ILLUMINATION OF BOOKS
One cannot enter a book shop or a library to-day without realizing
how many thousands of books are in constant circulation. There was
an age when books were laboriously but most beautifully written,
instead of being thus quickly manufactured by the aid of the
type-setting machine; the material on which the glossy text was
executed was vellum instead of the cheap paper of to-day, the
illustrations, instead of being easily reproduced by photographic
processes, were veritable miniature paintings, most decorative,
ablaze with colour and fine gold,--in these times it is easy to
forget that there was ever a period when the making of a single
book occupied years, and sometimes the life-time of one or two
men.
In those days, when the transcription of books was one of the chief
occupations in religious houses, the recluse monk, in the quiet
of the scriptorium, was, in spite of his seclusion, and indeed,
by reason of it, the chief link between the world of letters and
the world of men.
The earliest known example of work by a European monk dates from
the year 517; but shortly after this there was a great increase
in book making, and monasteries were founded especially for the
purpose of perpetuating literature. The first establishment of
this sort was the monastery of Vivaria, in Southern Italy, founded
by Cassiodorus, a Greek who lived between the years 479 and 575,
and who had been the scribe (or "private secretary") of Theodoric
the Goth. About the same time, St. Columba in Ireland founded a
house with the intention of multiplying books, so that in the sixth
century, in both the extreme North and in the South, the religious
orders had commenced the great work of preserving for future ages
the literature of the past and of their own times.
Before examining the books themselves, it will be interesting to
observe the conditions under which the work was accomplished. Sometimes
the scriptorium was a large hall or studio, with various desks
about; sometimes the North walk of the cloister was divided into
little cells, called "carrels," in each of which was room for the
writer, his desk, and a little shelf for his inks and colours.
These carrels may be seen in unusual perfection in Gloucester. In
very cold weather a small brazier of charcoal was also introduced.
Cassiodorus writes thus of the privilege of being a copyist of
holy books. "He may fill his mind with the Scriptures while copying
the sayings of the Lord; with his fingers he gives life to men
and arms against the wiles of the Devil; as the antiquarius copies
the word of Christ, so many wounds does he inflict upon Satan. What
he writes in his cell will be carried far and wide over distant
provinces. Man multiplies the word of Heaven: if I may dare so to
speak, the three fingers of his right hand are made to represent
the utterances of the Holy Trinity. The fast travelling reed writes
down the holy words, thus avenging the malice of the wicked one,
who caused a reed to be used to smite the head of the Saviour."
When the scriptorium was consecrated, these words were used (and
they would be most fitting words to-day, in the consecration of
libraries or class rooms which are to be devoted to religious study):
"Vouchsafe, O, Lord, to bless this workroom of thy servants, that all
which they write therein may be comprehended by their intelligence,
and realized by their work." Scriptorium work was considered equal
to labour in the fields. In the Rule of St. Fereol, in the sixth
century, there is this clause: "He who doth not turn up the earth
with his plough, ought to write the parchment with his fingers."
The Capitulary of Charlemagne contains this phrase: "Do not permit
your scribes or pupils, either in reading or writing, to garble the
text; when you are preparing copies of the Gospels, the Psalter,
or the Missal, see that the work is confided to men of mature age,
who will write with due care." Some of the scribes were prolific
book transcribers. Jacob of Breslau, who died in 1480, copied so
many books that it is said that "six horses could with difficulty
bear the burden of them!"
The work of each scriptorium was devoted first to the completion
of the library of the individual monastery, and after that, to
other houses, or to such patrons as were rich enough to order books
to be transcribed for their own use. The library of a monastery
was as much a feature as the scriptorium. The monks were not like
the rising literary man, who, when asked if he had read "Pendennis"
replied, "No--I never read books--I write them." Every scribe was
also a reader. There was a regular system of lending books from
the central store. A librarian was in charge, and every monk was
supposed to have some book which he was engaged in reading "straight
through" as the Rule of St. Benedict enjoins, just as much as the one
which he was writing. As silence was obligatory in the scriptorium
and library, as well as in the cloisters, they were forced to apply
for the volumes which they desired by signs. For a general work,
the sign was to extend the hand and make a movement as if turning
over the leaves of a book. If a Missal was wanted, the sign of the
cross was added to the same form; for a Gospel, the sign of the
cross was made upon the forehead, while those who wished tracts to
read, should lay one hand on the mouth and the other on the stomach;
a Capitulary was indicated by the gesture of raising the clasped
hands to heaven, while a Psalter could be obtained by raising the
hands above the head in the form of a crown. As the good brothers
were not possessed of much religious charity, they indicated a
secular book by scratching their ears, as dogs are supposed to
do, to imply the suggestion that the infidel who wrote such a book
was no better than a dog!
This extract is made from a book in one of the early monastic libraries.
"Oh, Lord, send the blessing of thy Holy Spirit upon these books,
that, cleansing them from all earthly things, they may mercifully
enlighten our hearts, and give us true understanding, and grant
that by their teaching they may brightly preserve and make a full
abundance of good works according to Thy will." The books were
kept in cupboards, with doors; in the Customs of the Augustine
Priory of Barnwell, these directions are given: "The press in which
the books are kept ought to be lined with wood, that the damp of
the walls may not moisten or stain the books. The press should be
divided vertically as well as horizontally, by sundry partitions,
on which the books may be ranged so as to be separated from one
another, for fear they be packed so close as to injure one another,
or to delay those who want them."
We read of the "chained books" of the Middle Ages, and I think
there is a popular belief that this referred to the fact that the
Bible was kept in the priest's hands, and chained so that the people
should not be able to read it for themselves and become familiar
with every part of it. This, however, is a mistake. It was the
books in the libraries which were chained, so that dishonest people
should not make way with them! In one Chapter Library, there occurs
a denunciation of such thieves, and instructions how to fasten the
volumes. It reads as follows: "Since to the great reproach of the
Nation, and a greater one to our Holy Religion, the thievish
disposition of some who enter libraries to learn no good there,
hath made it necessary to secure the sacred volumes themselves
with chains (which are better deserved by those ill persons, who
have too much learning to be hanged, and too little to be honest),
care shall be taken that the chains should neither be too long nor
too clumsy, more than the use of them requires: and that the loops
whereby they are fastened to the books may be rivetted on such a
part of the cover, and so smoothly, as not to gall or graze the
books, while they are moved to or from their respective places.
And forasmuch as the more convenient way to place books in
libraries is to turn their backs out showing the title and other
decent ornaments in gilt work which ought not to be hidden, this
new method of fixing the chain to the back of the book is
recommended until one more suitable shall be contrived."
Numerous monasteries in England devoted much time to scriptorium
work. In Gloucester may still be seen the carrels of the scribes
in the cloister wall, and there was also much activity in the book
making art in Norwich, Glastonbury, and Winchester, and in other
cities. The two monasteries of St. Peter and St. Swithin in Winchester
were, the chronicler says, "so close packed together,... that between
the foundation of their respective buildings there was barely room
for a man to pass along. The choral service of one monastery
conflicted with that of the other, so that both were spoiled, and
the ringing of their bells together produced a horrid effect."
One of the most important monasteries of early times, on the Continent,
was that conducted by Alcuin, under the protection of Charlemagne.
When the appointed time for writing came round, the monks filed
into the scriptorium, taking their places at their desks. One of
their number then stood in the midst, and read aloud, slowly, for
dictation, the work upon which they were engaged as copyists; in
this way, a score of copies could be made at one time. Alcuin himself
would pass about among them, making suggestions and correcting
errors, a beautiful example of true consecration, the great scholar
spending his time thus in supervising the transcription of the
Word of God, from a desire to have it spread far and wide. Alcuin
sent a letter to Charlemagne, accompanying a present of a copy
of the Bible, at the time of the emperor's coronation, and from
this letter, which is still preserved, it may be seen how reverent
a spirit his was, and how he esteemed the things of the spiritual
life as greater than the riches of the world. "After deliberating
a long while," he writes, "what the devotion of my mind might find
worthy of a present equal to the splendour of your Imperial dignity,
and the increase of your wealth,--at length by the inspiration of
the Holy Spirit, I found what it would be competent for me to
offer, and fitting for your prudence to accept. For to me inquiring
and considering, nothing appeared more worthy of your peaceful
honour than the gifts of the Sacred Scriptures... which, knit
together in the sanctity of one glorious body, and diligently
amended, I have sent to your royal authority, by this your faithful
son and servant, so that with full hands we may assist at the
delightful service of your dignity." One of Alcuin's mottoes was:
"Writing books is better than planting vines: for he who plants a
vine serves his belly, while he who writes books serves his soul."
Many different arts were represented in the making of a mediæval
book. Of those employed, first came the scribe, whose duty it was
to form the black even glossy letters with his pen; then came the
painter, who must not only be a correct draughtsman, and an adept
with pencil and brush, but must also understand how to prepare
mordaunts and to lay the gold leaf, and to burnish it afterwards
with an agate, or, as an old writer directs, "a dogge's tooth set
in a stick." After him, the binder gathered the lustrous pages and
put them together under silver mounted covers, with heavy clasps.
At first, the illuminations were confined only to the capital letters,
and red was the selected colour to give this additional life to the
evenly written page. The red pigment was known as "minium." The
artist who applied this was called a "miniator," and from this,
was derived the term "miniature," which later referred to the
pictures executed in the developed stages of the art. The use of
the word "miniature," as applied to paintings on a small scale,
was evolved from this expression.
