CHAPTER XVI

_THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE_

A considerable number of our flowering plants exhibit a decided

partiality for the neighbourhood of the sea, and many are to be found

only on the sea cliffs or in salt marshes not far from the shore. The

principal of these will be now briefly described, dealing first with the

monocotyledons, and then with the more highly organised dicotyledons.

The chief distinguishing features of these two groups have already been

referred to, but it will be advisable here to give them in somewhat

fuller detail.

[Illustration: FIG. 275.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE STEM OF A

MONOCOTYLEDON]

The _monocotyledonous plants_, then, are those in which the stem is more

or less woody and cylindrical, without either true bark or pith; and the

woody tissue is not arranged in concentric rings, but in isolated

bundles, which first bend inwards, as they rise, towards the centre of

the stem, and then curve outwards towards the surface, which is hardened

by the formation of a layer of hard woody matter. As a rule the stem is

unbranched, and its growth takes place by a single bud at the summit. In

nearly all of them the leaves are long and narrow, with veins running

parallel throughout their length; and the parts of the flower are

arranged in whorls of three or six. The outer whorl of the flower is

often a conspicuous white or coloured _perianth_ (that portion of the

flower which lies outside the anthers), but in some the perianth is

absent, the flower being protected by scaly bracts. The seeds are

produced in a case called the ovary, and are fertilised by pollen grains

which are developed in the anthers. When the pollen grains are set free

they alight on the adhesive stigma, and grow, sending their tubes down

into the ovary. The term monocotyledon is applied to these plants

because the embryo has only one cotyledon or seed-leaf.

[Illustration: FIG. 276.--LEAF OF A MONOCOTYLEDON]

The principal divisions of this group are the _Glumaceous

Monocotyledons_, in which the flower has no perianth, but is enclosed in

scaly bracts or husks called glumes; and the _Petaloid Monocotyledons_,

distinguished generally by the presence of a more or less conspicuous

white or coloured perianth. The first of these includes the rushes,

sedges, and grasses; and the other contains the lilies and orchids, with

their allies, together with certain aquatic and semi-aquatic plants.

Among the Grasses there are several species that show a preference for

the immediate neighbourhood of the sea, some growing luxuriantly at the

bases of the cliffs where the beach is sandy, and others thriving best

in salt marshes; but before dealing with these individually we shall

note the general characteristics of the order (_Gramineæ_) to which they

belong.

Grasses are distinguished by their jointed stems, which are usually

hollow, with a split sheath, and bearing alternately arranged narrow

leaves. The flowers, which are disposed either in spikes (sessile

flowers arranged along a common axis) or in panicles (flowers stalked

and arranged as in fig. 281), consist of scale-like bracts enclosing the

stamens and the pistil. The bracts are in two series, the outer usually

consisting of two _glumes_, and the inner of two _pales_; the upper

pale, however, has two ribs running through it, and is therefore usually

looked upon as a combination of two. In some species both glumes and

pales are absent; but the former, when present, enclose one or more

flowers, among which may be some that are abortive. The stamens are

generally three in number, attached to the base of the flower; and the

ovary is superior or free, that is, it grows above the other parts of

the flower, and contains but one seed.

It will be convenient at this stage to refer briefly to the two

principal methods by which the pollen of flowers is transferred to the

stigmas for the purposes of fertilisation, and to see how various

species are structurally adapted to the means by which the transfer is

brought about.

Speaking generally, we may classify flowers into those which are

fertilised by the wind (anemophilous flowers) and those in which the

pollen is transferred by insects (entomophilous flowers). The former

offer no attractions to allure the various forms of insect life. They

are, generally speaking, very inconspicuous, being of small size and

having no bright corollas. None of them are scented, nor do they produce

the sweet nectar that forms the principal food of so many insects. Their

anthers are borne on long filaments, so that they are exposed freely to

the wind; and they produce abundance of pollen to compensate for the

very wasteful method of wind-dispersion. The pollen, too, is not very

adherent, so that it may be readily carried away by the breeze; and the

plants concerned often produce their flowers early in the spring, before

the leaves have appeared, thus giving the wind very free play.

