
environment. Only thus can we enter fully into the social heritage of
the ages which we receive from books and institutions; only thus can we
come into the truest and best relations with humanity in a common
brotherhood; only thus can we live the broader and more significant
life, and come to realize the largest possible social self.
3. EDUCATIONAL USE OF EXPRESSION
The educational significance of the truths illustrated in the diagram
and the discussion has been somewhat slow in taking hold in our schools.
This has been due not alone to the slowness of the educational world to
grasp a new idea, but also to the practical difficulties connected with
adapting the school exercises as well to the expression side of
education as to the impression. From the fall of Athens on down to the
time of Froebel the schools were constituted on the theory that pupils
were to _receive_ education; that they were to _drink in_ knowledge,
that their minds were to be _stored_ with facts. Children were to "be
seen and not heard." Education was largely a process of gorging the
memory with information.
EASIER TO PROVIDE FOR THE IMPRESSION SIDE OF EDUCATION.--Now it is
evident that it is far easier to provide for the passive side of
education than for the active side. All that is needed in the former
case is to have teachers and books reasonably full of information, and
pupils sufficiently docile to receive it. But in the latter case, the
equipment must be more extensive. If the child is to be allowed to carry
out his impressions into action, if he is actually to _do_ something
himself, then he must be supplied with adequate equipment.
So far as the home life was concerned, the child of several generations
ago was at a decided advantage over the child of today on the expression
side of his education. The homes of that day were beehives of industry,
in which a dozen handicrafts were taught and practiced. The buildings,
the farm implements, and most of the furniture of the home were made
from the native timber. The material for the clothing of the family was
produced on the farm, made into cloth, and finally into garments in the
home. Nearly all the supplies for the table came likewise from the farm.
These industries demanded the combined efforts of the family, and each
child did his or her part.
But that day is past. One-half of our people live in cities and towns,
and even in the village and on the farm the handicrafts of the home have
been relegated to the factory, and everything comes into the home ready
for use. The telephone, the mail carrier, and the deliveryman do all the
errands even, and the child in the home is deprived of responsibility
and of nearly all opportunity for manual expression. This is no one's
fault, for it is just one phase of a great industrial readjustment in
society. Yet the fact remains that the home has lost an important
element in education, which the school must supply if we are not to be
the losers educationally by the change.
THE SCHOOL TO TAKE UP THE HANDICRAFTS.--And modern educational method is
insisting precisely on this point. A few years ago the boy caught
whittling in school was a fit subject for a flogging; the boy is today
given bench and tools, and is instructed in their use. Then the child
was punished for drawing pictures; now we are using drawing as one of
the best modes of expression. Then instruction in singing was intrusted
to an occasional evening class, which only the older children could
attend, and which was taught by some itinerant singing master; today we
make music one of our most valuable school exercises. Then all play time
was so much time wasted; now we recognize play as a necessary and
valuable mode of expression and development. Then dramatic
representation was confined to the occasional exhibition or evening
entertainment; now it has become a recognized part of our school work.
Then it was a crime for pupils to communicate with each other in school;
now a part of the school work is planned so that pupils work in groups,
and thus receive social training. Then our schoolrooms were destitute of
every vestige of beauty; today many of them are artistic and beautiful.
This statement of the case is rather over-optimistic if applied to our
whole school system, however. For there are still many schools in which
all forms of handicraft are unknown, and in which the only training in
artistic expression is that which comes from caricaturing the teacher.
Singing is still an unknown art to many teachers. The play instinct is
yet looked upon with suspicion and distrust in some quarters. A large
number of our schoolrooms are as barren and ugly today as ever, and
contain an atmosphere as stifling to all forms of natural expression. We
can only comfort ourselves with Holmes's maxim, that it matters not so
much where we stand as in what direction we are moving. And we certainly
are moving toward a larger development and greater efficiency in
expression on the part of those who pass through our schools.
EXPRESSION AND CHARACTER.--Finally, all that has been said in this
discussion has direct reference to what we call character--that
mysterious something which we so often hear eulogized and so seldom
analyzed. Character has two distinct phases, which may be called the
_subjective_ phase and the _social_ phase; or, stating it differently,
character is both what we _are_ and what we _do_. The first of these has
to do with the nature of the real, innermost self; and the last, with
the modes in which this self finds expression. And it is fair to say
that those about us are concerned with what we are chiefly from its
relation to what we do.