[Illustration: A SCRIBE AT WORK: 12TH CENTURY MANUSCRIPT]
The difficulties were numerous. First, there was climate and temperature
to consider. It was necessary to be very careful about the temperature
to which gold leaf was exposed, and in order to dry the sizing
properly, it was important that the weather should not be too damp
nor too warm. Peter de St. Audemar, writing in the late thirteenth
century, says: "Take notice that you ought not to work with gold
or colours in a damp place, on account of the hot weather, which,
as it is often injurious in burnishing gold, both to the colours
on which the gold is laid and also to the gilding, if the work
is done on parchment, so also it is injurious when the weather
is too dry and arid." John Acherius, in 1399, observes, too, that
"care must be taken as regards the situation, because windy weather
is a hindrance, unless the gilder is in an enclosed place, and
if the air is too dry, the colour cannot hold the gold under the
burnisher." Illumination is an art which has always been difficult;
we who attempt it to-day are not simply facing a lost art which
has become impossible because of the changed conditions; even when
followed along the best line in the best way the same trials were
encountered.
Early treatises vary regarding the best medium for laying leaf on
parchment. There are very few vehicles which will form a connecting
and permanent link between these two substances. There is a general
impression that white of egg was used to hold the gold: but any
one who has experimented knows that it is impossible to fasten
metal to vellum by white of egg alone. Both oil and wax were often
employed, and in nearly all recipes the use of glue made of
boiled-down vellum is enjoined. In some of the monasteries there
are records that the scribes had the use of the kitchen for drying
parchment and melting wax.
The introductions to the early treatises show the spirit in which
the work was undertaken. Peter de St. Audemar commences: "By the
assistance of God, of whom are all things that are good, I will
explain to you how to make colours for painters and illuminators
of books, and the vehicles for them, and other things appertaining
thereto, as faithfully as I can in the following chapters." Peter
was a North Frenchman of the thirteenth century.
Of the recipes given by the early treatises, I will quote a few,
for in reality they are all the literature we have upon the subject.
Eraclius, who wrote in the twelfth century, gives accurate directions:
"Take ochre and distemper it with water, and let it dry. In the
meanwhile make glue with vellum, and whip some white of egg. Then
mix the glue and the white of egg, and grind the ochre, which by
this time is well dried, upon a marble slab; and lay it on the
parchment with a paint brush;... then apply the gold, and let it
remain so, without pressing it with the stone. When it is dry,
burnish it well with a tooth. This," continues Eraclius naïvely,
"is what I have learned by experiment, and have frequently proved,
and you may safely believe me that I shall have told you the truth."
This assurance of good faith suggests that possibly it was a habit
of illuminators to be chary of information, guarding their own
discoveries carefully, and only giving out partial directions to
others of their craft.
In the Bolognese Manuscript, one is directed to make a simple size
from incense, white gum, and sugar candy, distempering it with
wine; and in another place, to use the white of egg, whipped with
the milk of the fig tree and powdered gum Arabic. Armenian Bole is
a favourite ingredient. Gum and rose water are also prescribed,
and again, gesso, white of egg, and honey. All of these recipes
sound convincing, but if one tries them to-day, one has the doubtful
pleasure of seeing the carefully laid gold leaf slide off as soon
as the whole mixture is quite dry. Especially improbable is the
recipe given in the Brussels Manuscript: "You lay on gold with well
gummed water alone, and this is very good for gilding on parchment.
You may also use fresh white of egg or fig juice alone in the same
manner."
Theophilus does not devote much time or space to the art of
illuminating, for, as he is a builder of everything from church
organs to chalices, glass windows, and even to frescoed walls, we
must not expect too much information on minor details. He does not
seem to direct the use of gold leaf at all, but of finely ground
gold, which shall be applied with its size in the form of a paste,
to be burnished later. He says (after directing that the gold dust
shall be placed in a shell): "Take pure minium and add to it a
third part of cinnibar, grinding it upon a stone with water. Which,
being carefully ground, beat up the clear white of an egg, in
summer with water, in winter without water," and this is to be
used as a slightly raised bed for the gold. "Then," he continues,
"place a little pot of glue on the fire, and when it is liquefied,
pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it." This is to be
painted on to the gesso ground just mentioned, and when quite dry,
burnished with an agate. This recipe is more like the modern
Florentine method of gilding in illumination.
Concerning the gold itself, there seem to have been various means
employed for manufacturing substitutes for the genuine article.
A curious recipe is given in the manuscript of Jehan de Begue,
"Take bulls' brains, put them in a marble vase, and leave them for
three weeks, when you will find gold making worms. Preserve them
carefully." More quaint and superstitious is Theophilus' recipe
for making Spanish Gold; but, as this is not quotable in polite
pages, the reader must refer to the original treatise if he cares
to trace its manufacture.
Brushes made of hair are recommended by the Brussels manuscript,
with a plea for "pencils of fishes' hairs for softening." If this
does not refer to _sealskin_, it is food for conjecture!
And for the binding of these beautiful volumes, how was the leather
obtained? This is one way in which business and sport could be combined
in the monastery, Warton says, "About the year 790, Charlemagne
granted an unlimited right of hunting to the Abbot and monks of
Sithiu, for making... of the skins of the deer they killed...
covers for their books." There is no doubt that it had occurred
to artists to experiment upon human skin, and perhaps the fact
that this was an unsatisfactory texture is the chief reason why
no books were made of it. A French commentator observes: "The
skin of a man is nothing compared with the skin of a sheep....
Sheep is good for writing on both sides, but the skin of a dead
man is just about as profitable as his bones,--better bury him,
skin and bones together."
There was some difficulty in obtaining manuscripts to copy. The
Breviary was usually enclosed in a cage; rich parishioners were bribed
by many masses and prayers, to bequeath manuscripts to churches. In
old Paris, the Parchment Makers were a guild of much importance.
Often they combined their trade with tavern keeping, in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries. The Rector of the University was glad
when this occurred, for the inn keeper and parchment maker was
under his control, both being obliged to reside in the Pays Latin.
Bishops were known to exhort the parchment makers, from the pulpit,
to be honest and conscientious in preparing skins. A bookseller,
too, was solemnly made to swear "faithfully to receive, take care
of, and expose for sale the works which should be entrusted to
him." He might not buy them for himself until they had been for
sale a full month "at the disposition of the Masters and Scholars."
But in return for these restrictions, the bookseller was admitted
to the rights and privileges of the University. As clients of the
University, these trades, which were associated with book making,
joined in the "solemn processions" of those times; booksellers,
binders, parchment makers, and illuminators, all marched together
on these occasions. They were obliged to pay toll to the Rector
for these privileges; the recipe for ink was a carefully guarded
secret.
It now becomes our part to study the books themselves, and see
what results were obtained by applying all the arts involved in
their making.
The transition from the Roman illuminations to the Byzantine may
be traced to the time when Constantine moved his seat of government
from Rome to Constantinople. Constantinople then became the centre
of learning, and books were written there in great numbers. For
some centuries Constantinople was the chief city in the art of
illuminating. The style that here grew up exhibited the same features
that characterized Byzantine art in mosaic and decoration. The
Oriental influence displayed itself in a lavish use of gold and
colour; the remnant of Classical art was slight, but may sometimes
be detected in the subjects chosen, and the ideas embodied. The
Greek influence was the strongest. But the Greek art of the seventh
and eighth centuries was not at all like the Classic art of earlier
Greece; a conventional type had entered with Christianity, and is
chiefly recognized by a stubborn conformity to precedent. It
is difficult to date a Byzantine picture or manuscript, for the
same severe hard form that prevailed in the days of Constantine
is carried on to-day by the monks of Mt. Athos, and a Byzantine
work of the ninth century is not easily distinguished from one of
the fifteenth. In manuscripts, the caligraphy is often the only
feature by which the work can be dated.
In the earlier Byzantine manuscripts there is a larger proportion
of Classical influence than in later ones, when the art had taken
on its inflexible uniformity of design. One of the most interesting
books in which this classical influence may be seen is in the Imperial
Library at Vienna, being a work on Botany, by Dioscorides, written
about 400 A. D. The miniatures in this manuscript have many of
the characteristics of Roman work.
The pigments used in Byzantine manuscripts are glossy, a great deal
of ultramarine being used. The high lights are usually of gold,
applied in sharp glittering lines, and lighting up the picture with
very decorative effect. In large wall mosaics the same characteristics
may be noted, and it is often suggested that these gold lines may
have originated in an attempt to imitate cloisonné enamel, in which
the fine gold line separates the different coloured spaces one from
another. This theory is quite plausible, as cloisonné was made by
the Byzantine goldsmiths.
M. Lecoy de la Marche tells us that the first recorded name of an
illuminator is that of a woman--Lala de Cizique, a Greek, who
painted on ivory and on parchment in Rome during the first Christian
century. But such a long period elapses between her time and that
which we are about to study, that she can here occupy only the
position of being referred to as an interesting isolated case.
The Byzantine is a very easy style to recognize, because of the
inflexible stiffness of the figures, depending for any beauty largely
upon the use of burnished gold, and the symmetrical folds of the
draperies, which often show a sort of archaic grace. Byzantine
art is not so much representation as suggestion and symbolism.
