MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AND MOTOR TRAINING
Education was long looked upon as affecting the mind only; the body was
either left out of account or neglected. Later science has shown,
however, that the mind cannot be trained _except as the nervous system
is trained and developed_. For not sensation and the simpler mental
processes alone, but memory, imagination, judgment, reasoning and every
other act of the mind are dependent on the nervous system finally for
their efficiency. The little child gets its first mental experiences in
connection with certain movements or acts set up reflexly by the
pre-organized nervous system. From this time on movement and idea are so
inextricably bound together that they cannot be separated. The mind and
the brain are so vitally related that it is impossible to educate one
without performing a like office for the other; and it is likewise
impossible to neglect the one without causing the other to suffer in its
development.
1. FACTORS DETERMINING THE EFFICIENCY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENT AND NUTRITION.--Ignoring the native differences in nervous
systems through the influence of heredity, the efficiency of a nervous
system is largely dependent on two factors: (1) The development of the
cells and fibers of which it is composed, and (2) its general tone of
health and vigor. The actual number of cells in the nervous system
increases but little if at all after birth. Indeed, it is doubtful
whether Edison's brain and nervous system has a greater number of cells
in it than yours or mine. The difference between the brain of a genius
and that of an ordinary man is not in the _number_ of cells which it
contains, but rather in the development of the cells and fibers which
are present, potentially, at least, in every nervous system. The
histologist tells us that in the nervous system of every child there are
tens of thousands of cells which are so immature and undeveloped that
they are useless; indeed, this is the case to some degree in every adult
person's nervous system as well. Thus each individual has inherent in
his nervous system potentialities of which he has never taken advantage,
the utilizing of which may make him a genius and the neglecting of which
will certainly leave him on the plane of mediocrity. The first problem
in education, then, is to take the unripe and inefficient nervous system
and so develop it in connection with the growing mind that the
possibilities which nature has stored in it shall become actualities.
UNDEVELOPED CELLS.--Professor Donaldson tells us on this point that: "At
birth, and for a long time after, many [nervous] systems contain cell
elements which are more or less immature, not forming a functional part
of the tissue, and yet under some conditions capable of further
development.... For the cells which are continually appearing in the
developing cortex no other source is known than the nuclei or granules
found there in its earliest stages. These elements are metamorphosed
neuroblasts--that is, elementary cells out of which the nervous matter
is developed--which have shrunken to a volume less than that which they
had at first, and which remain small until, in the subsequent process of
enlargement necessary for their full development, they expand into
well-marked cells. Elements intermediate between these granules and the
fully developed cells are always found, even in mature brains, and
therefore it is inferred that the latter are derived from the former.
The appearances there also lead to the conclusion that many elements
which might possibly develop in any given case are far beyond the number
that actually does so.... The possible number of cells latent and
functional in the central system is early fixed. At any age this number
is accordingly represented by the granules as well as by the cells which
have already undergone further development. During growth the proportion
of developed cells increases, and sometimes, owing to the failure to
recognize potential nerve cells in the granules, the impression is
carried away that this increase implies the formation of new elements.
As has been shown, such is not the case."[1]
DEVELOPMENT OF NERVE FIBERS.--The nerve _fibers_, no less than the
cells, must go through a process of development. It has already been
shown that the fibers are the result of a branching of cells. At birth
many of the cells have not yet thrown out branches, and hence the fibers
are lacking; while many of those which are already grown out are not
sufficiently developed to transmit impulses accurately. Thus it has been
found that most children at birth are able to support the weight of the
body for several seconds by clasping the fingers around a small rod, but
it takes about a year for the child to become able to stand. It is
evident that it requires more actual strength to cling to a rod than to
stand; hence the conclusion is that the difference is in the earlier
development of the nerve centers which have to do with clasping than of
those concerned in standing. Likewise the child's first attempts to feed
himself or do any one of the thousand little things about which he is so
awkward, are partial failures not so much because he has not had
practice as because his nervous machinery connected with those movements
is not yet developed sufficiently to enable him to be accurate. His
brain is in a condition which Flechsig calls "unripe." How, then, shall
the undeveloped cells and system ripen? How shall the undeveloped cells
and fibers grow to full maturity and efficiency?
2. DEVELOPMENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM THROUGH USE
IMPORTANCE OF STIMULUS AND RESPONSE.--Like all other tissues of the
body, the nerve cells and fibers are developed by judicious use. The
sensory and association centers require the constant stimulus of nerve
currents running in from the various end-organs, and the motor centers
require the constant stimulus of currents running from them out to the
muscles. In other words, the conditions upon which both motor and
sensory development depend are: (1) A rich environment of sights and
sounds and tastes and smells, and everything else which serves as proper
stimulus to the sense organs, and to every form of intellectual and
social interest; and (2) no less important, an opportunity for the
freest and most complete forms of response and motor activity.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Schematic transverse section of the human brain
showing the projection of the motor fibers, their crossing in the
neighborhood of the medulla, and their termination in the different
areas of localized function in the cortex. S, fissure of Sylvius; M, the
medulla; VII, the roots of the facial nerves.]
An illustration of the effects of the lack of sensory stimuli on the
cortex is well shown in the case of Laura Bridgman, whose brain was
studied by Professor Donaldson after her death. Laura Bridgman was born
a normal child, and developed as other children do up to the age of
nearly three years. At this time, through an attack of scarlet fever,
she lost her hearing completely and also the sight of her left eye. Her
right eye was so badly affected that she could see but little; and it,
too, became entirely blind when she was eight. She lived in this
condition until she was sixty years old, when she died. Professor
Donaldson submitted the cortex of her brain to a most careful
examination, also comparing the corresponding areas on the two
hemispheres with each other. He found that as a whole the cortex was
thinner than in the case of normal individuals. He found also that the
cortical area connected with the left eye--namely, the right occipital
region--was much thinner than that for the right eye, which had retained
its sight longer than the other. He says: "It is interesting to notice
that those parts of the cortex which, according to the current view,
were associated with the defective sense organs were also particularly
thin. The cause of this thinness was found to be due, at least in part,
to the small size of the nerve cells there present. Not only were the
large and medium-sized cells smaller, but the impression made on the
observer was that they were also less numerous than in the normal
cortex."
EFFECT OF SENSORY STIMULI.--No doubt if we could examine the brain of a
person who has grown up in an environment rich in stimuli to the eye,
where nature, earth, and sky have presented a changing panorama of color
and form to attract the eye; where all the sounds of nature, from the
chirp of the insect to the roar of the waves and the murmur of the
breeze, and from the softest tones of the voice to the mightiest sweep
of the great orchestra, have challenged the ear; where many and varied
odors and perfumes have assailed the nostrils; where a great range of
tastes have tempted the palate; where many varieties of touch and
temperature sensations have been experienced--no doubt if we could
examine such a brain we should find the sensory areas of the cortex
excelling in thickness because its cells were well developed and full
sized from the currents which had been pouring into them from the
outside world. On the other hand, if we could examine a cortex which had
lacked any one of these stimuli, we should find some area in it
undeveloped because of this deficiency. Its owner therefore possesses
but the fraction of a brain, and would in a corresponding degree find
his mind incomplete.
NECESSITY FOR MOTOR ACTIVITY.--Likewise in the case of the motor areas.