Character is not a thing, but a process; it is the succession of our
thoughts and acts from hour to hour. It is not something which we can
hoard and protect and polish unto a more perfect day, but it is the
everyday self in the process of living. And the only way in which it can
be made or marred is through the nature of this stream of thoughts and
acts which constitute the day's life--is through _being_ or _doing_ well
or ill.
TWO LINES OF DEVELOPMENT.--The cultivation of character must, then,
ignore neither of these two lines. To neglect the first is to forget
that it is out of the abundance of the heart that the mouth speaks; that
a corrupt tree cannot bring forth good fruit; that the act is the true
index of the soul. To omit the second is to leave the character half
formed, the will weak, and the life inefficient and barren of results.
The mind must be supplied with noble ideas and high ideals, with right
emotions and worthy ambitions. On the other hand, the proper connection
must be established between these mental states and appropriate acts.
And the acts must finally grow into habits, so that we naturally and
inevitably translate our ideas and ideals, our emotions and ambitions
into deeds. Our character must be strong not in thought and feeling
alone, but also in the power to return to the world its finished
product in the form of service.
4. PROBLEMS IN INTROSPECTION AND OBSERVATION
1. Do you find that you understand better some difficult point or
problem after you have succeeded in stating it? Do you remember better
what you have expressed?
2. In which particular ones of your studies do you think you could have
done better if you had been given more opportunity for expression?
Explain the psychology of the maxim, we learn to do by doing.
3. Observe various schools at work for the purpose of determining
whether opportunities for expression in the recitations are adequate.
Have you ever seen a class when listless from listening liven up when
they were given something to _do_ themselves?
4. Make a study of the types of laughter you hear. Why is some laughter
much more pleasant than other laughter? What did a noted sculptor mean
when he said that a smile at the eyes cannot be depended upon as can one
at the mouth?
5. What examples have you observed in children's plays showing their
love for dramatic representation? What handicrafts are the most suitable
for children of primary grades? for the grammar school? for the high
school?
6. Do you number those among your acquaintance who seem bright enough,
so far as learning is concerned, but who cannot get anything
accomplished? Is the trouble on the expression side of their character?
What are you doing about your own powers of expression? Are you seeking
to cultivate expression in new lines? Is there danger in attempting too
many lines?
INDEX
Action, automatic, 275
classes of, 273
factors involved in, 59
reflex, 274
volitional, 276
Activity, necessity for motor, 56
Adolescence, interests of, 269
Association, and action, 149
chapter on, 144
development of centers, 57
laws of, 150
and methods of learning, 157
and memory, 146
nature of, 144
neural basis of, 145
partial or selective, 153
pleasure-pain motive in, 155
and thinking, 149
training in, 155
types of, 150
Attention, chapter on, 15
effects of, 16
and efficiency, 17
points of failure in, 20
habit of, 27, 73
improvement of, 26
method of, 18
Attention, nature of, 15
rhythms of, 20
types of, 22
Belief, in thinking, 180
Brain, chapter on, 30
and nervous system, 30
quality and memory, 162
relations of mind and, 30
Cerebellum, the, 37
Cerebrum, the, 37
Concept, the, 187
definition of, 189
function of, 187
growth of, 188
and language, 189
Consciousness, content of, 10
known by introspection, 2
the mind or, 1
nature of, 4
personal character of, 1
as a stream, 5
where it resides, 12
Cord, the spinal, 40
Cortex, the, 39
division of labor in, 45
Decision, under effort, 281
types of, 279
Decision and will, 277
Deduction, 196
Development, of association centers, 57
chapter on, 50
and instinct, 209
mental and motor training, 50
of nervous system, 60
through play, 215
Direction, perception of, 105
Disposition, and mood, 232, 230
and temperament, 233
Education, as habit forming, 78
Emotion, chapter on, 239
control of, 243, 246
cultivation of, 247
and feeling, 239
James-Lange theory of, 239
as a motive, 251
physiological explanation of, 240
End-Organ(s) of hearing, 92
kinæsthetic, 96
and sensory qualities, 91
of skin, 94
of smell, 94
of taste, 93
of vision, 91
Environment, influence of, 213
Expression, and character, 303
educational use of, 301
Expression, and impression, 296