There is a book which may still be consulted, called "A Byzantine
Guide to Painting," which contains accurate recipes to be followed
in painting pictures of each saint, the colours prescribed for the
dress of the Virgin, and the grouping to be adopted in representing
each of the standard Scriptural scenes; and it has hardly from
the first occurred to any Byzantine artist to depart from these
regulations. The heads and faces lack individuality, and are outlined
and emphasized with hard, unsympathetic black lines; the colouring
is sallow and the expression stolid. Any attempt at delineating
emotion is grotesque, and grimacing. The beauty, for in spite of
all these drawbacks there is great beauty, in Byzantine manuscripts,
is, as has been indicated, a charm of colour and gleaming gold
rather than of design. In the Boston Art Museum there is a fine
example of a large single miniature of a Byzantine "Flight into
Egypt," in which the gold background is of the highest perfection
of surface, and is raised so as to appear like a plate of beaten
gold.
There is no attempt to portray a scene as it might have occurred;
the rule given in the Manual is followed, and the result is generally
about the same. The background is usually either gold or blue, with
very little effort at landscape. Trees are represented in flat
values of green with little white ruffled edges and articulations.
The sea is figured by a blue surface with a symmetrical white pattern
of a wavy nature. A building is usually introduced about half as
large as the people surrounding it. There is no attempt, either,
at perspective.
The anatomy of the human form was not understood at all. Nearly
all the figures in the art of this period are draped. Wherever
it is necessary to represent the nude, a lank, disproportioned
person with an indefinite number of ribs is the result, proving
that the monastic art school did not include a life class.
Most of the best Byzantine examples date from the fifth to the
seventh centuries. After that a decadence set in, and by the eleventh
century the art had deteriorated to a mere mechanical process.
The Irish and Anglo-Saxon work are chiefly characterized in their
early stages by the use of interlaced bands as a decorative motive.
The Celtic goldsmiths were famous for their delicate work in filigree,
made of threads of gold used in connection with enamelled grounds.
In decorating their manuscripts, the artists were perhaps
unconsciously influenced by this, and the result is a marvellous
use of conventional form and vivid colours, while the human figure
is hardly attempted at all, or, when introduced, is so conventionally
treated, as to be only a sign instead of a representation.
Probably the earliest representation of a pen in the holder, although
of a very primitive pattern, occurs in a miniature in the Gospels
of Mac Durnam, where St. John is seen writing with a pen in one
hand and a knife, for sharpening it, in the other. This picture
is two centuries earlier than any other known representation of
the use of the pen, the volume having been executed in the early
part of the eighth century.
Two of the most famous Irish books are the Book of Kells, and the
Durham Book. The Book of Kells is now in Trinity College, Dublin.
It is also known as the Gospel of St. Columba. St. Columba came,
as the Chronicle of Ethelwerd states, in the year 565: "five years
afterwards Christ's servant Columba came from Scotia (Ireland)
to Britain, to preach the word of God to the Picts."
[Illustration: DETAIL FROM THE DURHAM BOOK]
The intricacy of the interlacing decoration is so minute that it
is impossible to describe it. Each line may be followed to its
conclusion, with the aid of a strong magnifying glass, but cannot
be clearly traced with the naked eye. Westwood reports that, with a
microscope, he counted in one square inch of the page, one hundred
and fifty-eight interlacements of bands, each being of white, bordered
on either side with a black line. In this book there is no use of
gold, and the treatment of the human form is most inadequate.
There is no idea of drawing except for decorative purposes; it
is an art of the pen rather than of the brush--it hardly comes
into the same category as most of the books designated as
illuminated manuscripts. The so-called Durham Book, or the Gospels
of St. Cuthbert, was executed at the Abbey of Lindisfarne, in 688,
and is now in the British Museum. There is a legend that in the
ninth century pirates plundered the Abbey, and the few monks who
survived decided to seek a situation less unsafe than that on the
coast, so they gathered up their treasures, the body of the saint,
their patron, Cuthbert, and the book, which had been buried with
him, and set out for new lands. They set sail for Ireland, but a
storm arose, and their boat was swamped. The body and the book
were lost. After reaching land, however, the fugitives discovered
the box containing the book, lying high and dry upon the shore,
having been cast up by the waves in a truly wonderful state of
preservation. Any one who knows the effect of dampness upon parchment,
and how it cockles the material even on a damp day, will the more
fully appreciate this miracle.
Giraldus Cambriensis went to Ireland as secretary to Prince John,
in 1185, and thus describes the Gospels of Kildare, a book which
was similar to the Book of Kells, and his description may apply
equally to either volume. "Of all the wonders of Kildare I have
found nothing more wonderful than this marvellous book, written
in the time of the Virgin St. Bridget, and, as they say, at the
dictation of an angel. Here you behold the magic face divinely
drawn, and there the mystical forms of the Evangelists, there an
eagle, here a calf, so closely wrought together, that if you look
carelessly at them, they would seem rather like a uniform blot
than like an exquisite interweavement of figures; exhibiting no
perfection of skill or art, where all is really skill and perfection
of art. But if you look closely at them with all the acuteness of
sight that you can command, and examine the inmost secrets of this
wondrous art, you will discover such delicate, such wonderful and
finely wrought lines, twisted and interwoven with such intricate
knots and adorned with such fresh and brilliant colours, that you
will readily acknowledge the whole to have been the work of angelic
rather than human skill."
At first gold was not used at all in Irish work, but the manuscripts
of a slightly later date, and especially of the Anglo-Saxon school,
show a superbly decorative use both of gold and silver. The "Coronation
Oath Book of the Anglo-Saxon Kings" is especially rich in this
exquisite metallic harmony. By degrees, also, the Anglo-Saxons
became more perfected in the portrayal of the human figure, so
that by the twelfth century the work of the Southern schools and
those of England were more alike than at any previous time.
[Illustration: IVY PATTERN, FROM A 14TH CENTURY FRENCH MANUSCRIPT]
In the Northern manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries
it is amusing to note that the bad characters are always represented
as having large hooked noses, which fact testifies to the dislike
of the Northern races for the Italians and Southern peoples.
The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be considered to stand
for the "Golden Age" of miniature art in all the countries of Europe.
In England and France especially the illuminated books of the thirteenth
century were marvels of delicate work, among which the Tenison
Psalter and the Psalter of Queen Mary, both in the British Museum,
are excellent examples. Queen Mary's Psalter was not really painted
for Queen Mary; it was executed two centuries earlier. But it was
being sent abroad in 1553, and was seized by the Customs. They
refused to allow it to pass. Afterwards it was presented to Queen
Mary.
At this time grew up a most beautiful and decorative style, known
as "ivy pattern," consisting of little graceful flowering sprays,
with tiny ivy leaves in gold and colours. The Gothic feeling prevails
in this motive, and the foliate forms are full of spined cusps.
The effect of a book decorated in the ivy pattern, is radiant and
jewelled as the pages turn, and the burnishing of the gold was
brought to its full perfection at this time. The value of the creamy
surface of the vellum was recognized as part of the colour scheme.
With the high polish of the gold it was necessary to use always
the strong crude colours, as the duller tints would appear faded
by contrast. In the later stages of the art, when a greater realism
was attempted, and better drawing had made it necessary to use
quieter tones, gold paint was generally adopted instead of leaf, as
being less conspicuous and more in harmony with the general scheme;
and one of the chief glories of book decoration died in this change.
[Illustration: MEDIÆVAL ILLUMINATION]
The divergences of style in the work of various countries are well
indicated by Walter de Gray Birch, who says: "The English are famous
for clearness and breadth; the French for delicate fineness and
harmoniously assorted colours, the Flemish for minutely stippled
details, and the Italian for the gorgeous yet calm dignity apparent
in their best manuscripts." Individuality of facial expression,
although these faces are generally ugly, is a characteristic of
Flemish work, while the faces in French miniatures are uniform
and pretty.
One marked feature in the English thirteenth and fourteenth century
books, is the introduction of many small grotesques in the borders,
and these little creatures, partly animal and partly human, show
a keen sense of humour, which had to display itself, even though
inappropriately, but always with a true spirit of wit. One might
suppose on first looking at these grotesques, that the droll expression
is unintentional: that the monks could draw no better, and that
their sketches are funny only because of their inability to portray
more exactly the thing represented. But a closer examination will
convince one that the wit was deliberate, and that the very subtlety
and reserve of their expression of humour is an indication of its
depth. To-day an artist with the sense of caricature expresses
himself in the illustrated papers and other public channels provided
for the overflow of high spirits; but the cloistered author of the
Middle Ages had only the sculptured details and the books belonging
to the church as vehicles for his satire. The carvings on the
miserere seats in choirs of many cathedrals were executed by the
monks, and abound in witty representations of such subjects as
Reynard the Fox, cats catching rats, etc.; inspired generally by
the knowledge of some of the inconsistencies in the lives of
ecclesiastical personages. The quiet monks often became cynical.
The spirit of the times determines the standard of wit. At various
periods in the world's history, men have been amused by strange and
differing forms of drollery; what seemed excruciatingly funny to
our grandparents does not strike us as being at all entertaining.
Each generation has its own idea of humour, and its own fun-makers,
varying as much as fashion in dress.