[Illustration: FIG. 277.--EXPANDED SPIKELET OF THE OAT

G. glumes; P.e, outer pale; P.i, inner pale; A, awn; F.S, a sterile

flower. The stamens and the feathery stigmas of the fertile flower

are also shown]

Insect-fertilised flowers, on the other hand, are usually of attractive

appearance; and, though often small and inconspicuous individually, they

are in such cases grouped together in more or less showy clusters. They

are also usually scented, and supply nectar and pollen to the insects

which they allure. Some are fertilised by insects that fly by day, and

these often close their petals on the approach of night, thus protecting

their pollen during the period in which their fertilisers sleep. Others,

fertilised by nocturnal insects, always spread their petals during the

night, and generally protect their pollen from waste by sleeping

throughout the day. As a rule, too, these night-bloomers have large and

pale-coloured petals that are more easily seen by night; they also evolve

a powerful scent to aid the insects in searching them out.

It will be seen that the economic relationship existing between flowers

and insects is a mutual one, the latter visiting the former in order to

obtain food, while the former derive in return the advantage of a direct

transfer of pollen from flower to flower.

It is a well-known fact that the self-fertilisation of a flower often

results in the development of very weak seedlings as compared with those

that are produced by crossing; and it often happens that the pollen of a

flower is incapable of producing the least effect when deposited on the

stigma of the same bloom. In some cases the contact of the pollen of a

flower with its own stigma will even act as a poison, causing the whole

to shrivel and die; and truly wonderful are the varied means by which

flowers contrive to secure a cross-fertilisation. It is here that the

work of the wind and insects proves so valuable to flowers; but, in

addition to this, a very large number of flowers are absolutely

incapable of self-fertilisation, for the anthers and the stigma are not

mature at the same time, or they exist in separate flowers, either on

the same plant or on distinct plants of the same species. It is most

interesting and instructive to study the many contrivances by which

flowers compel certain insects to convey the pollen exactly in the way

that best serves their purpose, sometimes even entrapping them after

they have been allured, and not allowing them to escape until they are

thoroughly dusted with the pollen which they are required to convey; but

it is hardly our province to enter more fully into this matter in these

pages.

An examination of the grasses will show at once that they are adapted

for fertilisation by the wind. The flowers produce no nectar; and,

consistently, develop no bright petals and evolve no odours to attract

insects. On the other hand, their anthers produce abundance of

lightly-adhering pollen, and are mounted on long filaments which hold

them well exposed to the wind; and the stigmas are well adapted for

catching the scattered grains, being long and protruding, and often

covered with sticky hairy or feathery appendages.

Although the flowers of grasses are generally wanting in attractive

colours, the clusters of blossoms are often very graceful and pretty,

especially when the large anthers, covered with bright-yellow pollen,

dangle in the breeze.

We will now briefly describe the principal British grasses that grow

chiefly or exclusively in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea.

The Sea Hard Grass (_Lepturus filiformis_) is a perennial species,

usually about six inches in height, very common on some sandy coasts,

and found in flower during the hottest months of the summer. The flowers

are arranged in simple spikes, on slender erect stems; and the glumes,

which are united at their bases, enclose a single bloom.

In similar situations we may find the Sea Lyme Grass (_Elymus

arenarius_), a tall species, often reaching a height of four feet, with

glaucous rigid leaves. The flowers are arranged in a simple spike, but

the spikelets are clustered two or three together. This species flowers

in August.

Of the well-known Barley Grasses there is one species (_Hordeum

maritimum_) that has its habitat along the coast. Like the others of its

genus, the spikelets are arranged in threes, each bearing a single

flower, and the pales have long slender processes (_awns_) which

constitute the so-called beard. It also resembles the common Meadow

Barley Grass in having the middle flower of each three perfect, while

the two laterals are abortive, but may be distinguished by its rough and

bristly glumes, and the semi-oval form of the pales of the lateral

flowers. It is a somewhat stunted species, sometimes only five or six

inches in height, and may be found in flower about Midsummer.

