ENAMEL
"Oh, thou discreetest of readers," says Benvenuto Cellini, "marvel
not that I have given so much time to writing about all this," and
we feel like making the same apology for devoting a whole chapter
to enamel; but this branch of the goldsmith's art has so many
subdivisions, that it cries for space.
The word Enamel is derived from various sources. The Greek language
has contributed "maltha," to melt; the German "schmeltz," the old
French "esmail," and the Italian "smalta," all meaning about the
same thing, and suggesting the one quality which is inseparable
from enamel of all nations and of all ages,--its fusibility. For
it is always employed in a fluid state, and always must be.
Enamel is a type of glass product reduced to powder, and then melted
by fervent heat into a liquid condition, which, when it has hardened,
returns to its vitreous state.
Enamel has been used from very early times. The first allusion to
it is by Philostratus, in the year 200 A. D., where he described
the process as applied to the armour of his day. "The barbarians
of the regions of the ocean," he writes, "are skilled in fusing
colours on heated brass, which become as hard as stone, and render
the ornament thus produced durable."
Enamels have special characteristics in different periods: in the late
tenth century, of Byzantium and Germany; in the eleventh century, of
Italy; while most of the later work owes its leading characteristics
to the French, although it continued to be produced in the other
countries.
It helps one to understand the differences and similarities in
enamelled work, to observe the three general forms in which it is
employed; these are, the cloisonné, the champlevé, and the painted
enamel. There are many subdivisions of these classifications, but
for our purpose these three will suffice.
In cloisonné, the only manner known to the Greek, Anglo-Saxon, and
Celtic craftsmen, the pattern is made upon a gold ground, by little
upright wire lines, like filigree, the enamel is fused into all the
little compartments thus formed, each bit being one clear colour,
on the principle of a mosaic. The colours were always rather clear
and crude, but are the more sincere and decorative on this account,
the worker recognizing frankly the limitation of the material; and
the gold outline harmonizes the whole, as it does in any form of
art work. A cloisonné enamel is practically a mosaic, in which the
separations consist of narrow bands of metal instead of plaster.
The enamel was applied in its powdered state on the gold, and then
fused all together in the furnace.
[Illustration: GERMAN ENAMEL, 13TH CENTURY]
Champlevé enamel has somewhat the same effect as the cloisonné,
but the end is attained by different means. The outline is left in
metal, and the whole background is cut away and sunk, thus making
the hollow chambers for the vitreous paste, in one piece, instead of
by means of wires. Often it is not easy to determine which method
has been employed to produce a given work.
Painted enamels were not employed in the earliest times, but came
to perfection in the Renaissance. A translucent enamel prevailed
especially in Italy: a low relief was made with the graver on gold
or silver; fine raised lines were left here and there, to separate
the colours. Therefore, where the cutting was deepest, the enamel
ran thicker, and consequently darker in colour, giving the effect of
shading, while in reality only one tint had been used. The powdered
and moistened enamel was spread evenly with a spatula over the
whole surface, and allowed to stand in the kiln until it liquefied.
Another form of enamel was used to colour gold work in relief,
with a permanent coating of transparent colour. Sometimes this
colour was applied in several coats, one upon another, and the
features painted with a later touch. Much enamelled jewelry was
made in this way, figures, dragons, and animal forms, being among
the most familiar. But an actual enamel painting--on the principle
of a picture, was rendered in still another way. In preparing the
ground for enamel painting, there are two things which have been
essentially considered in all times and countries. The enamel ground
must be more fusible than the metal on which it is placed, or else
both would melt together. Also the enamel with which the final
decoration is executed must be more easily made fluid than the harder
enamel on which it is laid. In fact, each coat must of necessity
be a trifle more fusible than the preceding one. A very accurate
knowledge is necessary to execute such a work, as will be readily
understood.