In mediæval times, the sense of humour in art was more developed
than at any period except our own day. Even-while the monk was
consecrating his time to the work of beautifying the sanctuary,
his sense of humour was with him, and must crop out. The grotesque
has always played an important part in art; in the subterranean
Roman vaults of the early centuries, one form of this spirit is
exhibited. But the element of wit is almost absent; it is displayed
in oppressively obvious forms, so that it loses its subtlety: it
represents women terminating in floral scrolls, or sea-horses with
leaves growing instead of fins. The same spirit is seen in the
grotesques of the Renaissance, where the sense of humour is not
emphasized, the ideal in this class of decoration being simply to
fill the space acceptably, with voluptuous graceful lines,
mythological monstrosities, the inexpressive mingling of human and
vegetable characteristics, grinning dragons, supposed to inspire
horror, and such conceits, while the attempt to amuse the spectator
is usually absent.
In mediæval art, however, the beauty of line, the sense of horror,
and the voluptuous spirit, are all more or less subservient to
the light-hearted buoyancy of a keen sense of fun. To illustrate
this point, I wish to call the attention of the reader to the wit
of the monastic scribes during the Gothic period. Who could look at
the little animals which are found tucked away almost out of sight
in the flowery margins of many illuminated manuscripts, without seeing
that the artist himself must have been amused at their pranks, and
intended others to be so? One can picture a gray-hooded brother,
chuckling alone at his own wit, carefully tracing a jolly little
grotesque, and then stealing softly to the alcove of some congenial
spirit, and in a whisper inviting his friend to come and see the
satire which he has carefully introduced: "A perfect portrait of
the Bishop, only with claws instead of legs! So very droll! And
dear brother, while you are here, just look at the expression of
this little rabbit's ears, while he listens to the bombastic utterance
of this monkey who wears a stole!"
[Illustration: CARICATURE OF A BISHOP]
Such a fund of playful humour is seldom found in a single book as
that embodied in the Tenison Psalter, of which only a few pages
remain of the work of the original artist. The book was once the
property of Archbishop Tenison. These few pages show to the world the
most perfect example of the delicacy and skill of the miniaturist.
On one page, a little archer, after having pulled his bow-string,
stands at the foot of the border, gazing upwards after the arrow,
which has been caught in the bill of a stork at the top of the
page. The attitude of a little fiddler who is exhibiting his trick
monkeys can hardly be surpassed by caricaturists of any time. A
quaint bit of cloister scandal is indicated in an initial from
the Harleian Manuscript, in which a monk who has been entrusted
with the cellar keys is seen availing himself of the situation,
eagerly quaffing a cup of wine while he stoops before a large cask.
In a German manuscript I have seen, cuddled away among the foliage,
in the margin, a couple of little monkeys, feeding a baby of their
own species with pap from a spoon. The baby monkey is closely wrapped
in the swathing bands with which one is familiar as the early
trussing of European children. Satire and wrath are curiously blended
in a German manuscript of the twelfth century, in which the scribe
introduces a portrait of himself hurling a missile at a venturesome
mouse who is eating the monk's cheese--a fine Camembert!--under his
very nose. In the book which he is represented as transcribing, the
artist has traced the words--"Pessime mus, sepius me provocas ad
iram, ut te Deus perdat." ("Wicked mouse, too often you provoke me
to anger--may God destroy thee!")
In their illustrations the scribes often showed how literal was
their interpretation of Scriptural text. For instance, in a passage
in the book known as the Utrecht Psalter, there is an illustration
of the verse, "The words of the Lord are pure words; as silver
tried in the furnace, purified seven times." A glowing forge is
seen, and two craftsmen are working with bellows, pincers, and
hammer, to prove the temper of some metal, which is so molten that
a stream of it is pouring out of the furnace. Another example of
this literal interpretation, is in the Psalter of Edwin, where
two men are engaged in sharpening a sword upon a grindstone, in
illustration of the text about the wicked, "who whet their tongue
like a sword."
There is evidence of great religious zeal in the exhortations of
the leaders to those who worked under them. Abbot John of Trittenham
thus admonished the workers in the Scriptorium in 1486: "I have
diminished your labours out of the monastery lest by working badly
you should only add to your sins, and have enjoined on you the
manual labour of writing and binding books. There is in my opinion
no labour more becoming a monk than the writing of ecclesiastical
books.... You will recall that the library of this monastery...
had been dissipated, sold, or made way with by disorderly monks
before us, so that when I came here I found but fourteen volumes."
It was often with a sense of relief that a monk finished his work
upon a volume, as the final word, written by the scribe himself,
and known as the Explicit, frequently shows. In an old manuscript
in the Monastery of St. Aignan the writer has thus expressed his
emotions: "Look out for your fingers! Do not put them on my writing!
You do not know what it is to write! It cramps your back, it obscures
your eyes, it breaks your sides and stomach!" It is interesting
to note the various forms which these final words of the scribes
took; sometimes the Explicit is a pathetic appeal for remembrance
in the prayers of the reader, and sometimes it contains a note of
warning. In a manuscript of St. Augustine now at Oxford, there
is written: "This book belongs to St. Mary's of Robert's Bridge;
whoever shall steal it or in any way alienate it from this house,
or mutilate it, let him be Anathema Marantha!" A later owner,
evidently to justify himself, has added, "I, John, Bishop of Exeter,
know not where this aforesaid house is, nor did I steal this book,
but acquired it in a lawful way!"
The Explicit in the Benedictional of Ethelwold is touching: the
writer asks "all who gaze on this book to ever pray that after the
end of the flesh I may inherit health in heaven; this is the prayer
of the scribe, the humble Godemann." A mysterious Explicit occurs
at the end of an Irish manuscript of 1138, "Pray for Moelbrighte
who wrote this book. Great was the crime when Cormac Mac Carthy
was slain by Tardelvach O'Brian." Who shall say what revelation
may have been embodied in these words? Was it in the nature of a
confession or an accusation of some hitherto unknown occurrence?
Coming as it does at the close of a sacred book, it was doubtless
written for some important reason.
Among curious examples of the Explicit may be quoted the following:
"It is finished. Let it be finished, and let the writer go out for
a drink." A French monk adds: "Let a pretty girl be given to the
writer for his pains." Ludovico di Cherio, a famous illuminator
of the fifteenth century, has this note at the end of a book upon
which he had long been engaged: "Completed on the vigil of the
nativity of Our Lord Jesus Christ, on an empty stomach." (Whether
this refers to an imposed penance or fast, or whether Ludovico
considered that the offering of a meek and empty stomach would be
especially acceptable, the reader may determine.)
There is an amusing rhymed Explicit in an early fifteenth century
copy of Froissart:
"I, Raoul Tanquy, who never was drunk
(Or hardly more than judge or monk,)
On fourth of July finished this book,
Then to drink at the Tabouret myself took,
With Pylon and boon companions more
Who tripe with onions and garlic adore."
But if some of the monks complained or made sport of their work,
there were others to whom it was a divine inspiration, and whose
affection for their craft was almost fanatic, an anecdote being
related of one of them, who, when about to die, refused to be parted
from the book upon which he had bestowed much of his life's energy,
and who clutched it in his last agony so that even death should
not take it from him. The good Othlonus of Ratisbon congratulates
himself upon his own ability in a spirit of humility even while
he rejoices in his great skill; he says: "I think proper to add
an account of the great knowledge and capacity for writing which
was given me by the Lord in my childhood. When as yet a little
child, I was sent to school and quickly learned my letters, and
I began long before the time of learning, and without any order
from my master, to learn the art of writing. Undertaking this in a
furtive and unusual manner, and without any teacher, I got a habit
of holding my pen wrongly, nor were any of my teachers afterwards
able to correct me on that point." This very human touch comes down
to us through the ages to prove the continuity of educational
experience! The accounts of his monastic labours put us to the blush
when we think of such activity. "While in the monastery of Tegernsee
in Bavaria I wrote many books.... Being sent to Franconia while I
was yet a boy, I worked so hard writing that before I had returned
I had nearly lost my eyesight. After I became a monk at St. Emmerem,
I was appointed the school-master. The duties of the office so fully
occupied my time that I was able to do the transcribing I was
interested in only by nights and in holidays.... I was, however,
able, in addition to writing the books that I had myself composed,
and the copies which I gave away for the edification of those who
asked for them, to prepare nineteen missals, three books of the
Gospels and Epistles, besides which I wrote four service books for
Matins. I wrote in addition several other books for the brethren
at Fulda, for the monks at Hirschfeld, and at Amerbach, for the
Abbot of Lorsch, for certain friends at Passau, and for other
friends in Bohemia, for the monastery at Tegernsee, for the
monastery at Preyal, for that at Obermunster, and for my sister's
son. Moreover, I sent and gave at different times sermons, proverbs,
and edifying writings. Afterward old age's infirmities of various
kinds hindered me." Surely Othlonus was justified in retiring when
his time came, and enjoying some respite from his labours!
Religious feeling in works of art is an almost indefinable thing,
but one which is felt in all true emanations of the conscientious
spirit of devotion. Fra Angelico had a special gift for expressing
in his artistic creations is own spiritual life; the very qualities
for which he stood, his virtues and his errors,--purity,
unquestioning faith in the miraculous, narrowness of creed, and
gentle and adoring humility,--all these elements are seen to
completeness in his decorative pictures. Perhaps this is because
he really lived up to his principles. One of his favourite sayings
was "He who occupies himself with the things of Christ, must ever
dwell with Christ."