The Brome Grasses have also a representative of a sea-loving nature,

which is to be found in fields near the cliffs. It is the Field Brome

Grass (_Bromus arvensis_), an annual grass that grows to a height of two

or three feet. Brome grasses generally are known by their loose panicles

of flowers, lanceolate and compressed spikelets, and awned florets

enclosed in unequal glumes; and _B. arvensis_ may be distinguished by

its hairy leaves and stem-sheath, and the drooping panicle with the

lower peduncle branched.

[Illustration: FIG. 278.--THE SEA LYME GRASS]

Among the Meadow Grasses we have three or four coast species. In these

the florets are in panicles and are not awned. The outer glumes are

keeled and traversed by several veins; and the lower pales are also

keeled, with five or more nerves. The Sea Meadow Grass (_Poa maritima_)

grows in salt marshes near the sea, its erect rigid panicles reaching a

height of about eight or ten inches. It has a creeping root, and its

leaves are curved inward at the margins. The Procumbent Meadow Grass

(_P. procumbens_) and a variety of the Reflexed Meadow Grass (_P.

distans_) are also plentiful in salt marshes. The former may be known by

the short rigid branches of its panicle and the five ribs of the lower

pales; and the latter is much like _P. maritima_, but grows taller, and

its spikelets are crowded. The Wheat Meadow Grass (_P. loliacea_) grows

on sandy shores. Its spikelets are arranged singly and alternately along

the central axis, and the upper glume reaches to the base of the fourth

floret. This species flowers in June, but the other three of the same

genus bloom from July to September.

The reader is probably acquainted with the Fescue Grass, with its awned

flowers arranged in one-sided panicles. There are no less than seven

species, one of which--the Single-husked Fescue (_Festuca

uniglumis_)--grows on sandy shores, flowering in June and July, and

reaching a height of from nine to twelve inches. The panicles are

upright and unbranched, and the species may be readily known by the

flowers, which are compressed, with long awns, and with the lower glumes

wanting.

_Knappia agrostidea_ is a dwarf species, rarely exceeding four inches in

height, that is found on certain sandy shores, but is very local. Its

flowers are arranged in a simple spike, the spikelets being solitary and

unilateral, with only a single flower, and the pales are shaggy. The

plant has several stems which bear short, rough leaves.

The Mat Grass or Sea Reed (_Ammophila arundinacea_) is common on many

sandy coasts, where it grows to a height of three or four feet, and

flowers in July. The white flowers are clustered in dense cylindrical,

pointed spikes; and the leaves are of a glaucous green colour, rigid,

and curved inward at the edges.

Dog’s-tooth Grass (_Cynodon dactylon_). This species has a creeping

root, and the leaves are downy on the under side. The flowers are

arranged in a compound spreading spike, of three to five parts, and the

spikelets are of a purplish colour, ovate in form, and arranged in

pairs. The glumes are equal in size. It is found on sandy shores, grows

to a height of about six inches, and flowers in July.

A species of Canary Grass (_Phalaris arundinacea_) is also to be seen on

sandy coasts. Unlike the other species of the same genus, its flowers

form an erect spreading panicle, and the glumes are not keeled. It is

also taller than the common canary grass of waste places, often reaching

a height of three feet, and is commonly known as the Reed Canary Grass.

[Illustration: FIG. 279.--_Knappia agrostidea_]

[Illustration: FIG. 280.--THE DOG'S-TOOTH GRASS]

[Illustration: FIG. 281.--THE REED CANARY GRASS]

The Sea Cat's-tail Grass (_Phleum arenarium_) is common on many coasts.

It is much smaller than the common species of Cat's-tail, being

generally less than a foot high. The spike is of an elongated oval form,

blunt at the tip and narrow at the base; and the glumes are narrow,

pointed at both ends, and fringed. Each spikelet has but one flower.