learning to interpret, 4
limitations of, 297
self-, and development, 294, 298
Fatigue, and habit, 72
and nervous system, 62
Fear, instinct of, 221
types of, 222
Feeling, chapter on, 226
effects of, 230
and mood, 230
nature of, 227
qualities, 227
Forgetting, rate of, 170
Habit, of attention, 27, 73
chapter on, 66
effects of, 70
emotional, 257
forming as education, 78
and life economy, 70
nature of, 66
and personality, 75
physical basis of, 67
rules for forming, 81
tyranny of, 77
Handicrafts, and education, 302
Hearing, 92
Idea, and image, 111, 114
Image(ry), ability in, 118
chapter on, 111
classes of, 117
Image(ry), cultivation of, 123
and past experience, 111
functions of, 120
and ideas, 111, 114
and imagination, 134
types of, 119
Imagination, chapter on, 127
and conduct, 133
cultivation of, 136, 140
function of, 127
the stuff of, 134
and thinking, 134
types of, 138
Imitation, conscious and unconscious, 212
individuality in, 211
the instinct of, 210
in learning, 211
Induction, 197
Instinct(s), chapter on, 201
definition of, 202
of fear, 221
of imitation, 210
laws of, 205
nature of, 201
of play, 214
as starting points in development, 209
transitory nature of, 206
various undesirable, 222
various useful, 218
Interest(s), chapter on, 254
direct and indirect, 258
and education, 265
and habit, 257
nature of, 254
Interest(s) and nonvoluntary attention, 23
order of development of, 267
selection among, 262
transitoriness of certain, 260
Introspection, 2
and imagery, 116
method of, 3
James, quoted, 81
theory of emotion, 239
Judgment, functions of, 192
nature of, 191
in percepts and concepts, 191
and reasoning, 195
validity of, 193
Knowledge, raw material of, 96
through senses, 84
Language, and the concept, 189
Laws, of association, 150
of instinct, 205
of memory, 168
Learning, and association, 157
Localization of function in cortex, 43
Meaning, dependence on relations, 193
Memorizing, rules for, 169
Memory, and association, 146
and brain quality, 162
chapter on, 160
devices, 175
factors involved in, 163
what constitutes good, 171
laws of, 168
material of, 166
nature of, 160
physical basis of, 161
Mind, or consciousness, at birth, 32
and brain, 30
chapter on, 1
dependence on senses, 48
and external world, 32
Mood, and disposition, 230, 232
influence of, 231
how produced, 230
Motive, emotion as a, 257
Neuroglia, 35
Neurone, the, 34
Nerve cells, and nutrition, 50
undeveloped, 57
Nerve fibers, 57
Nervous system, and association, 145
and consciousness, 12
division of labor in, 43
factors determining efficiency of, 50
and fatigue, 62
gross structure of, 36
Nervous system, and nutrition, 64
order of development, 60
structural elements in, 34
and worry, 62
Objects, defined through perception, 101
physical qualities of, 87, 89
Percept, content of, 101
functions of, 103
Perception, chapter on, 98
of direction, 105
function of, 98
nature of, 100
of space, 104
of time, 106
training of, 108
Personality, and habit, 75
influence of, 213
Play, and education, 215
instinct of, 214
and work, 217
Qualities, sensory, auditory, 92
cutaneous, 94
kinæsthetic, 96
objects known through, 85
olfactory, 94
organic, 96
taste, 93
visual, 91
Reason, and judgment, 193
nature of, 193
and the syllogism, 196
Registration, and attention, 163
and memory, 163
recall, 165
recognition, 166
Rhythm, of attention, 20
Self expression and development, 294
Sensation, attributes of, 89
chapter on, 84
cutaneous, 94
factors conditioning, 88
kinæsthetic, 96
nature of, 89
organic, 96
qualities of, 85
qualities of auditory, 92
qualities of olfactory, 94
qualities of taste, 93
qualities of visual, 91
Senses, dependence of mind on, 48
knowledge through, 84
work of, 33
Sentiments, development of, 235
influence of, 236
nature of, 234
Smell, 94
Space, perception of, 104
Stimuli, education and, 60
effects of sensory, 55
end-organs and, 47
sensory, 46
Stimuli, and response, 53
Syllogism, the 196
Taste, 93
Temperament, 233
Thinking, and association, 149
chapter on, 179
child and adult, 184
elements in, 186
good and memory, 171
types of, 179
Time, perception of, 106
Validity, of judgment, 193
Vision, 91
Volition, see will, 271
and decision, 277
Volitional types, 284
Will, and attention, 24
chapter on, 271
content of, 272
freedom of, 290
function of, 272
measure of power, 284
nature of, 271
strong and weak, 283
training of, 288
types of, 285
Work, and play, 217
Worry, effects of, 62
Youth, and habit-forming, 79
* * * * * *
A VALUABLE BOOK FOR TEACHERS
PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE
By PAUL KLAPPER, Ph.D., Department of Education, College of the City of
New York. 8vo, Cloth, $1.75.