[Illustration: ENAMELLED GOLD BOOK COVER, SIENA]
In examining historic examples of enamel, the curious oval set
in gold, known as the Alfred Jewel, is among the first which come
within our province. It was found in Somersetshire, and probably
dates from about the year 878. It consists of an enamelled figure
covered by a thick crystal, set in filigree, around the edge of
which runs the inscription, "AELFRED MEC REHT GAVUR CAN" (Alfred
ordered me to be wrought). King Alfred was a great patron of the
arts. Of such Anglo-Saxon work, an ancient poem in the Exeter Book
testifies:
"For one a wondrous skill
in goldsmith's art is provided
Full oft he decorates and well adorns
A powerful king's nobles."
Celtic enamels are interesting, being usually set in the spaces
among the rambling interlaces of this school of goldsmithing. The
Cross of Cong is among the most famous specimens of this work,
and also the bosses on the Ardagh Chalice.
The monk Theophilus describes the process of enamelling in a graphic
manner. He directs his workmen to "adapt their pieces of gold in all
the settings in which the glass gems are to be placed" (by which we
see that he teaches the cloisonné method). "Cut small bands of
exceedingly thin gold," he continues, "in which you will bend and
fashion whatever work you wish to make in enamel, whether circles,
knots, or small flowers, or birds, or animals, or figures." He then
admonishes one to solder it with greatest care, two or three times,
until all the pieces adhere firmly to the plate. To prepare the
powdered glass, Theophilus advises placing a piece of glass in the
fire, and, when it has become glowing, "throw it into a copper vessel
in which there is water, and it instantly flies into small fragments
which you break with a round pestle until quite fine. The next step
is to put the powder in its destined cloison, and to place the whole
jewel upon a thin piece of iron, over which fits a cover to protect
the enamel from the coals, and put it in the most intensely hot part
of the fire." Theophilus recommends that this little iron cover be
"perforated finely all over so that the holes may be inside flat and
wide, and outside finer and rough, in order to stop the cinders if by
chance they should fall upon it." This process of firing may have
to be repeated several times, until the enamel fills every space
evenly. Then follows the tedious task of burnishing; setting the
jewel in a strong bit of wax, you are told to rub it on a "smooth
hard bone," until it is polished well and evenly.
Benvenuto Cellini recommends a little paper sponge
to be used in smoothing the face of enamels. "Take a clean nice piece
of paper," he writes, "and chew it well between your teeth,--that
is, if you have got any--I could not do it, because I've none left!"
A celebrated piece of goldsmith's work of the tenth century is
the Pala d'Oro at St. Mark's in Venice. This is a gold altar piece
or reredos, about eleven feet long and seven feet high, richly
wrought in the Byzantine style, and set with enamels and precious
stones. The peculiar quality of the surface of the gold still lingers
in the memory; it looks almost liquid, and suggests the appearance
of metal in a fluid state. On its wonderful divisions and arched
compartments are no less than twelve hundred pearls, and twelve
hundred other precious gems. These stones surround the openings
in which are placed the very beautiful enamel figures of saints
and sacred personages. St. Michael occupies a prominent position;
the figure is partly in relief. The largest medallion contains
the figure of Christ in glory, and in other compartments may be
seen even such secular personages as the Empress Irene, and the
Doge who was ruling Venice at the time this altar piece was put
in place--the year 1106. The Pala d'Oro is worked in the champlevé
process, the ground having been cut away to receive the melted
enamel. It is undoubtedly a Byzantine work; the Doge Orseolo, in
976, ordered it to be made by the enamellers of Constantinople.
It was not finished for nearly two centuries, arriving in Venice
in 1102, when the portrait of the Doge then reigning was added
to it. The Byzantine range of colours was copious; they had white,
two reds, bright and dark, dark and light blue, green, violet,
yellow, flesh tint, and black. These tints were always fused
separately, one in each cloison: the Greeks in this period never
tried to blend colours, and more than one tint never appears in
a compartment. The enlarging and improving of the Pam d'Oro was
carried on by Greek artists in Venice in 1105. It was twice
altered after that, once in the fourteenth century for Dandolo,
and thus the pure Byzantine type is somewhat invaded by the Gothic
spirit. The restorations in 1345 were presided over by Gianmaria
Boninsegna.