In salt marshes we occasionally meet with the Perennial Beard Grass

(_Polypogon littoralis_), but it is somewhat rare. It has a creeping

root, and the flowers form a somewhat dense spike-like panicle. The

glumes have a slender awn. It grows to a height of one to two feet, and

flowers in July.

The Tuberous Fox-tail Grass (_Alopecurus bulbosus_) is another rare

grass of the salt marshes, where it grows to the height of twelve to

sixteen inches, flowering in May and June. The genus to which it belongs

is very closely allied to _Phleum_, but may be distinguished by having

only one pale to each flower, and this species has a long awn attached

to the back portion. The panicle, too, is cylindrical and slender, the

glumes quite free and abruptly pointed, and the awns longer than the

pales.

The last of the sea-side grasses are two rare species of Cord Grass

(_Spartina_), both of which are found in salt marshes. In these the

inflorescence is a compound spike, with one-sided spikelets inserted in

a double row. The glumes are keeled and pointed; the pales cleft,

pointed and without awns; and the styles two in number, very long. The

only British species of the genus are the two (_S. stricta_ and _S.

alternifolia_) referred to above. They both grow to a height of about

eighteen inches, and flower in late summer. In the former the spikes

number two or three, and are longer than the leaves; and the outer glume

is hairy, with a single nerve. The latter, which is the rarer of the

two, bears several spikes, shorter than the leaves; and the outer glume

has five nerves.

Certain of the sedges (order _Cyperaceæ_) are also more or less familiar

to the sea-side naturalist, and must therefore receive a small share of

our attention. In general terms these are grasslike, monocotyledonous

plants, the stems of which are solid, jointed, and frequently angular.

The leaves are very similar to those of grasses, except that the

sheaths, which surround the stem, are not split. The flowers are

generally arranged in a spike, overlapping each other, and each one

supported on a scale-like bract. In some sedges the flowers are perfect,

each one possessing both stamens and pistil; but in some species the

flowers are unisexual, some bearing stamens and no pistil, and others

pistil only. The stamens are generally three in number, the ovary is

superior, and the stigmas either two or three.

Sedges abound in moist places, some being peculiar to salt marshes,

while others grows on sandy shores; and a few of the British species of

the latter habitat are often so abundant that their creeping roots bind

the sand together, effectually holding it in place while the surrounding

portions of the beach are mercilessly driven by the wind.

A few of the sea-side sedges belong to the genus _Carex_, in which the

flowers are imperfect, and the fruit is enclosed in the outer parts of

the flower. _C. extensa_ thrives in salt marshes, growing to a height of

a foot or more, and flowering about midsummer. Its fertile flowers form

oblong erect spikelets, while the barren spikelets are solitary. The

bracts are long and leafy, with short sheaths surrounding the stem. The

leaves are curved in at the edges, and the fruit is oval and ribbed,

with a short straight beak.

On sandy shores the Sea Sedge (_C. arenaria_) is often common, and its

underground stems are used for sarsaparilla. It is a perennial species,

growing to a height of about nine inches, and flowering in June and

July. The flowers grow in an oblong interrupted spike, the upper

spikelets being barren, and the intermediate ones barren at the tip.

The fruit is oval, veined, and winged.

Another species of this genus--the Curved Sedge (_C. incurva_)--is

sometimes to be seen on sandy shores, but it is rare, and is also a very

small sedge, growing only to a height of about three inches. It derives

its specific name from its curved stem, and may be further distinguished

by its channelled leaves and the globular mass of spikelets which are

barren on the top.

[Illustration: FIG. 282.--MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS OF _Carex_,

MAGNIFIED]

Some of the so-called rushes belong to the same order as the sedges, and

a few of these are more or less restricted to the neighbourhood of the

sea. The Salt-marsh Club Rush (_Scirpus maritimus_), as its name

implies, is to be found in marshes near the sea. It is very variable in

height, ranging from one to three feet, and displays its dense terminal

cluster of spikelets in July and August. In this genus all the flowers

are perfect, the glumes imbricated and bristled; and the present species

may be distinguished by the glumes being divided into two sharply

pointed lobes. A variety of _S. lacustris_ may also be found on the sea

shore, but it is somewhat rare. It has a leafless glaucous stem, and

flowers arranged in compound spikes. The glumes are rough, and contain a

compressed fruit.