This book studies the basic principles underlying sound and progressive
pedagogy. In its scope and organization it aims to give (1) a
comprehensive and systematic analysis of the principles of education,
(2) the modern trend and interpretation of educational thought, (3) a
transition from pure psychology to methods of teaching and discipline,
and (4) practical applications of educational theory to the problems
that confront the teacher in the course of daily routine. Every
practical pedagogical solution that is offered has actually stood the
test of classroom demonstration.
The book opens with a study of the function of education and a contrast
of the modern social conception with those aims which have been guiding
ideals in previous educational systems. Part II deals with the
physiological aspects of education. Part III is taken up with the
problem of socializing the child through the curriculum and the school
discipline. The last part of the book, Part IV, The Mental Aspect of
Education, is developed under the following sections: _Section A._ The
Instinctive Aspect of Mind. Mind and its development through
self-expression. Self-activity. Instincts. _Section B._ Intellectual
Aspect of Mind. The functions of Intellect, Perception, Apperception,
Memory, Imagination, Thought Activities. The Doctrine of Formal
Discipline and its influence upon educational endeavor. _Section C._
Emotional Aspect of Mind. _Section D._ Volitional Aspect of Mind. Study
of will, kinds of volitional action, habit vs. deliberative
consciousness. The Education of the Will. Education and Social
Responsibility, the problems of ethical instruction, and the social
functions of the School.
In order to increase the usefulness of the book to teachers of education
there is added a classified bibliography for systematic, intensive
reference reading and a list of suggested problems suitable for advanced
work.
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
NEW YORK--CHICAGO
* * * * * *
APPLETONS' NEW TEACHERS' BOOKS
A STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION
By Stephen Pierce Duggan, Ph. D.
Head of the Department of Education, College of the City of New York
12mo., Cloth, $1.30 net
Professor Duggan has produced the text-book in the history of education
which has been such a need in our pedagogical work. Growing out of his
work as a teacher and lecturer, this book combines the practical
pedagogy of a teacher with the scholarship of an undisputed authority on
education and its study. There is no book in this field containing such
a fund of useful material arranged along such a skillful outline. An
experience of years is here condensed and solidified into a splendid
unit.
"A Student's Text-Book in the History of Education" presents an
authentic account of every educational system which has influenced our
present-day scheme of pedagogy from the times of the Hebrews to the Age
of the Montessori method. No time is wasted on detailed considerations
of other systems. Professor Duggan's book aids the teacher by giving him
a better understanding of present-day problems in education; by
explaining how Western Civilization developed the educational ideals,
content, organization, and practices which characterize it today; and by
developing the manner in which each people has worked out the solution
of the great problem of reconciling individual liberty with social
stability.
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
New York--Chicago
* * * * * *
APPLETONS' NEW TEACHERS' BOOKS
EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY
By Irving King, Ph. D.
_Professor of Education, The State University of Iowa,
Iowa City, Iowa_.
12mo., Cloth, $1.50 net
Written not so much for the educational specialist as for the practical
needs of busy teachers, "Education For Social Efficiency" presents
through the medium of illustration, a social view of education which is
very prominent. It shows concretely various ways in which parents as
well as teachers may contribute something towards the realization of the
ideal of social efficiency as the goal of our educational enterprise.
The idea that the school, especially the country school, should provide
more than instruction in lessons for the scholars is Professor King's
main point. Excellent chapters are included on The School as a Social
Center, The School and Social Progress, and the Social Aim of Education.
In discussing the rural schools particularly, the author writes on The
Rural School and the Rural Community, Adapting the Country School to
Country Needs, and an especially valuable chapter on The Consolidated
School and Socially Efficient Education for the Country.
The response with which Professor King's "Education for Social
Efficiency" has met throughout the country is evidenced by the fact that
the States of Iowa, Missouri, Tennessee, South Dakota, and Virginia have
adopted it for reading circle use. It has also been adopted by the
National Bureau of Education for use in its Rural Teachers' Reading
Circles.
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
New York--Chicago
* * * * * *
FOOTNOTES:
Footnote 1: Donaldson, "The Growth of the Brain," pp. 74, 238.
Footnote 2: Quoted by James, "Psychology," Briefer Course, p. 135.
Footnote 3: "Psychology," vol. i, pp. 123, 124; also, "Briefer Course,"
p. 145.
Footnote 4: See Betts, "The Distribution and Functions of Mental
Imagery."
Footnote 5: Cf. Dewey, "How We Think," p. 2 ff.
Footnote 6: "Psychology," p. 391.