It is related that, in the Monastery of Maes Eyck, while the
illuminators were at work in the evening, copying Holy Writ, the
devil, in a fit of rage, extinguished their candles; they, however,
were promptly lighted again by a Breath of the Holy Spirit, and
the good work went on! Salvation was supposed to be gained through
conscientious writing. A story is told of a worldly and frivolous
brother, who was guilty of many sins and follies, but who, nevertheless,
was an industrious scribe. When he came to die, the devil claimed
his soul. The angels, however, brought before the Throne a great
book of religious Instructions which he had illuminated, and for
every letter therein, he received pardon for one sin. Behold! When
the account was completed, there proved to be one letter over!
the narrator adds naïvely, "And it was a very big book."
[Illustration: ILLUMINATION BY GHERART DAVID OF BRUGES, 1498; ST.
BARBARA]
Perhaps more than any books executed in the better period, after
the decline had begun, were the Books of Hours, containing the
numerous daily devotions which form part of the ritual of the Roman
Church. Every well appointed lady was supposed to own a copy, and
there is a little verse by Eustache Deschamps, a poet of the time
of Charles V., in which a woman is supposed to be romancing about
the various treasures she would like to possess. She says:
"Hours of Our Lady should be mine,
Fitting for a noble dame,
Of lofty lineage and name;
Wrought most cunningly and quaint,
In gold and richest azure paint.
Rare covering of cloth of gold
Full daintily it shall enfold,
Or, open to the view exposed,
Two golden clasps to keep it closed."
John Skelton the poet did honour to the illuminated tomes of his
day, in spite of the fact that the æesthetic deterioration had
begun.
"With that of the boke lozende were the clasps
The margin was illumined all with golden railes,
And bice empictured, with grasshoppers and waspes
With butterflies and fresh peacock's tailes:
Englosed with... pictures well touched and quickly,
It wold have made a man hole that had be right sickly!"
But here we have an indication of that realism which rung the death
knell of the art. The grasshoppers on a golden ground, and the
introduction of carefully painted insect and floral life, led to
all sorts of extravagances of taste.
But before this decadence, there was a very interesting period of
transition, which may be studied to special advantage in Italy,
and is seen chiefly in the illuminations of the great choral books
which were used in the choirs of churches. One book served for
all the singers in those days, and it was placed upon an open
lectern in the middle of the choir, so that all the singers could
see it: it will be readily understood that the lettering had to
be generous, and the page very large for this purpose. The
decoration of these books took on the characteristics of breadth
in keeping with their dimensions, and of large masses of ornament
rather than delicate meander. The style of the Italian choral books
is an art in itself.
The Books of Hours and Missals developed during the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries into positive art galleries, whole pages being
occupied by paintings, the vellum being entirely hidden by the
decoration. The art of illumination declined as the art of miniature
painting progressed. The fact that the artist was decorating a page
in a book was lost sight of in his ambition to paint a series of
small pictures. The glint of burnished gold on the soft surface
of the vellum was no longer considered elegant, and these more
elaborate pictures often left not even a margin, so that the pictures
might as well have been executed on paper and canvas and framed
separately, for they do not suggest ornaments in a book after this
change had taken place. Lettering is hardly introduced at all on
the same page with the illustration, or, when it is, is placed
in a little tablet which is simply part of the general scheme.
[Illustration: CHORAL BOOK, SIENA]
Among the books in this later period I will refer specifically to
two only, the Hours of Ann of Brittany, and the Grimani Breviary.
The Hours of Ann of Brittany, illuminated by a famous French artist
of the time of Louis XII., is reproduced in facsimile by Curmer, and
is therefore available for consultation in most large libraries.
It will repay any one who is interested in miniature art to examine
this book, for the work is so excellent that it is almost like
turning the leaves of the original. The Grimani Breviary, which
was illuminated by Flemish artists of renown, was the property of
Cardinal Grimani, and is now one of the treasures of the Library
of St. Marc in Venice. It is impossible in a short space to comment
to any adequate extent upon the work of such eminent artists as
Jean Foucquet, Don Giulio Clovio, Sano di Pietro, and Liberale da
Verona; they were technically at the head of their art, and yet,
so far as taste in book decoration is to be considered, their work
would be more satisfactory as framed miniatures than as marginal
or paginal ornament.
Stippling was brought to its ultimate perfection by Don Giulio
Clovio, but it is supposed to have been first practised by Antonio
de Holanda.
One of Jehan Foucquet's assistants was Jehan Bourdichon. There is
an interesting memorandum extant, relating to a piece of illumination
which Bourdichon had accomplished. "To the said B. for having had
written a book in parchment named the Papalist, the same illuminated
in gold and azure and made in the same nine rich Histories, and for
getting it bound and covered, thirty crowns in gold."
At the time of the Renaissance there was a rage for "tiny books,"
miniature copies of famous works. M. Würtz possessed a copy of the
Sonnets of Petrarch, written in italics, in brown ink, of which
the length was one inch, and the breadth five-eighths of an inch,
showing fifty lines on a page. The text is only visible through
a glass. It is in Italian taste, with several miniatures, and is
bound in gold filigree.
The value of illuminated books is enormous. An Elector of Bavaria
once offered a town for a single book; but the monks had sufficient
worldly wisdom to know that he could easily take the town again,
and so declined the exchange!
With the introduction of printing, the art of illumination was
doomed. The personal message from the scribe to the reader was
merged in the more comprehensive message of the press to the public.
It was no longer necessary to spend a year on a work that could be
accomplished in a day; so the artists found themselves reduced to
painting initial letters in printed books, sometimes on vellum, but
more often on paper. This art still flourishes in many localities;
but it is no more illumination, though it is often so designated,
than photography is portrait painting. Both are useful in their
departments and for their several purposes, but it is incorrect
to confound them.
[Illustration: DETAIL FROM AN ITALIAN CHORAL BOOK]
Once, while examining an old choral book, I was particularly
struck with the matchless personal element which exists in a book
which is made, as this was, by the hand, from the first stroke to
the last. The first page showed a bold lettering, the sweep of the
pen being firm and free. Animal vigour was demonstrated in the steady
hand and the clear eye. The illuminations were daintily painted,
and the sure touch of the little white line used to accentuate the
colours, was noticeable. After several pages, the letters became
less true and firm. The lines had a tendency to slant to the right;
a weakness could be detected in the formerly strong man. Finally
the writing grew positively shaky. The skill was lost.
Suddenly, on another page, came a change. A new hand had taken up
the work--that of a novice. He had not the skill of the previous
worker in his best days, but the indecision of his lines was that
of inexperience, not of failing ability. Gradually he improved.
His colours were clearer and ground more smoothly; his gold showed
a more glassy surface. The book ended as it had begun, a virile
work of art; but in the course of its making, one man had grown
old, lost his skill, and died, and another had started in his
immaturity, gained his education, and devoted his best years to
this book.
The printing press stands for all that is progressive and desirable;
modern life and thought hang upon this discovery. But in this glorious
new birth there was sacrificed a certain indescribable charm which
can never be felt now except by a book lover as he turns the leaves
of an ancient illuminated book. To him it is given to understand that
pathetic appeal across the centuries.
THE END.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arts and Crafts Movement. O. L. Triggs.
Two Lectures. William Morris.
Decorative Arts. William Morris.
Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini.
Library of British Manufactories.
Gold and Silver. Wheatley.
Ye Olden Time. E. S. Holt.
Arts and Crafts Essays. Ed. by Morris.
Industrial Arts. Maskell.
Old English Silver. Cripps.
Spanish Arts. J. E. Riañio.
History of the Fine Arts. W. B. Scott.
Art Work in Gold and Silver. P. H. Delamotte.
Gold and Silver. J. H. Pollen.
Une Ville du Temps Jadis. M. E. Del Monte.
Industrial Arts. P. Burty.
Arts of the Middle Ages. Labarte.
Miscellanea Graphica. Fairholt.
Artist's Way of Working. R. Sturgis.
Jewellery. Cyril Davenport.
Enamels. Mrs. Nelson Dawson.
Precious Stones. Jones.
Ghiberti and Donatello. Leader Scott.
Iron Work. J. S. Gardner.
Guilds of Florence. E. Staley.
Armour in England. J. S. Gardner.
Foreign Armour in England. J. S. Gardner.
Cameos. Cyril Davenport.
Peter Vischer. Cecil Headlam.
St. Eloi and St. Bernward. Baring Gould; Lives of the Saint.
European Enamels. H. Cunynghame.
Intarsia and Marquetry. H. Jackson.
Pavement Masters of Siena. R. H. Cust. Sculpture in Ivory. Digby
Wyatt. Ancient and Mediæval Ivories. Wm. Maskell. Ivory Carvers of
the Middle Ages. A. M. Cust. Arts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
P. Lacroix. Ivories. A. Maskell. Old English Embroidery. F. and H.
Marshall. The Bayeux Tapestry. F. R. Fowke. History of Tapestry.
W. G. Thomson. La Broderie. L. de Farcy. Textile Fabrics. Dr. Rock.
Needlework as Art. Lady Alford. History of Needlework. Countess
of Wilton. Gilds; Their Origins, etc. C. Walford. Tapestry. A.
Champeaux. Tapestry. J. Hayes. Ornamental Metal Work. Digby Wyatt.
La Mosaïque. Gerspach. The Master Mosaic Workers. G. Sand. Revival
of Sculpture. A. L. Frothingham. History of Italian Sculpture. C.
H. Perkins. Art Applied to Industry. W. Burges. Four Centuries
of Art. Noel Humphreys. Aratra Pentelici. Ruskin. Seven Lamps of
Architecture. Ruskin. Val d'Arno. Ruskin. Stones of Venice. Ruskin.
Lectures on Sculpture. Flaxman. Brick and Marble. G. E. Street.