A very small species of the Spike Rush (_Eleocharis parvula_), growing

only one or two inches high, is sometimes found on the muddy shores of

Ireland. It has perfect flowers, in a single terminal spikelet. The

leaves are very narrow, growing from the base of the plant; and the

round stem is enclosed in a single leafless sheath.

The true rushes belong to the order _Juncaceæ_. These have fibrous roots

and narrow leaves, and bear clusters of brown flowers. The perianth

consists of six parts, and the stamens are usually six in number. The

ovary is generally three-celled, developing into a three-valved capsule.

The Lesser Sea Rush (_Juncus maritimus_) is common in salt marshes,

growing to a height of two or three feet, and flowering in July. It has

a rigid leafless stem, bearing lateral clusters of flowers. The segments

of the perianth are very narrow and sharp, and the seeds are enclosed in

a loose testa. Closely allied to this species is the Great Sea Rush (_J.

acutus_), which grows three or four feet high on sandy shores. In

general characteristics it resembles_ J. maritimus_, but the segments of

the perianth are oval and have thin transparent margins; and it is a

much rarer species.

[Illustration: FIG. 283.--THE SEA SEDGE]

[Illustration: FIG. 284.--THE CURVED SEDGE]

[Illustration: FIG. 285.--THE GREAT SEA RUSH]

We now pass to the peculiar Sea Grasses or Grass Wracks (_Zostera_)

which grow in salt water. They belong to the order _Naiadaceæ_, and are

characterised by cellular leaves with parallel veins, and inconspicuous

unisexual or bisexual flowers. The perianth, when present at all,

consists of two or four scale-like parts, and the stamens correspond in

number with these. The ovary is free, and the carpels, one or more in

number, contain each a single ovule. In _Zostera_ the flowers are

imperfect, and seem to grow in the slit of the leaf. There are two

species, both of which grow in shallow water close to the shore, often

in such dense masses that they impede the progress of boats. They have

long creeping stems that lie buried in the sand, giving off numerous

root-fibres, and send up to the surface slender branches that bear

grass-like leaves. The flowers are unisexual, and are arranged in two

rows on the same side of a flattened stalk that is enclosed in a sheath

formed by short leaves. They have no perianth, the male flowers being

composed of a single anther, and the female of a one-celled ovary

containing a single ovule, and surmounted by a style with two long

stigmas.

There are two species--the Broad-leaved Grass Wrack (_Z. marina_) with

leaves one to three feet long and traversed by three or more parallel

veins, and the Dwarf Grass Wrack (_Z. nana_), the leaves of which are

less than a foot long, with veins numbering one to three. There is a

variety of the former, however, named _Angustifolia_, in which the

leaves are much narrower than usual, and the veins fewer in number.

[Illustration: FIG. 286.--THE BROAD-LEAVED GRASS WHACK]

[Illustration: FIG. 287.--THE SEA-SIDE ARROW GRASS]

[Illustration: FIG. 288.--THE COMMON ASPARAGUS]

The order _Alismaceæ_, which contains the water plantains, arrow-heads,

and other semi-aquatic plants, has a representative of marine tendencies

in the Sea-side Arrow Grass (_Triglochin maritimum_). The flowers of

this order are bisexual, with six stamens and a six-parted perianth. The

fruit consists of many carpels; and, although the plants are

monocotyledons, their leaves have netted veins; and altogether they

somewhat resemble the ranunculaceous exogens. The Sea-side Arrow Grass

is abundant in some salt marshes, growing to a height of about a foot,

and produces loose simple spikes of green flowers all through the

summer. The leaves are radical, narrow and fleshy; and the ovary

consists of six carpels.

