ATTENTION
How do you rank in mental ability, and how effective are your mind's
grasp and power? The answer that must be given to these questions will
depend not more on your native endowment than on your skill in using
attention.
1. NATURE OF ATTENTION
It is by attention that we gather and mass our mental energy upon the
critical and important points in our thinking. In the last chapter we
saw that consciousness is not distributed evenly over the whole field,
but "piled up," now on this object of thought, now on that, in obedience
to interest or necessity. _The concentration of the mind's energy on one
object of thought is attention._
THE NATURE OF ATTENTION.--Everyone knows what it is to attend. The story
so fascinating that we cannot leave it, the critical points in a game,
the interesting sermon or lecture, the sparkling conversation--all these
compel our attention. So completely is our mind's energy centered on
them and withdrawn from other things that we are scarcely aware of what
is going on about us.
We are also familiar with another kind of attention. For we all have
read the dull story, watched the slow game, listened to the lecture or
sermon that drags, and taken part in conversation that was a bore. We
gave these things our attention, but only with effort. Our mind's energy
seemed to center on anything rather than the matter in hand. A thousand
objects from outside enticed us away, and it required the frequent
"mental jerk" to bring us to the subject in hand. And when brought back
to our thought problem we felt the constant "tug" of mind to be free
again.
NORMAL CONSCIOUSNESS ALWAYS IN A STATE OF ATTENTION.--But this very
effort of the mind to free itself from one object of thought that it may
busy itself with another is _because attention is solicited by this
other_. Some object in our field of consciousness is always exerting an
appeal for attention; and to attend _to_ one thing is always to attend
_away from_ a multitude of other things upon which the thought might
rest. We may therefore say that attention is constantly _selecting_ in
our stream of thought those aspects that are to receive emphasis and
consideration. From moment to moment it determines the points at which
our mental energy shall be centered.
2. THE EFFECTS OF ATTENTION
ATTENTION MAKES ITS OBJECT CLEAR AND DEFINITE.--Whatever attention
centers upon stands out sharp and clear in consciousness. Whether it be
a bit of memory, an "air-castle," a sensation from an aching tooth, the
reasoning on an algebraic formula, a choice which we are making, the
setting of an emotion--whatever be the object to which we are attending,
that object is illumined and made to stand out from its fellows as the
one prominent thing in the mind's eye while the attention rests on it.
It is like the one building which the searchlight picks out among a city
full of buildings and lights up, while the remainder are left in the
semilight or in darkness.
ATTENTION MEASURES MENTAL EFFICIENCY.--In a state of attention the mind
may be likened to the rays of the sun which have been passed through a
burning glass. You may let all the rays which can pass through your
window pane fall hour after hour upon the paper lying on your desk, and
no marked effects follow. But let the same amount of sunlight be passed
through a lens and converged to a point the size of your pencil point,
and the paper will at once burst into flame. What the diffused rays
could not do in hours or in ages is now accomplished in seconds.
Likewise the mind, allowed to scatter over many objects, can accomplish
but little. We may sit and dream away an hour or a day over a page or a
problem without securing results. But let us call in our wits from their
wool-gathering and "buckle down to it" with all our might, withdrawing
our thoughts from everything else but this _one thing_, and
concentrating our mind on it. More can now be accomplished in minutes
than before in hours. Nay, _things which could not be accomplished at
all before_ now become possible.
Again, the mind may be compared to a steam engine which is constructed
to run at a certain pressure of steam, say one hundred and fifty pounds
to the square inch of boiler surface. Once I ran such an engine; and
well I remember a morning during my early apprenticeship when the
foreman called for power to run some of the lighter machinery, while my
steam gauge registered but seventy-five pounds. "Surely," I thought, "if
one hundred and fifty pounds will run all this machinery, seventy-five
pounds should run half of it," so I opened the valve. But the powerful
engine could do but little more than turn its own wheels, and refused
to do the required work. Not until the pressure had risen above one
hundred pounds could the engine perform half the work which it could at
one hundred and fifty pounds. And so with our mind. If it is meant to do
its best work under a certain degree of concentration, it cannot in a
given time do half the work with half the attention. Further, there will
be much _which it cannot do at all_ unless working under full pressure.
We shall not be overstating the case if we say that as attention
increases in arithmetical ratio, mental efficiency increases in
geometrical ratio. It is in large measure a difference in the power of
attention which makes one man a master in thought and achievement and
another his humble follower. One often hears it said that "genius is but
the power of sustained attention," and this statement possesses a large
element of truth.