Sculpture in Wood. Williams. Greek and Gothic. St. J. Tyrwhitt.
Westminster Abbey and Craftsmen. W. R. Lethaby. Le Roi René. L. de
la Marche. English Mediæval Figure Sculpture. Prior and Gardner.
Churches of Paris. Sophia Beale. Matthew Paris' Chronicle. Crowns
and Coronations. Jones. Bell's Handbooks of Rouen, Chartres, Amiens,
Wells, Salisbury and Lincoln. History of Sculpture. D'Agincourt.
The Grotesque in Church Art. T. T. Wildridge.
Choir Stalls and Their Carving. Emma Phipson. Memorials of Westminster
Abbey. Dean Stanley. Memorials of Canterbury. Dean Stanley. Les
Corporations des Arts et Metiers. Hubert Valeroux. Finger Ring
Lore. Jones. Goldsmith's and Silversmith's Work. Nelson Dawson. The
Dark Ages. Maitland. Rambles of an Archæologist. F. W. Fairholt.
History of Furniture. A. Jacquemart. Embroidery. W. G. P. Townsend.
Le Livre des Metiers. Etienne Boileau. Illuminated Manuscripts.
J. H. Middleton. Illuminated Manuscripts. Edward Quaile. English
Illuminated Manuscripts. Maunde Thompson. Les Manuscrits et l'art
de les Orner. Alphonse Labitte. Les Manuscrits et la Miniature.
L. de la Marche. Primer of Illumination. Delamotte. Primer of
Illumination. Digby Wyatt. Ancient Painting and Sculpture in England.
J. Carter. Vasari's Lives of the Painters. (Selected.) Benvenuto
Cellini--Autobiography. Illuminated Manuscripts. O. Westwood. Celtic
Illuminative Art. S. F. H. Robinson. Illuminated Manuscripts. Bradley.
INDEX
Aachen, 16
Abbeville, 265
Abbo, 57
Absalom, 299
Acherius, J., 335
Adam, 28
Adam, Abbot, 21
Adaminus, 222
Adelard, 229
Aelfled, 199
Aelst, 172
Agatho, 281
Agnelli, Fra, 226
Agnese, St., 14, 316
Agnolo, B., 303
Ahab, 276
Aignan, St., 354
Aix-la-Chapelle, 98, 287
Albans, St., 114, 186, 207, 250
Alberti, L., 131
Aleuin, 14, 278, 332
Aldobrandini, 131
Alfred, King, 4, 64, 67, 94, 199
Alford, Lady, 188, 303
Alicante, 167
Almeria, 183
Aloise, 20
Alwin, Bp., 252
Alwyn, H. F., 25
Amasia, Bp. of, 191
America, 25
Amiens, 65, 144, 230, 233, 236, 238, 240, 244, 265
Anastatius, 201, 281
"Anatomy of Abuses," 26
Ancona, 224
"Ancren Riwle," 75
Angers, 164, 208
Anglo-Saxons, 49, 92, 95, 100, 111, 159, 184, 294, 343
Anne of Bohemia, 65, 135
Anne of Brittany, 174, 211, 361
Anne of Cleves, 206
Anquetil, 230
Antelami, 221
Anthemius, 316
Anthony, St., 254
Antwerp, 116
Apollinaire, St., 316
Apollonius, 319
Apulia, 182
Arabia, 5, 14, 147
Arles, 18, 192, 229
Arnant, A., 292
Arnolfo di Cambio, 227
Armour, 121-132
Arphe, H. d' and J. d', 24, 25
Arras, 20, 165, 166, 167, 171
Arrigo (see Peselli)
Arthur, Prince, 205
Artois, 166
Asser, 4
Asterius, St., 192
Atlas, 9
Athelmay, 4
August the Pious, 245
Augustine, St., 279, 354
Aurelian, 180
Auquilinus, 230
Austin, W., 129
Auxene, 162
Aventin, St., 231
Avernier, A., 265
Avignon, M. de, 33
"Babee's Book," 39
Bakes, J., 171
Balbastro, 130
Baldini, B., 34
Baldovinetto, 322
Ballin, C., 35
Bamberg, 258
Baptist, John, 65
Barbarossa, 16
Barcheston, 171
Bargello, 281
Barnwell, 330
Bartholomew Anglicus, 4, 81, 83, 110, 149
Basilewski, 291
Basle, 23
Basse-taille, 103
Bataille, 166
Bavaria, 165, 266, 295, 362
Bayeux Tapestry, 154-159
Bazinge, A. de, 207
Beauchamp, R., 144
Becket, T. à, 28, 46, 54, 61
Bede, 110, 145
Begue, J. de, 338
Bells, 145
Benedict, St., 4, 329
Benedictional of Ethelwold, 355
Benet, J., 250
Bergamo, 308
Bernard, M., 167
Bernard, St., 21, 22, 270, 287
Bernward, Bp., 16-20, 136, 140, 229, 317
Berquem, L., 74
Bess of Hardwick, 211
Bethancourt, J. de, 33
Beverly, 257, 274
Bezaleel, 1, 25
Bezold, H. van, 268
Bianchini, 324
Billiard Balls, 295
Birch, W. de G., 349
Biscornette, 113
Black Prince, 135
"Blandiver, Jack," 152
Bloet, Bp., 246
Blois, 174
Boabdil, 127
Boileau, E., 217
Boleyn, A., 78
Bologna, 224, 308
Bolognese, M. S., 337
Boningegna, G., 98
Boston Art Museum, 342
Bosworth, 66
Botticelli, 190
Boudichon, J., 361
Boulin, A., 265
Boutellier, J. le, 237
Bradshaw, 170
Brandenburgh, 295
Bridget, St., 53, 346
Briolottus, 222
Brithnoth, 160
British Museum, 292, 345
Bronze, 132-149
Brooches, 50-56
Browning, R., 258
Brunelleschi, 305
Brussels, 172
Brussels, M. S., 337
Burgundy, 194
Byzantine style, 13, 22, 24, 49, 63, 84, 87, 92, 97, 103, 183, 191,
199, 220, 224, 340
"Byzantine Guide," 342
Cadwollo, 134
Caffi, M., 307
Cambio, A. del, 301
Cambridge, 37, 364
Camerino, J., 321
Cameos, 85-90
Cano, A., 268
Canterbury, 54, 135, 176, 243
Canute (see Knut)
Canozio, 305
Caradosso, 8
Caramania, 168
Carazan, 5
Carlencas, 218
Carovage, 151
Carpentras, Bp. of, 37
Carrara, 221
Carter, J., 106, 251, 290
Casati, 90
Cassiodorus, 327
Castel, G. van, 268
Castiglione, Count, 308
Cecilia, St., 186
Celestine III., Pope, 18
Cellini, Benvenuto, xii, 7-13, 43, 56, 68-71, 91, 96, 105, 127, 132,
304
Celtic style, 50-54, 92, 343
Centula, 317
Chained Books, 330
Chalices, 29
Champlevé, 94, 103
Charlemagne, 14, 15, 23, 62, 98, 124, 146, 181, 203, 224, 294, 328,
332, 338
Charles I., 212
Charles V., 40, 70, 165, 209, 265, 295, 359
Charles the Bold, 15
Chartres, 107, 145, 219, 229, 231, 234, 237, 238, 242, 312
Chaucer, 169, 181, 193
Chelles, J. de, 240
Cherio, L. de, 355
Chester, 170, 273
Chichester, 242
Chilperic, 38
Chinchintalas, 187
Christin of Margate, 207
Cid, The, 128
Claudian, 278
Clement le Brodeur, 207
Clement, Pope, 9, 56, 89
Clemente, St., 321
Clermont, 314
Clocks, 150
Clothaire II., 157
Clovio, G., 361
Clovis II., 62
Cluny, 14
Cockayne, W., 44
Coinsi, Prior, 270
Colaccio, M., 305
Cola di Rienzi, 204
Coldingham, 249
Cologne, 98, 115, 145
Columba, St., 220, 327, 344
Columbkille, 52
Constantine, 13, 313, 316, 340
Constantinople, 57, 84, 86, 97, 136, 181, 225, 316, 317, 318, 340
Constanza, Sta., 314
Coquille, G. de, 32
Cordova, 25
Coro, D. del, 299
Cosmati Mosaic, 310
Coula, 53
Courtray, 152
Coventry, 201
Cozette, 177
Cracow, 266
Crete, 276
Crest, H., 33
Crivelli, C., 183
Croisètes, J. de, 166
Cromwell, O., 29
Crown Jewels, 66
Croyland, 147, 164, 192, 200
Crumdale, R., 250
Cunegonde, 207
Cunegunda, Queen, 2, 24
Cups, 44
Curfew, 147
Curmer, 361
Cuserius, 315
Cuthbert, St., 53, 145, 199, 345
Cynewulf, 149
Cyzicus, L. de, 279, 341
Dagobert, 62, 162
Damascening, 126
Damiano, Fra, 308
Davenport, 287
Davenport, C., 86
Davi, J., 236
Day, Lewis, 183
Decker, H., 259
Delhi, 57
Delphyn, N., 255
Delobel, 196
Denis, St., 20, 22, 58, 83, 162, 230, 232