Of the interesting order _Liliaceæ_ we have only one plant of the coast,

and even that--the _Asparagus_--is not by any means generally common. It

is the same plant that is so largely cultivated as an article of diet,

and which is so highly valued on account of its diuretic properties. It

is moderately common on parts of the south coast, particularly in the

Isle of Portland and in West Cornwall, and its general appearance is so

graceful that it is largely employed as an ornamental garden plant. The

stem is erect and freely branched, bearing feathery bunches of bristled

leaves and pale-yellow axillary flowers. As is the case with the

_Liliaceæ_ generally, the flowers are bisexual, with a six-parted

perianth, six stamens, and a three-celled superior ovary; and the last

named, in the Asparagus, forms a bright-red berry in the autumn.

We have now to leave the monocotyledonous plants and pass on to the

_dicotyledons_, which form the most highly developed of the primary

divisions of the vegetable kingdom. A few of the general characteristics

of this group have already been given, but we must now look rather more

closely into the nature of the plants included.

The class receives its name from the presence of two cotyledons or

seed-leaves in the embryo plant, and is also known as the _Exogenæ_

because the stems increase in thickness by the addition of zones of

woody tissue at the exterior. When the young dicotyledonous plant first

appears above the ground, the two cotyledons, which formerly served to

shelter the immature bud, usually appear as tiny fleshy leaves; but

these soon wither away, while the bud produces the more permanent leaves

that are of a very different structure. A section of the stem will

reveal distinct pith, wood, and bark, the wood being more or less

distinctly divided into wedge-shaped masses by rays from the pith; and,

in the case of perennial stems, the wood is arranged in concentric

rings, the number of which correspond approximately with the years of

growth. The leaves of exogens have their veins in the form of a network,

and the parts of the flower are generally arranged in whorls of two or

five or of some multiple of these numbers.

The flowers always have stamens and pistil, but in some these organs

exist in separate flowers, either on the same plant, or on different

plants of the same species, and the ovules are nearly always contained

in a case called the ovary.

Dicotyledons are divided into three main groups, the division being

based on the structure of the flowers. They are the _Apetalæ_ in which

the petals are absent, but the perianth is frequently petaloid, though

it is occasionally also absent; the _Gamopetalæ_, in which the petals

are united; and the _Polypetalæ_, in which the petals are always

distinct.

Dealing with these divisions in the above order we come first to the

Spurges, three species of which occur on sandy shores. They belong to

the order _Euphorbiaceæ_, which includes, in addition to the spurges, a

number of herbs, trees, and shrubs with entire leaves often a milky

juice, and small flowers, sometimes enclosed in calyx-like bracts. The

flowers may have one or several stamens, and the perianth, if present,

consists of three or four parts; but perhaps the best distinguishing

feature of the order is the nature of the fruit, which separates

elastically into three carpels.

[Illustration: FIG. 289.--THE SEA SPURGE]

The Sea Spurge (_Euphorbia Paralias_) is commonly seen on sandy shores,

where its yellow flowers bloom in late summer and in autumn. It may be

distinguished among the numerous species of the genus by its narrow

oblong imbricated leaves, of a tough leathery nature, the broad

heart-shaped bracts, and the wrinkled capsules containing smooth seeds.

The Portland Spurge (_E. portlandica_) is a similar plant, found in

similar situations, and flowering from May to September. Its leaves are

oval and narrow, obtuse, and of a glaucous colour, and the bracts are

more triangular than those of the last species. The capsules are

slightly rough, as are also the seeds. There is yet another sea-side

spurge--the Purple Spurge (_E. peplis_)--a somewhat rare plant, found on

some of the sandy shores of the south of England. It grows to about

eight or nine inches in length, and blooms in late summer, the flowers,

like those of most of the spurges, being yellow. The stem is of a

glaucous colour, and trails along the ground; the leaves are opposite

and somewhat heart-shaped, and the flowers solitary. This species may be

distinguished from other spurges by its stipuled leaves.