Pity the boy or girl who has been deprived of the opportunity to use
every muscle to the fullest extent in the unrestricted plays and games
of childhood. For where such activities are not wide in their scope,
there some areas of the cortex will remain undeveloped, because unused,
and the person will be handicapped later in his life from lack of skill
in the activities depending on these centers. Halleck says in this
connection: "If we could examine the developing motor region with a
microscope of sufficient magnifying power, it is conceivable that we
might learn wherein the modification due to exercise consists. We might
also, under such conditions, be able to say, 'This is the motor region
of a piano player; the modifications here correspond precisely to those
necessary for controlling such movements of the hand.' Or, 'This is the
motor tract of a blacksmith; this, of an engraver; and these must be the
cells which govern the vocal organs of an orator.'" Whether or not the
microscope will ever reveal such things to us, there is no doubt that
the conditions suggested exist, and that back of every inefficient and
awkward attempt at physical control lies a motor area with its cells
undeveloped by use. No wonder that our processes of learning physical
adjustment and control are slow, for they are a growth in the brain
rather than a simple "learning how."
The training of the nervous system consists finally, then, in the
development and coördination of the neurones of which it is composed. We
have seen that the sensory cells are to be developed by the sensory
stimuli pouring in upon them, and the motor cells by the motor impulses
which they send out to the muscles. The sensory and the motor fibers
likewise, being an outgrowth of their respective cells, find their
development in carrying the impulses which result in sensation and
movement. Thus it is seen that the neurone is, in its development as in
its work, a unit.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASSOCIATION CENTERS.--To this simpler type of sensory
and motor development which we have been considering, we must add that
which comes from the more complex mental processes, such as memory,
thought, and imagination. For it is in connection with these that the
association fibers are developed, and the brain areas so connected that
they can work together as a unit. A simple illustration will enable us
to see more clearly how the nervous mechanism acts to bring this about.
Suppose that I am walking along a country road deeply engaged in
meditation, and that I come to a puddle of water in my pathway. I may
turn aside and avoid the obstruction without my attention being called
to it, and without interruption of my train of thought. The act has been
automatic. In this case the nerve current has passed from the eye (_S_)
over an afferent fiber to a sensory center (_s_) in the nervous system
below the cortex; from there it has been forwarded to a motor center
(_m_) in the same region, and on out over a motor fiber to the proper
muscles (_M_), which are to execute the required act. The act having
been completed, the sensory nerves connected with the muscles employed
report the fact back that the work is done, thus completing the circuit.
This event may be taken as an illustration of literally thousands of
acts which we perform daily without the intervention of consciousness,
and hence without involving the hemispheres.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Diagram illustrating the paths of association.]
If, however, instead of avoiding the puddle unconsciously, I do so from
consideration of the danger of wet feet and the disagreeableness of
soiled shoes and the ridiculous appearance I shall make, then the
current cannot take the short circuit, but must pass on up to the
cortex. Here it awakens consciousness to take notice of the obstruction,
and calls forth the images which aid in directing the necessary
movements. This simple illustration may be greatly complicated,
substituting for it one of the more complex problems which are
continually presenting themselves to us for solution, or the associated
trains of thought that are constantly occupying our minds. But the truth
of the illustration still holds. Whether in the simple or the complex
act, there is always a forward passing of the nerve current through the
sensory and thought centers, and on out through the motor centers to the
organs which are to be concerned in the motor response.
THE FACTORS INVOLVED IN A SIMPLE ACTION.--Thus it will be seen that in
the simplest act which can be considered there are the following
factors: (1) The stimulus which acts on the end-organ; (2) the ingoing
current over an afferent nerve; (3) the sensory or interpreting cells;
(4) the fibers connecting the sensory with a motor center; (5) the motor
cells; (6) the efferent nerve to carry the direction for the movement
outward to the muscle; (7) the motor response; and, finally, (8) the
report back that the act has been performed. With this in mind it fairly
bewilders one to think of the marvelous complexity of the work that is
going on in our nervous mechanism every moment of our life, even without
considering the higher thought processes at all. How, with these added,
the resulting complexity all works out into beautiful harmony is indeed
beyond comprehension.
3. EDUCATION AND THE TRAINING OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Fortunately, many of the best opportunities for sensory and motor
training do not depend on schools or courses of study. The world is full
of stimuli to our senses and to our social natures; and our common lives
are made up of the responses we make to these stimuli,--the movements,
acts and deeds by which we fit ourselves into our world of environment.