Deschamps, E., 359
Diamonds, 71-74
Diàne of de Poictiers, 107
Didier, Abbé, 318
Didron, 18, 140
Dijon, 152, 194, 229
Dipoenus, 276
Dioscorides, 341
Domenico of the Cameos, 88
Donatello, xiii, 227
Donne, Dr., 79
Dourdan, 166
Drawswerd, 255
Dresden, 85
Dublin, 27, 344
Ducarel, 159
Dunstan, St., 75, 110, 182
Dürer, A., 132, 258, 266, 268
Durham, 53, 148, 172, 197, 250, 252, 288, 318
"Durham Book," 344
Durosne, 33
Duval, J., 173
Ebony, 307
Ecclesiasticus, 81
Edinburgh, 130
Edgitha, 193
Edith, Queen, 159
Edrisi, 167
Edward, goldsmith, 28, 36
Edward I., 75
Edward II., 168, 199
Edward III., 36, 66, 193
Edward IV., 37, 117
Edward the Confessor, 26, 28, 75, 156, 193, 224, 251
Egebric, 147
Eginhard, 282
Egyptians, 1
Eleanor, Queen, 117, 135, 144, 165, 249
Elfen, 309
Elizabeth, Queen, 26, 129, 211
Eloi, St., 22, 57-62, 111
Ely, 159, 195, 200, 249
Embroideries, 179-212
Emesa, 65
Emma, Queen, 200, 251
Enamels, 91-108
England, 2, 4, 23, 135, 164, 214
Eraclius, 336
Essex, William of, 107
Etheldreda, St., 249
Explicit, 354
Exodus, 1
Ezekiel, 276
Fairill, 53
Falkland, Viscount, 211
Farcy, L., 189, 203
Ferdinand I., 302
Ferdinand II., 302
Fereol, St., 328
Ferucci, F., 302
Filigree, 12
Finger-rings, 74-78
Finiguerra, M., 34, 101
Flagons, 37
Flanders, 165
Florence, xii, 26, 34, 88, 115, 136, 147, 176, 224, 264, 298, 301,
303, 319, 322
Florence, Jean of, 165
Florent, St., 163
Fontaine, E. la, 23
Foucquet, J., 361
Fowke, F. R., 155
Fra Angelico, 357
France, 2, 3, 5, 23, 162, 164, 214-216, 257, 262, 291, 325
Francia, 34, 183
Francis I., 11, 105, 107, 133, 152, 177
Fremlingham, R. de, 250
Froissart, 131, 152, 356
Fuller, 189, 201
Gaddi, G. and A., 319-320, 322
Gaegart, 114
Gale, P., 207
Gall, St., 124, 145, 263, 285
Galla Placida, 315
"Gammer Gurton's Needle," 188
Gandesheim, 19
Garlande, J. de, 62
Garnier, 230
Gaunt, J. of, 35, 55
Gautier, R., 207
Gendulphus, St., 288
Genesis, 160
Genevieve, St., 3, 239
Genoa, 12, 180
Gerbert, 150
Germany, 5, 16, 17, 114, 130, 139, 141, 185, 198, 214, 257, 262, 291
George II., 186
George IV., 75
Gerona, 160
Ghent, 130
Ghiberti, xii, 34, 71, 136, 227
Ghirlandajo, 33, 322
Giacomo, Maestro, 306
Gifford, G., 29
Gilles, St., 229
Giralda, 135
Giraldus, Cambriensis, 335
Girard d'Orleans, 265
Giotto, 264, 322
"Giovanni of the Camelians," 88
Giudetto, Maestro, 296
Glastonbury, 110, 152, 220, 331
Gloucester, 327, 331
Gloucester, John of, 248
Gobelins Tapestry, 160, 164, 176
Godemann, 355
Gold Leaf, 335
Gontran, 229
Gothic style, 24, 29
Gouda, 299
Granada, 183
Gregory, St., 221, 277
Gresham, Sir T., 25
Grès, H. de, 292
Grimani Breviary, 361
Grosso, N., 116
Grotesques, 235-243, 273, 349, 353
Grove, D. van, 268
Guerrazzar, Treasure of, 63
Guillaume, Abbot, 229
Gutierez, 167
Haag, J., 240
Hall Mark, 3
Hankford, Sir W., 36
Hampton Court, 171
Hannequin, 32
Harleian MS., 352
Harrison, 193
Harold, 157, 158
Hasquin, J. de, 33
Hatfield, 171
Hayes, S. L., 156
Headlam, C., 268
Hebrides, 196
Hebrews, 1
Héliot, 292
Hennequin de Liege, 240
Henry I., 23, 155
Henry II., 83, 107, 197
Henry III, 27, 28, 36, 38, 86, 117, 135, 144, 207, 248, 287, 311
Henry V., 252
Henry VI., 185
Henry VII., 102, 181, 206, 253, 254, 257, 268
Henry VIII., 131, 175, 195, 209, 254
Henry the Pious, 23
Herlin, F., 266
Herman, 74
Herodias, 65
Hezilo, 20
Hildesheim, xii, 16-20, 116, 136, 139, 140, 258, 285, 286, 309, 317
Holanda, A. de, 361
Holderness, 273
Honorius, Pope, 316
Hudd, A., 255
Huberd, R., 251
Hugh, St., 246
Hughes, Abbot, 229
Husee, 37-78
Hust, A., 265
Il Lasca, 305
Illumination, 326-364
Imber, L., 255
Inlay, 296-309
Innocent IV., 200
Iona, 220
Ireland, 342-345
Iron, 109-121
Isaiah, 1
Isidore, 316
Isle of Man, 77
Islip, Abbot, 102, 275
Italy, 5, 21, 92, 141
Ivan III, 283
Ivory carving, 275-295
"Ivy Pattern," 347
Jackson, H., 307
Jacob of Breslau, 328
Jacobus, Fra, 319
James, 315
James I., 56, 176
Jeanne, Queen, 173
Jeanne of Navarre, 68
John, King, 66, 105, 207
John XII., 111
John IV., 316
Johnson, R., 117
Joinville, Sirede, 194
Jones, Sir E. B., 203
Jouy, B. de, 314
Justinian, 220, 221, 315
Katherine, Queen, 252
Katherine of Aragon, 209
Keepe, H., 241
Kells, Book of, 49, 344
Kent, Fair Maid of, 196
Keys, 119
Kildare, Gospels of, 345
Kirton, Ed., 241
"Kleine Heldenbuch," 189
Knight, 210
Knut, King, 200, 252
Kohinoor, 71
Kraft, A., 141, 213, 258, 259, 261, 266
Krems, 115
Laach, 262
Labenwolf, 143
Labarte, 302
Laborde, 74
Labraellier, J., 295
Lacordaire, 160
Lagrange, 168
Lambspring, B., 129
Lamoury, S., 166
Lateran, The, 205, 316, 321
Laura, 193
Lawrence, St., 315
Lead, 149
Lebrija, 269
Leighton, T. de, 117
Leland, 206
Leo III., 203
Leo X., 172
Leon, 25
Leopardi, 302
"Les Maitres Mosaïtes," 323
Lethaby, W. R., 252, 311
Lewis, 293
Lewis, H., 117
Liberale da Verona, 361
"Liber Eliensis," 200
Lille, 166
Limoges, 24-57, 103, 107, 144
Lincoln, 244, 246, 274
Lincoln Imp, 247
Lindisfarne, 53, 345
Limousin, E. and L., 107
Lisle, Lord, 35, 55
Little Gidding, 212
Locks, 120
Lombards, The, 18, 63, 220, 277
London, 25, 26, 44, 182, 185, 206, 248, 288
Lothaire, 38
Louis VI., 21
Louis VII., 21
Louis XII., 174, 361
Louis XIV., 197
Louis, Prince, 20
Louis, St., 22, 194, 232, 240, 253
Louvre, The, 270, 292
Lübke, xi
Lucca, 221, 296
Luca della Robbia, 213
Ludlow, 273
Luini, B., 307
Luna, de, 306
MacDurnam, 344
"Mad Meg," 130
Madrid, 177-270
Maes Eyck, 358
Magaster, 278
Maiano, B. de, 304
Maitland, 14
Maitani, L., 227
Malaga, 269
Malmsbury, W. of, 65, 75, 220
Malvezzi, M., 308
Manne, P., 33
Mantegna, 101
Mantreux, J. de, 32
Manuello, 302
Mapilton, Master, 252
"Mappae Claviculae," 276
Marcel, St., 238
Marcellus, 65
Marche, L. de la, 341
Maretta, G., 8
Mariana, Queen, 270
Mark's, St., 318, 323, 361
Marten, 66
Martin, St., 17, 87
Martyr, Bp., 240
Mary, Queen of Scots, 210
Maskell, A. and W., 32, 186, 294
Massari, A., 306
Matilda, Queen, 155
Matsys, Q., 118, 141
Matteo da Siena, 300
Maximian, 282
Medici, The, 85, 176, 211, 254, 301
Memlinc, 166
Mexicans, 18
Michael, St., 18, 19
Michelangelo, 9, 90, 116, 254, 303
Milan, 281, 307
Mildmay, H., 67
Minella, P. de, 299
Miniato, San, 298
Miserere Stalls, 271-275
"Mons Meg," 130
Monte Cassino, 318
Montereau, J. de, 240
Montfort, S. de, 63
Montarsy, P. de, 35
Monza, 23, 63, 221
Monzon, 146
Moore, Charles, xi, 234
Moorish style, 24
Moreau, J., 241
Morel, B., 135
Mortlake, 178