One of the most noted specimens of enamel work is on the Crown of
Charlemagne,[1] which is a magnificent structure of eight plaques
of gold, joined by hinges, and surmounted by a cross in the front,
and an arch crossing the whole like a rib from back to front. The
other cross rib has been lost, but originally the crown was arched
by two ribs at the top. The plates of gold are ornamented, one
with jewels, and filigree, and the next with a large figure in
enamel. These figures are similar to those occurring on the Pala
d'Oro.
[Footnote 1: See Fig. 1.]
[Illustration: DETAIL; SHRINE OF THE THREE KINGS, COLOGNE]
The Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne is decorated both with
cloisonné and champlevé enamels,--an unusual circumstance. In Aix
la Chapelle the shrine of Charlemagne is extremely like it in some
respects, but the only enamels are in champlevé. Good examples
of translucent enamels in relief may be seen on several of the
reliquaries at Aix la Chapelle.
Theophilus gives us directions for making a very ornate chalice
with handles, richly embossed and ornamented with mello. Another
paragraph instructs us how to make a golden chalice decorated with
precious stones and pearls. It would be interesting as a modern
problem, to follow minutely his directions, and to build the actual
chalice described in the eleventh century. To apply the gems and
pearls Theophilus directs us to "cut pieces like straps," which
you "bend together to make small settings of them, by which the
stones may be enclosed." These little settings, with their stones,
are to be fixed with flour paste in their places and then warmed
over the coals until they adhere. This sounds a little risky, but
we fancy he must have succeeded, and, indeed, it seems to have been
the usual way of setting stones in the early centuries. Filigree
flowers are then to be added, and the whole soldered into place in
a most primitive manner, banking the coals in the shape of a small
furnace, so that the coals may lie thickly around the circumference,
and when the solder "flows about as if undulating," the artist is
to sprinkle it quickly with water, and take it out of the fire.
Niello, with which the chalice of Theophilus is also to be enriched,
stands in relation to the more beautiful art of enamel, as drawing
does to painting, and it is well to consider it here. Both the
Romans and the Anglo-Saxons understood its use. It has been employed
as an art ever since the sixth and seventh centuries. The term
"niello" probably is an abbreviation of the Italian word "nigellus"
(black); the art is that of inlaying an engraved surface with a
black paste, which is thoroughly durable and hard as the metal
itself in most cases, the only difference being in flexibility;
if the metal plate is bent, the niello will crack and flake off.
[Illustration: FINIGUERRA'S PAX, FLORENCE]
Niello is more than simply a drawing on metal. That would come
under the head of engraving. A graver is used to cut out the design
on the surface of the silver, which is simply a polished plane. When
the drawing has been thus incised, a black enamel, made of lead,
lamp black, and other substances, is filled into the interstices,
and rubbed in; when quite dry and hard, this is polished. The result
is a black enamel which is then fused into the silver, so that
the whole is one surface, and the decoration becomes part of the
original plate. The process as described by Theophilus is as follows:
"Compose the niello in this manner; take pure silver and divide
it into equal parts, adding to it a third part of pure copper,
and taking yellow sulphur, break it very small... and when you
have liquefied the silver with the copper, stir it evenly with
charcoal, and instantly pour into it lead and sulphur." This niello
paste is then made into a stick, and heated until "it glows: then
with another forceps, long and thin, hold the niello and rub it
all over the places which you wish to make black, until the drawing
be full, and carrying it away from the fire, make it smooth with a
flat file, until the silver appear." When Theophilus has finished
his directions, he adds: "And take great care that no further work
is required." To polish the niello, he directs us to "pumice it
with a damp stone, until it is made everywhere bright."