Undoubtedly the most rapid and vital progress we make in our development
is accomplished in the years before we have reached the age to go to
school. Yet it is the business of education to see that we do not lack
any essential opportunity, to make sure that necessary lines of stimuli
or of motor training have not been omitted from our development.
EDUCATION TO SUPPLY OPPORTUNITIES FOR STIMULUS AND RESPONSE.--The great
problem of education is, on the physical side, it would seem, then, to
provide for ourselves and those we seek to educate as rich an
environment of sensory and social stimuli as possible; one whose
impressions will be full of suggestions to response in motor activity
and the higher thought processes; and then to give opportunity for
thought and for expression in acts and deeds in the largest possible
number of lines. And added to this must be frequent and clear sensory
and motor recall, a living over again of the sights and sounds and odors
and the motor activities we have once experienced. There must also be
the opportunity for the forming of worthy plans and ideals. For in this
way the brain centers which were concerned in the original sensation or
thought or movement are again brought into exercise, and their
development continued. Through recall and imagination we are able not
only greatly to multiply the effects of the immediate sensory and motor
stimuli which come to us, but also to improve our power of thinking by
getting a fund of material upon which the mind can draw.
ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.--Nature has set the order in
which the powers of the nervous system shall develop. And we must follow
this order if we would obtain the best results. Stated in technical
terms, the order is _from fundamental to accessory_. This is to say that
the nerve centers controlling the larger and more general movements of
the body ripen first, and those governing the finer motor adjustments
later. For example, the larger body muscles of the child which are
concerned with sitting up come under control earlier than those
connected with walking. The arm muscles develop control earlier than the
finger muscles, and the head and neck muscles earlier than the eye
muscles. So also the more general and less highly specialized powers of
the mind ripen sooner than the more highly specialized. Perception and
observation precede powers of critical judgment and association. Memory
and imagination ripen earlier than reasoning and the logical ability.
This all means that our educational system must be planned to follow the
order of nature. Children of the primary grades should not be required
to write with fine pencils or pens which demand delicate finger
adjustments, since the brain centers for these finer coördinations are
not yet developed. Young children should not be set at work
necessitating difficult eye control, such as stitching through
perforated cardboard, reading fine print and the like, as their eyes
are not yet ready for such tasks. The more difficult analytical problems
of arithmetic and relations of grammar should not be required of pupils
at a time when the association areas of the brain are not yet ready for
this type of thinking. For such methods violate the law of nature, and
the child is sure to suffer the penalty.
4. IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH AND VIGOR OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Parallel with opportunities for proper stimuli and response the nervous
system must possess good _tonicity_, or vigor. This depends in large
degree on general health and nutrition, with freedom from overfatigue.
No favorableness of environment nor excellence of training can result in
an efficient brain if the nerve energy has run low from depleted health,
want of proper nourishment, or exhaustion.
THE INFLUENCE OF FATIGUE.--Histologists find that the nuclei of nerve
cells are shrunk as much as fifty per cent by extreme fatigue.
Reasonable fatigue followed by proper recuperation is not harmful, but
even necessary if the best development is to be attained; but fatigue
without proper nourishment and rest is fatal to all mental operations,
and indeed finally to the nervous system itself, leaving it permanently
in a condition of low tone, and incapable of rallying to strong effort.
For rapid and complete recuperation the cells must have not only the
best of nourishment but opportunity for rest as well.
Extreme and long-continued fatigue is hostile to the development and
welfare of any nervous system, and especially to that of children. Not
only does overfatigue hinder growth, but it also results in the
formation of certain _toxins_, or poisons, in the organism, which are
particularly harmful to nervous tissue. It is these fatigue toxins that
account for many of the nervous and mental disorders which accompany
breakdowns from overwork. On the whole, the evil effects from mental
overstrain are more to be feared than from physical overstrain.