Morris, Wm., v, x, 248
Moryson, F., 26
Mt. Athos, 341
Möser, L., 266
Mosaic, 309-327
Nantes, 314
Nassaro, M. dal, 88
Naumberg, 259
Navagiero, 183
Nevers, Count of, 194
Nicolas, J., 33
Niello, 49, 99-102
Nomenticum, 166
Norfolk, 31
Norman style, 29
Norton, C. E., 219, 226
Norwich, 45, 196, 331
Nôtre Dame, Paris, 218, 234, 238, 240
Noyon, 58, 60
Nüremberg, 141, 152, 258, 259, 266, 292, 309
Oath Book of the Saxon Kings, 346
Odericus, 311
Odo, goldsmith, 14, 27
Odo, Abbot, 115
Olivetans, 307-308
Orcagna, 34, 140, 183, 227
Orebsc, S. M., 24
Orghet, J., 166
Oriental, 24, 84
Orleans, 33
Orso Magister, 222
Orviedo, 278
Orvieto, 33, 227, 244, 302, 310
Osmont, 204
Othlonus, 356
Otho, 230, 286
Otto III., Emperor, 16
Oudenardes, 169
Ouen, St., 58
Oxford, 168, 210, 248, 255, 354
Pacheco, 25
Padua, 305
Pala d'Oro, 23, 97, 98
Palermo, 311
"Pancake Man" 245
Paris, 2, 17, 20-23, 26, 37, 52, 69, 86, 113, 149, 166, 186, 200, 218,
229, 234, 238, 239, 240, 339
Paris, Matthew, 27, 180, 207
Parma, 221
Patras, L., 139
Patrick, St., 2, 49, 52, 145, 238
Paul the Deacon, 221
Paulus, 315
Pausanias, 121
Pavia, 221
Pembroke, Earl, 67
Penne, 208
Perseus, 134
Persia, 55
Perugia, 224, 298
Peselli, 322
Peter Albericus, 224
Peter Amabilis, 224
Peter the Great, 295
Peter de St. Andeman, 335
Peter Orfever, 224
Peter of Rome, 310
Peter of Spain, 241
Petrarch, 192, 362
Philip IV., 167
Philip the Bold, 165
Philip the Good, 165
Philippa, Queen, 194
Philostratus, 91, 103
Philoxenus, 277
Picardie, 317
Pickering, W., 129
Pietra Dura, 301
Piggigny, J. de, 32
Pinturicchio, 300
Pirckheimer, W., 132
Pisa, 221, 225, 298
Pisani, The, 71, 216, 221, 225, 234, 244
Pistoja, 298
Pitti Palace, 101, 177, 301, 302
Pius II., 67
Pliny, 2, 110, 143
Poitiers, 162, 163
Pollajuolo, xiii, 34, 195
Polo, Marco, 5, 55, 71, 184, 187, 278
Pordenone, 323
Portland Vase, 87
Poucet, J. de and B., 241
Poulligny, G. de, 207
Poussin, N., 33
Precious Stones, 77-83
Prior and Gardner, 244
Probus, 277
"Properties of Things," 4
Psalter of Edwin, 353
Ptolemies, The, 83
Pudenziana, St., 314
Pugin, 120, 153
Quentin, St., 60
"Queen Mary's Psalter," 347
Rabanus, 278
Rabotin, L., 33
Raffaelo da Brescia, 308
Ralph, Brother, 250
Ramsay, W., 250
Raphael, 166, 172, 323
Rausart, J. de, 166
Ravenna, 216, 224, 282, 283, 312, 314, 315
Redgrave, R., xi, 47
Rée, J. P., 259
Reformation, The, 29, 31, 209
Reggio, 305
Renaissance, 32, 88, 117, 135, 141, 164, 192, 205, 227, 239, 268, 271,
362
René of Anjou, 33, 164, 173, 208, 241
Renoy, J., 237
Reynolds, Sir J., 139
Rheims, 150, 162, 229, 238, 239, 300
Richard II., 37, 135
Richard III., 66
Ripon, 273
Robert, King, 150, 229
Rock, Dr., 155, 183, 191, 197, 210
Rome, 17, 19, 24, 136, 187, 264, 278, 283, 310, 316, 321, 322
Romanesque style, 18, 29, 219, 220, 258
Romulus and Remus, 299
Rosebeque, 131, 167
Rossi, 314
Rothenburg, 266
Rouen, 60, 236, 265
Roze, Abbé, 236
Ruskin, J., v, 144, 221, 222, 226, 227, 235, 265, 298
Salinas, 130
Salisbury, 243
Salisbury, Earl, 35
Salt-cellars, 43
Salutati, B., 195
Sand, G., 323
Sandwich, 30
Sansovino, xii
Sano di Pietro, 361
Saumur, 162, 241
Sauval, 114
Savonarola, 195
Schülein, H., 266
Scillis, 276
Scholastico, A., 295
Schutz, C., 185
Scott, W., 51
Sculpture, 213
Selsea, 242
Senlis, H. de, 292
Seville, 24, 25, 128, 132, 209
Sewald, 165
Shakespeare, 77
Shoreditch, J. of, 168
Shrewsbury, 211
Siena, 225, 298-300, 302
Silk, 179
Siriès, L., 302
Sithiu, 339
Skelton, J., 359
Smyrna, 168
Soignoles, J. de, 240
Solignac, 58
Sophia, Sta., 316
South Kensington Museum, 19, 170, 177, 197, 198, 303, 226
Spain, 24, 102, 110, 117, 120, 127-8, 130, 211, 258, 278, 294, 306
Spoons, 39
"Squire of Low Degree," 197
Staley, E., 134
Statius, 315
Stauracius, 136
Stengel, H., 309
Stephanus, 315
Stephen IV., 187
Stevens, T., 144
Strasburg, 259
Stoss-Veit, 258-266
Stubbes, 25
Stubbs, Charles, 249
Stump Work, 212
Sturgis, R., vii, 218, 307
Suger, Abbot, 20-23, 230, 318
Suinthila, 23, 63
Sumercote, J. de, 207
"Swineherd of Stowe," 246
Sylvester II., 151
Sylvester, Bp., 314
Symmachus, 279
Symonds, J. A., 139
Syon Cope, 201
Syrlin, J., 266
Tali, A., 319-320
Tanagra, 213
Tancho, 146
Tapestry, 154-178
Tapicier, G. le, 168
Tappistere, J. le, 168
Tara Brooch, 50, 83
Tartary, 184
Tassach, 53
Tasso, D. and G., 303, 304
Taugmar, 17
Tegernsee, 357
Temple Church, 248
Tenison Psalter, 347, 352
Texier, Abbé, xiii
Textiles, 154
Thebes, 181
Thergunna, 196
Theodolinda, Queen, 221, 277
Theodora, 315
Theodoric, 221, 222, 327
Theophilus the Monk, 5, 6, 7, 74, 81, 85, 95, 99, 100, 110, 185, 276, 337
Theophilus, Emperor, 14, 317
Thillo, 58
Thomson, M. G., 165, 171
Tintoretto, 323
Titian, 323
Toledo, 24, 25, 63, 125, 209, 270
Tonquin, J., 114
Topf, J., 129
Torcello, 112, 319
Torel, W., 144, 249, 250
Torpenhow, 31
Torregiano, 254, 264
Torriti, J., 321
Touraine, 194
Tours, 17, 162, 173, 314
"Treatises" of Cellini, 11
Trittenham, J. of, 354
Trophimes, St., 229
Troupin, J., 265
Troyes, 170
Tucher, A., 268
Tudela, B. of, 57, 181
Tudor, 29
Tuscany, 5
Tutilon, or Tutilo, 229, 263
Ubaldo, St., 204
Ugolino of Siena, 33
Ulm, 266
Ulpha, St., 233
Urbino, 306
Utrecht Psalter, 156, 353
Valence, A. de, 144, 233
Valencia, 146
Valerio Vincentino, 89
Van Eyck, 166
Vasari, G., 34, 85, 89, 106, 116, 191, 254, 302, 320, 322
Vatican, 204
Velasquez, 25, 167
Venice, 84, 97, 136, 223, 312, 318, 322, 323, 361
Verocchio, 33, 34
Verona, 88, 117, 222
Villant, P. de, 208
Vinci, L. da, 33
Viollet-le-Duc, 52, 218
Virgil, 228
Vischer, Peter, 141-143, 266
Vischer, Peter, Jr., 268
Vitel, 314
Vitruvius, 187
Vivaria, 327
Vopiscus, F., 166
Wallois, H., 166
Walpole, H., 148
Walsingham, A. de, 248
Walter of Colchester, 250
Walter of Durham, 250
Ware, R. de, 311
Warwick, 144
Waquier, 207
Wechter, F. de, 166
Welburne, J., 275
Wells, 152, 244
Wendover, R. de, 180
Westminster, 66, 102, 117, 144, 156, 165, 224, 233, 240, 241, 243,
249-255, 268, 275, 311, 331
Westwood, O., 344
Weyden, van der, 169
Willaume, 166
William the Conqueror, 155, 232
Williams of Sens, 243
Wilton, Countess of, 157, 172
Winchester, 149, 165, 199, 272
Windsor, 118, 131, 268
Wire-drawing, 184
Withaf, King, 192
Withers, G., 67
Wolsey, Card., 175
Wood-carving, 262-275
Wood, 66
Woolstrope, 29
Worsted, 196
Wyckham, W., 102
Ypres, 166
York, 181, 275, 285
Zamborro, M., 322
Zuccati, The, 323-325