On sandy cliffs we sometimes meet with the Sea Buckthorn (_Hippophaë

rhamnoides_)--a spiny shrub, ranging from about two to seven feet in

height, the bark of which is covered with a silvery scaly scurf that

forms a beautiful object for the microscope. It is the British

representative of the Oleasters (order _Eleagnaceæ_). The leaves are

alternate, lanceolate, with a silvery surface; and the flowers are

small, green and unisexual. The male flowers grow in catkins, each

arising from a scaly bract, and have a green perianth. The female

flowers have a tubular perianth, and a free one-celled ovary. The latter

forms a hard nut-like fruit, which is surrounded by a succulent mass

formed by the former. This shrub flowers in the spring, while the leaves

are still very small.

[Illustration: FIG. 290.--THE PURPLE SPURGE]

[Illustration: FIG. 291.--THE SEA BUCKTHORN]

Of the order _Polygonaceæ_, which includes the docks, knot grasses,

buckwheats, and sorrels, we have two sea-side representatives, both

belonging to the typical genus _Polygonum_. These are the sea-side Knot

Grass (_P. maritimum_) and Ray’s Knot Grass (_P. Raii_). The plants of

this order are herbs, characterised by their alternate leaves with

sheathing stipules; and small flowers, usually bisexual, often with a

coloured perianth. Most of the species are remarkable for their

astringent and acid properties. In the genus _Polygonum_ the flowers are

usually in spikes or racemes; the perianth funnel-shaped, regular, and

five-cleft. The stamens vary from five to eight in number, and the

styles number two or three. The fruit is a small angular nut, usually

enclosed in the perianth.

The sea-side Knot Grass is very common on some parts of the shore, where

it grows from one to three feet long, and flowers in August. The stem is

recumbent, tough and woody, bearing fleshy glaucous leaves with curled

edges. It may be further distinguished from the other knot grasses by

its long stipules, with freely-branching veins, and by the length of the

fruit exceeding that of the perianth. As in the other knot grasses, the

flowers arise from the axils of the leaves.

Ray’s Knot Grass is very much like the common knot grass so abundant in

all waste places, the leaves being flat; and the stipules, shorter than

in the last species, having but few veins; but while in the latter the

fruit is shorter than the calyx, in _P. Raii_ it is longer. This species

is found on many sandy shores, and flowers in July and August.

The order _Chenopodiaceæ_ is particularly rich in sea-side plants, more

than a dozen of the British species growing almost exclusively near the

shore. They are mostly inconspicuous plants, with small flowers which

are sometimes unisexual. The perianth is deeply divided, and the stamens

are inserted in its base, opposite the divisions. The ovary is free,

containing a single ovule.

The typical genus (_Chenopodium_) contains the weeds designated by the

name of Goosefoot, all characterised by their straggling stems and small

flat leaves. One species (_C. botryoides_) is common on some sandy

shores. It is a small weed, its prostrate stem measuring only a few

inches in length. The leaves are triangular and fleshy, and the flowers

are arranged in dense leafy clusters. A variety of the Red Goosefoot

(_C. rubrum_) is also found on the coast. It is of a reddish colour,

with rhomboid leaves and short crowded spikes of flowers.

[Illustration: FIG. 292.--_Chenopodium botryoides_]

On muddy shores we meet with the Common Beet (_Beta maritima_), the

leaves of which are often cooked and eaten where the plant is abundant;

and it is this species from which the different varieties of garden beet

and mangold wurzel have been produced by cultivation. There are two

distinct varieties of the wild plant. In one the root and leaves are of

a purple colour, while in the other they are of a yellowish green. The

former has been cultivated for its root, while the latter is sometimes

grown for the leaves. In the wild state it has many stems, the lower

parts being more or less procumbent, and the leaves are fleshy,

gradually narrowing down into the stalk. The flowers, which are arranged

in long, simple, leafy spikes, are bisexual, with a five-parted

perianth, five stamens inserted opposite each segment, in a fleshy ring

and a flattened one-celled ovary which develops into a one-seeded

utricle.