THE EFFECTS OF WORRY.--There is, perhaps, no greater foe to brain growth
and efficiency than the nervous and worn-out condition which comes from
loss of sleep or from worry. Experiments in the psychological
laboratories have shown that nerve cells shrivel up and lose their
vitality under loss of sleep. Let this go on for any considerable
length of time, and the loss is irreparable; for the cells can never
recuperate. This is especially true in the case of children or young
people. Many school boys and girls, indeed many college students, are
making slow progress in their studies not because they are mentally slow
or inefficient, not even chiefly because they lose time that should be
put on their lessons, but because they are incapacitating their brains
for good service through late hours and the consequent loss of sleep.
Add to this condition that of worry, which often accompanies it from the
fact of failure in lessons, and a naturally good and well-organized
nervous system is sure to fail. Worry, from whatever cause, should be
avoided as one would avoid poison, if we would bring ourselves to the
highest degree of efficiency. Not only does worry temporarily unfit the
mind for its best work, but its evil results are permanent, since the
mind is left with a poorly developed or undone nervous system through
which to work, even after the cause for worry has been removed and the
worry itself has ceased.
Not only should each individual seek to control the causes of worry in
his own life, but the home and the school should force upon childhood as
few causes for worry as may be. Children's worry over fears of the dark,
over sickness and death, over prospective but delayed punishment, over
the thousand and one real or imaginary troubles of childhood, should be
eliminated so far as possible. School examinations that prey on the
peace of mind, threats of failure of promotion, all nagging and sarcasm,
and whatever else may cause continued pain or worry to sensitive minds
should be barred from our schoolroom methods and practice. The price we
force the child to pay for results through their use is too great for
them to be tolerated. We must seek a better way.
THE FACTORS IN GOOD NUTRITION.--For the best nutrition there is
necessity first of all plenty of nourishing and healthful food. Science
and experience have both disproved the supposition that students should
be scantily fed. O'Shea claims that many brain workers are far short of
their highest grade of efficiency because of starving their brains from
poor diet. And not only must the food be of the right quality, but the
body must be in good health. Little good to eat the best of food unless
it is being properly digested and assimilated. And little good if all
the rest is as it should be, and the right amount of oxidation does not
go on in the brain so as to remove the worn-out cells and make place for
new ones. This warns us that pure air and a strong circulation are
indispensable to the best working of our brains. No doubt many students
who find their work too hard for them might locate the trouble in their
stomachs or their lungs or the food they eat, rather than in their
minds.
5. PROBLEMS FOR INTROSPECTION AND OBSERVATION
1. Estimate the mental progress made by the child during the first five
years and compare with that made during the second five years of its
life. To do this make a list, so far as you are able, of the
acquisitions of each period. What do you conclude as to the importance
of play and freedom in early education? Why not continue this method
instead of sending the child to school?
2. Which has the better opportunity for sensory training, the city child
or the country child? For social training? For motor development through
play? It is said by specialists that country children are not as good
players as city children. Why should this be the case?
3. Observe carefully some group of children for evidences of lack of
sensory training (Interest in sensory objects, skill in observation,
etc.). For lack of motor training (Failure in motor control,
awkwardness, lack of skill in play, etc.). Do you find that general
mental ability seems to be correlated with sensory and motor ability, or
not?
4. What sensory training can be had from (1) geography, (2) agriculture,
(3) arithmetic, (4) drawing? What lines of motor training ought the
school to afford, (1) in general, (2) for the hand, (3) in the grace and
poise of carriage or bearing, (4) in any other line? Make observation
tests of these points in one or more school rooms and report the
results.
5. Describe what you think must be the type of mental life of Helen
Keller. (Read "The World I Live In," by Helen Keller.)
6. Study groups of children for signs of deficiency in brain power from
lack of nutrition. From fatigue. From worry. From lack of sleep.