3. HOW WE ATTEND
Someone has said that if our attention is properly trained we should be
able "to look at the point of a cambric needle for half an hour without
winking." But this is a false idea of attention. The ability to look at
the point of a cambric needle for half an hour might indicate a very
laudable power of concentration; but the process, instead of
enlightening us concerning the point of the needle, would result in our
passing into a hypnotic state. Voluntary attention to any one object can
be sustained for but a brief time--a few seconds at best. It is
essential that the object change, that we turn it over and over
incessantly, and consider its various aspects and relations. Sustained
voluntary attention is thus a repetition of successive efforts to bring
back the object to the mind. Then the subject grows and develops--it is
living, not dead.
ATTENTION A RELATING ACTIVITY.--When we are attending strongly to one
object of thought it does not mean that consciousness sits staring
vacantly at this one object, but rather that it uses it as a central
core of thought, and thinks into relation with this object the things
which belong with it. In working out some mathematical solution the
central core is the principle upon which the solution is based, and
concentration in this case consists in thinking the various conditions
of the problem in relation to this underlying principle. In the
accompanying diagram (Fig. 4) let A be the central core of some object
of thought, say a patch of cloud in a picture, and let _a_, _b_, _c_,
_d_, etc., be the related facts, or the shape, size, color, etc., of the
cloud. The arrows indicate the passing of our thought from cloud to
related fact, or from related fact to cloud, and from related fact to
related fact. As long as these related facts lead back to the cloud each
time, that long we are attending to the cloud and thinking about it. It
is when our thought fails to go back that we "wander" in our attention.
Then we leave _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, etc., which are related to the cloud,
and, flying off to _x_, _y_, and _z,_ finally bring up heaven knows
where.
[Illustration: FIG. 4]
THE RHYTHMS OF ATTENTION.--Attention works in rhythms. This is to say
that it never maintains a constant level of concentration for any
considerable length of time, but regularly ebbs and flows. The
explanation of this rhythmic action would take us too far afield at this
point. When we remember, however, that our entire organism works within
a great system of rhythms--hunger, thirst, sleep, fatigue, and many
others--it is easy to see that the same law may apply to attention. The
rhythms of attention vary greatly, the fluctuations often being only a
few seconds apart for certain simple sensations, and probably a much
greater distance apart for the more complex process of thinking. The
seeming variation in the sound of a distant waterfall, now loud and now
faint, is caused by the rhythm of attention and easily allows us to
measure the rhythm for this particular sensation.
4. POINTS OF FAILURE IN ATTENTION
LACK OF CONCENTRATION.--There are two chief types of inattention whose
danger threatens every person. _First_, we may be thinking about the
right things, but not thinking _hard_ enough. We lack mental pressure.
Outside thoughts which have no relation to the subject in hand may not
trouble us much, but we do not attack our problem with vim. The current
in our stream of consciousness is moving too slowly. We do not gather up
all our mental forces and mass them on the subject before us in a way
that means victory. Our thoughts may be sufficiently focused, but they
fail to "set fire." It is like focusing the sun's rays while an eclipse
is on. They lack energy. They will not kindle the paper after they have
passed through the lens. This kind of attention means mental dawdling.
It means inefficiency. For the individual it means defeat in life's
battles; for the nation it means mediocrity and stagnation.
A college professor said to his faithful but poorly prepared class,
"Judging from your worn and tired appearance, young people, you are
putting in twice too many hours on study." At this commendation the
class brightened up visibly. "But," he continued, "judging from your
preparation, you do not study quite half hard enough."
Happy is the student who, starting in on his lesson rested and fresh,
can study with such concentration that an hour of steady application
will leave him mentally exhausted and limp. That is one hour of triumph
for him, no matter what else he may have accomplished or failed to
accomplish during the time. He can afford an occasional pause for rest,
for difficulties will melt rapidly away before him. He possesses one key
to successful achievement.
MENTAL WANDERING.--_Second_, we may have good mental power and be able
to think hard and efficiently on any one point, but lack the power to
think in a straight line. Every stray thought that comes along is a
"will-o'-the-wisp" to lead us away from the subject in hand and into
lines of thought not relating to it. Who has not started in to think on
some problem, and, after a few moments, been surprised to find himself
miles away from the topic upon which he started! Or who has not read
down a page and, turning to the next, found that he did not know a word
on the preceding page, his thoughts having wandered away, his eyes only
going through the process of reading! Instead of sticking to the _a_,
_b_, _c_, _d_, etc., of our topic and relating them all up to A, thereby
reaching a solution of the problem, we often jump at once to _x_, _y_,
_z_, and find ourselves far afield with all possibility of a solution
gone. We may have brilliant thoughts about _x_, _y_, _z_, but they are
not related to anything in particular, and so they pass from us and are
gone--lost in oblivion because they are not attached to something
permanent.