There are various accounts of how Finiguerra, who was a worker
in niello in Florence, discovered by its means the art of steel
engraving. It is probably only a legendary narrative, but it is
always told as one of the apocryphal stories when the origin of
printing is discussed, and may not be out of place here. Maso
Finiguerra, a Florentine, had just engraved the plate for his famous
niello, a Pax which is now to be seen in the Bargello, and had
filled it in with the fluid enamel, which was standing waiting
until it should be dry. Then, according to some authorities, a
piece of paper blew upon the damp surface, on which, after carefully
removing it, Maso found his design was impressed; others state that
it was through the servant's laying a damp cloth upon it, that
the principle of printing from an incised plate was suggested.
At any rate, Finiguerra took the hint, it is said, and made an
impression on paper, rolling it, as one would do with an etching
or engraving.
In the Silver Chamber in the Pitti Palace is a Pax, by Mantegna,
made in the same way as that by Finiguerra, and bearing comparison
with it. The engraving is most delicate, and it is difficult
to imagine a better specimen of the art. The Madonna and Child,
seated in an arbour, occupy the centre of the composition, which
is framed with jewelled bands, the frame being divided into sixteen
compartments, in each of which is seen a tiny and exquisite picture.
The work on the arbour of roses in which the Virgin sits is of
remarkable quality, as well as the small birds and animals
introduced into the composition. In the background, St. Christopher
is seen crossing the river with the Christ Child on his back, while
in the water a fish and a swan are visible.
In Valencia in Spain may be seen a chalice which has been supposed
to be the very cup in which Our Saviour instituted the Communion.
The cup itself is of sardonyx, and of fine form. The base is made
of the same stone, and handles and bands are of gold, adorned with
black enamel. Pearls, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds are set in
profusion about the stem and base. It is a work of the epoch of
Imperial Rome.
In England, one of the most perfect specimens of fine, close work,
is the Wilton Chalice, dating from the twelfth century. The Warwick
Bowl, too, is of very delicate workmanship, and both are covered
with minute scenes and figures. One of the most splendid treasures
in this line is the crozier of William Wyckham, now in Oxford.
It is strictly national in style.
The agreement entered into between Henry VII., and Abbot Islip,
for the building of the chapel of that king in Westminster, is
extant. It is bound in velvet and bossed with enamels. It is an
interesting fact that some of the enamels are in the Italian
style, while others are evidently English.
Limoges was the most famous centre of the art of enamelling in
the twelfth century, the work being known as Opus de Limogia, or
Labor Limogiae. Limoges was a Roman settlement, and enamels were
made there as early as the time of Philostratus. Champlevé enamel,
while it was not produced among the Greeks, nor even in Byzantine
work, was almost invariable at Limoges in the earlier days: one
can readily tell the difference between a Byzantine enamel and an
early Limoges enamel by this test, when there is otherwise sufficient
similarity of design to warrant the question.
Some of the most beautiful enamels of Limoges were executed in what
was called basse-taille, or transparent enamel on gold grounds, which
had been first prepared in bas-relief. Champlevé enamel was often
used on copper, for such things as pastoral staves, reliquaries, and
larger bits of church furniture. The enamel used on copper is usually
opaque, and somewhat coarser in texture than that employed on gold
or silver. Owing to their additional toughness, these specimens
are usually in perfect preservation. In 1327, Guillaume de Harie,
in his will, bequeathed 800 francs to make two high tombs, to be
covered with Limoges enamel, one for himself, and the other for
"Blanche d'Avange, my dear companion."
[Illustration: ITALIAN ENAMELLED CROZIER, 14TH CENTURY]
An interesting form of cloisonné enamel was that known as "plique
à jour," which consists of a filigree setting with the enamel
in transparent bits, without any metallic background. It is
still made in many parts of the world. When held to the light
it resembles minute arrangements of stained glass. Francis I.
showed Benvenuto Cellini a wonderful bowl of this description,
and asked Cellini if he could possibly imagine how the result
was attained. "Sacred Majesty," replied Benvenuto, "I can
tell you exactly how it is done," and he proceeded to explain
to the astonished courtiers how the bowl was constructed, bit by
bit, inside a bowl of thin iron lined with clay. The wires were
fastened in place with glue until the design was complete, and
then the enamel was put in place, the whole being fused together at
the soldering. The clay form to which all this temporarily adhered
was then removed, and the work, transparent and ephemeral, was
ready to stand alone.