Such a thinker is at the mercy of circumstances, following blindly the
leadings of trains of thought which are his master instead of his
servant, and which lead him anywhere or nowhere without let or hindrance
from him. His consciousness moves rapidly enough and with enough force,
but it is like a ship without a helm. Starting for the intellectual port
_A_ by way of _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, he is mentally shipwrecked at last on
the rocks _x_, _y_, _z_, and never reaches harbor. Fortunate is he who
can shut out intruding thoughts and think in a straight line. Even with
mediocre ability he may accomplish more by his thinking than the
brilliant thinker who is constantly having his mental train wrecked by
stray thoughts which slip in on his right of way.
5. TYPES OF ATTENTION
THE THREE TYPES OF ATTENTION.--Attention may be secured in three ways:
(1) It is demanded by some sudden or intense sensory stimulus or
insistent idea, or (2) it follows interest, or (3) it is compelled by
the will. If it comes in the first way, as from a thunderclap or a flash
of light, or from the persistent attempt of some unsought idea to secure
entrance into the mind, it is called _involuntary_ attention. This form
of attention is of so little importance, comparatively, in our mental
life that we shall not discuss it further.
If attention comes in the second way, following interest, it is called
_nonvoluntary_ or spontaneous attention; if in the third, compelled by
the will, _voluntary_ or active attention. Nonvoluntary attention has
its motive in some object external to consciousness, or else follows a
more or less uncontrolled current of thought which interests us;
voluntary attention is controlled from within--_we_ decide what we shall
attend to instead of letting interesting objects of thought determine it
for us.
INTEREST AND NONVOLUNTARY ATTENTION.--In nonvoluntary attention the
environment largely determines what we shall attend to. All that we have
to do with directing this kind of attention is in developing certain
lines of interest, and then the interesting things attract attention.
The things we see and hear and touch and taste and smell, the things we
like, the things we do and hope to do--these are the determining factors
in our mental life so long as we are giving nonvoluntary attention. Our
attention follows the beckoning of these things as the needle the
magnet. It is no effort to attend to them, but rather the effort would
be to keep from attending to them. Who does not remember reading a
story, perhaps a forbidden one, so interesting that when mother called
up the stairs for us to come down to attend to some duty, we replied,
"Yes, in a minute," and then went on reading! We simply could not stop
at that place. The minute lengthens into ten, and another call startles
us. "Yes, I'm coming;" we turn just one more leaf, and are lost again.
At last comes a third call in tones so imperative that it cannot be
longer ignored, and we lay the book down, but open to the place where we
left off, and where we hope soon to begin further to unravel the
delightful mystery. Was it an effort to attend to the reading? Ah, no!
it took the combined force of our will and of mother's authority to
drag the attention away. This is nonvoluntary attention.
Left to itself, then, attention simply obeys natural laws and follows
the line of least resistance. By far the larger portion of our attention
is of this type. Thought often runs on hour after hour when we are not
conscious of effort or struggle to compel us to cease thinking about
this thing and begin thinking about that. Indeed, it may be doubted
whether this is not the case with some persons for days at a time,
instead of hours. The things that present themselves to the mind are the
things which occupy it; the character of the thought is determined by
the character of our interests. It is this fact which makes it vitally
necessary that our interests shall be broad and pure if our thoughts are
to be of this type. It is not enough that we have the strength to drive
from our minds a wrong or impure thought which seeks entrance. To stand
guard as a policeman over our thoughts to see that no unworthy one
enters, requires too much time and energy. Our interests must be of such
a nature as to lead us away from the field of unworthy thoughts if we
are to be free from their tyranny.
THE WILL AND VOLUNTARY ATTENTION.--In voluntary attention there is a
conflict either between the will and interest or between the will and
the mental inertia or laziness, which has to be overcome before we can
think with any degree of concentration. Interest says, "Follow this
line, which is easy and attractive, or which requires but little
effort--follow the line of least resistance." Will says, "Quit that line
of dalliance and ease, and take this harder way which I direct--cease
the line of least resistance and take the one of greatest resistance."
When day dreams and "castles in Spain" attempt to lure you from your
lessons, refuse to follow; shut out these vagabond thoughts and stick to
your task. When intellectual inertia deadens your thought and clogs your
mental stream, throw it off and court forceful effort. If wrong or
impure thoughts seek entrance to your mind, close and lock your mental
doors to them. If thoughts of desire try to drive out thoughts of duty,
be heroic and insist that thoughts of duty shall have right of way. In
short, see that _you_ are the master of your thinking, and do not let it
always be directed without your consent by influences outside of
yourself.
It is just at this point that the strong will wins victory and the weak
will breaks down. Between the ability to control one's thoughts and the
inability to control them lies all the difference between right actions
and wrong actions; between withstanding temptation and yielding to it;
between an inefficient purposeless life and a life of purpose and
endeavor; between success and failure. For we act in accordance with
those things which our thought rests upon. Suppose two lines of thought
represented by _A_ and _B_, respectively, lie before you; that _A_ leads
to a course of action difficult or unpleasant, but necessary to success
or duty, and that _B_ leads to a course of action easy or pleasant, but
fatal to success or duty. Which course will you follow--the rugged path
of duty or the easier one of pleasure? The answer depends almost wholly,
if not entirely, on your power of attention. If your will is strong
enough to pull your thoughts away from the fatal but attractive _B_ and
hold them resolutely on the less attractive _A_, then _A_ will dictate
your course of action, and you will respond to the call for endeavor,
self-denial, and duty; but if your thoughts break away from the
domination of your will and allow the beckoning of your interests
alone, then _B_ will dictate your course of action, and you will follow
the leading of ease and pleasure. _For our actions are finally and
irrevocably dictated by the things we think about._
NOT REALLY DIFFERENT KINDS OF ATTENTION.--It is not to be understood,
however, from what has been said, that there are _really_ different
kinds of attention. All attention denotes an active or dynamic phase of
consciousness. The difference is rather _in the way we secure
attention_; whether it is demanded by sudden stimulus, coaxed from us by
interesting objects of thought without effort on our part, or compelled
by force of will to desert the more interesting and take the direction
which we dictate.
6. IMPROVING THE POWER OF ATTENTION
While attention is no doubt partly a natural gift, yet there is probably
no power of the mind more susceptible to training than is attention. And
with attention, as with every other power of body and mind, the secret
of its development lies in its use. Stated briefly, the only way to
train attention is by attending. No amount of theorizing or resolving
can take the place of practice in the actual process of attending.
MAKING DIFFERENT KINDS OF ATTENTION REËNFORCE EACH OTHER.--A very close
relationship and interdependence exists between nonvoluntary and
voluntary attention. It would be impossible to hold our attention by
sheer force of will on objects which were forever devoid of interest;
likewise the blind following of our interests and desires would finally
lead to shipwreck in all our lives. Each kind of attention must support
and reënforce the other. The lessons, the sermons, the lectures, and
the books in which we are most interested, and hence to which we attend
nonvoluntarily and with the least effort and fatigue, are the ones out
of which, other things being equal, we get the most and remember the
best and longest. On the other hand, there are sometimes lessons and
lectures and books, and many things besides, which are not intensely
interesting, but which should be attended to nevertheless. It is at this
point that the will must step in and take command. If it has not the
strength to do this, it is in so far a weak will, and steps should be
taken to develop it. We are to "_keep the faculty of effort alive in us
by a little gratuitous exercise every day_." We are to be systematically
heroic in the little points of everyday life and experience. We are not
to shrink from tasks because they are difficult or unpleasant. Then,
when the test comes, we shall not find ourselves unnerved and untrained,
but shall be able to stand in the evil day.
THE HABIT OF ATTENTION.--Finally, one of the chief things in training
the attention is _to form the habit of attending_. This habit is to be
formed only by _attending_ whenever and wherever the proper thing to do
is to attend, whether "in work, in play, in making fishing flies, in
preparing for an examination, in courting a sweetheart, in reading a
book." The lesson, or the sermon, or the lecture, may not be very
interesting; but if they are to be attended to at all, our rule should
be to attend to them completely and absolutely. Not by fits and starts,
now drifting away and now jerking ourselves back, but _all the time_.
And, furthermore, the one who will deliberately do this will often find
the dull and uninteresting task become more interesting; but if it never
becomes interesting, he is at least forming a habit which will be
invaluable to him through life. On the other hand, the one who fails to
attend except when his interest is captured, who never exerts effort to
compel attention, is forming a habit which will be the bane of his
thinking until his stream of thought shall end.
7. PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION AND INTROSPECTION
1. Which fatigues you more, to give attention of the nonvoluntary type,
or the voluntary? Which can you maintain longer? Which is the more
pleasant and agreeable to give? Under which can you accomplish more?
What bearing have these facts on teaching?
2. Try to follow for one or two minutes the "wave" in your
consciousness, and then describe the course taken by your attention.
3. Have you observed one class alert in attention, and another lifeless
and inattentive? Can you explain the causes lying back of this
difference? Estimate the relative amount of work accomplished under the
two conditions.
4. What distractions have you observed in the schoolroom tending to
break up attention?
5. Have you seen pupils inattentive from lack of (1) change, (2) pure
air, (3) enthusiasm on the part of the teacher, (4) fatigue, (5) ill
health?
6. Have you noticed a difference in the _habit_ of attention in
different pupils? Have you noticed the same thing for whole schools or
rooms?
7. Do you know of children too much given to daydreaming? Are you?
8. Have you seen a teacher rap the desk for attention? What type of
attention was secured? Does it pay?
9. Have you observed any instance in which pupils' lack of attention
should be blamed on the teacher? If so, what was the fault? The remedy?
10. Visit a school room or a recitation, and then write an account of
the types and degrees of attention you observed. Try to explain the
factors responsible for any failures in attention, and also those
responsible for the good attention shown.