King John gave to the city of Lynn a magnificent cup of gold, enamelled,
with figures of courtiers of the period, engaged in the sports of
hawking and hare-hunting, and dressed in the costume of the king's
reign. "King John gave to the Corporation a rich cup and cover,"
says Mackarel, "weighing seventy-three ounces, which is preserved
to this day and upon all public occasions and entertainments used
with some uncommon ceremonies at drinking the health of the King
or Queen, and whoever goes to visit the Mayor must drink out of
this cup, which contains a full pint." The colours of the enamels
which are used as flat values in backgrounds to the little silver
figures, are dark rose, clear blue, and soft green. The dresses of
the persons are also picked out in the same colours, varied from
the grounds. This cup was drawn by John Carter in 1787, he having
had much trouble in getting permission to study the original for
that purpose! He took letters of introduction to the Corporation,
but they appeared to suspect him of some imposture; at first they
refused to entertain his proposal at all, but after several
applications, he was allowed to have the original before him, in
a closed room, in company with a person appointed by them but at
his expense, to watch him and see that no harm came to the precious
cup!
The translucent enamels on relief were made a great deal by the
Italian goldsmiths; Vasari alludes to this class of work as "a
species of painting united with sculpture."
As enamel came by degrees to be used as if it were paint, one of
the chief charms of the art died. The limits of this art were its
strength, and simple straight-forward use of the material was its
best expression. The method of making a painted enamel was as follows.
The design was laid out with a stilus on a copper plate. Then a
flux of plain enamel was fused on to the surface, all over it. The
drawing was then made again, on the same lines, in a dark medium,
and the colours were laid flat inside the dark lines, accepting
these lines as if they had been wires around cloisons. All painted
enamels had to be enamelled on the back as well, to prevent warping
in the furnace when the shrinkage took place. After each layer of
colour the whole plate was fired. In the fifteenth century these
enamels were popular and retained some semblance of respect for the
limitation of material; later, greater facility led, as it does in
most of the arts, to a decadence in taste, and florid pictures, with
as many colours and shadows as would appear in an oil painting,
resulted. Here and there, where special metallic brilliancy was
desired, a leaf of gold was laid under the colour of some transparent
enamel, giving a decorative lustre. These bits of brilliant metal
were known as _paillons_.
When Limoges had finally become the royal manufactory of enamels,
under Francis I., the head of the works was Leonard Limousin, created
"Valet de Chambre du Roi," to show his sovereign's appreciation.
Remarkable examples of the work of Leonard Limousin, executed in
1547, are the large figures of the Apostles to be seen in the church
of St. Pierre, at Chartres, where they are ranged about the apsidal
chapel. They are painted enamels on copper sheets twenty-four by
eleven inches, and are in a wonderful state of preservation. They
were the gift of Henri II. to Diàne de Poictiers and were brought
to Chartres from the Chateau d'Anet. These enamels, being on a
white ground, have something the effect of paintings in Faience;
the colouring is delicate, and they have occasional gold touches.
A treatise by William of Essex directs the artist how to prepare
a plate for a painted enamel, such as were used in miniature work.
He says "To make a plate for the artist to paint upon: a piece of
gold or copper being chosen, of requisite dimensions, and varying
from about 1/18 to 1/16 of an inch in thickness, is covered with
pulverized enamel, and passed through the fire, until it becomes
of a white heat; another coating of enamel is then added, and the
plate again fired; afterwards a thin layer of a substance called
flux is laid upon the surface of the enamel, and the plate
undergoes the action of heat for a third time. It is now ready for
the painter to commence his picture upon."
Leonard Limousin painted from 1532 until 1574. He used the process
as described by William of Essex (which afterwards became very
popular for miniaturists), and also composed veritable pictures
of his own design. It is out of our province to trace the history
of the Limoges enamellers after this period.