In similar situations we meet with two species of Sea Purslane

(_Obione_), in which the flowers are unisexual, both male and female

flowers being on the same plant. They are also distinguished from most

other Chenopods by the perianth adhering to the wall of the ovary. The

Shrubby Sea Purslane (_O. portulacoides_) is, as its name implies, a

shrubby plant. It grows to a height of eighteen inches or two feet,

bearing silvery oval lanceolate leaves and sessile fruit. The other

species referred to--the Stalked Sea Purslane (_O. pedunculata_)--is

herbaceous, with oval, mealy leaves, and stalked fruit.

[Illustration: FIG. 293.--THE FROSTED SEA ORACHE]

[Illustration: FIG. 294.--THE PRICKLY SALT WORT]

The Oraches (genus _Atriplex_) resemble the Purslanes in the granular

mealiness of the foliage, and the two are so closely allied that they

are often placed in the same genus. Oraches are most readily

distinguished among the Chenopods by the two bracts which enclose the

fruit and enlarge after flowering; and, like the Purslanes, they have

unisexual flowers, both male and female being on the same plant. Three

of our five British species are sea-side plants. The Frosted Sea Orache

(_A. arenaria_) grows on sandy shores, about six or eight inches in

height, and flowers during late summer and autumn. It may be known by

its buff-coloured stem, with triangular or rhomboidal, jagged, silvery

leaves, and clusters of sessile flowers in the axils of the leaves.

Another species (_A. Babingtonii_) may be seen on both rocky and sandy

shores, usually from one to two feet in height, and flowering from July

to September. Its stem is procumbent, green with reddish stripes; leaves

oval-triangular, lanceolate towards the top, three-lobed at the base of

the stem, light green, with a mealy surface; flowers in terminal

clusters as well as in the axils of the leaves. A third species--the

Grass-leaved Orache (_A. littoralis_) grows in salt marshes. All its

leaves are grass-like and entire, and the stem is generally marked with

reddish stripes as in _A. Babingtonii_. The flowers, too, are in sessile

axillary clusters only. This plant reaches a height of from one to two

feet, and flowers in the late summer.

The Prickly Salt Wort (_Salsola kali_) is a very common sea-side plant

on some of our coasts, and may be recognised at a glance by its general

form and habit. The stem is very much branched and prostrate, forming a

very bushy plant about a foot in height. It is also very brittle and

succulent, furrowed and bristly, and of a bluish-green colour. The

leaves are fleshy, awl-shaped, nearly cylindrical, with a spiny point,

and little prickles at the base. The flowers are axillary and solitary.

This plant and its exotic allies are very rich in alkaline salts,

particularly carbonate of soda, and were formerly the principal source

from which this compound was obtained.

[Illustration: FIG. 295.--THE CREEPING GLASS WORT]

Our last example of the sea-side chenopods is the Glass Wort

(_Salicornia_), which thrives in salt marshes. In this genus the stem is

jointed and the flowers bisexual. The Jointed Glass Wort (_S. herbacea_)

is common in most salt marshes, where its erect, herbaceous, leafless

stem may be seen growing to a height of a foot or more. The joints are

thickened upwards, and shrink to such an extent when dry that the upper

part of each segment of the stem forms a membranous socket into which

fits the base of the next segment above. The flowers are arranged in

dense tapering spikes, also jointed, with a cluster of three flowers on

the two opposite sides of the base of each segment. Each flower is

composed of a perianth, closed with the exception of a small aperture

through which the stigma and, later, the stamens protrude. The Creeping

Glass Wort (_S. radicans_) has a woody procumbent stem, with the joints

only slightly thickened, and the spikes do not taper so much as in _S.

herbacea_. Both these plants yield considerable quantities of soda, and

they are named ‘Glass Wort’ because they formerly constituted one of the

sources from which soda was obtained for the manufacture of glass.

We now come to those flowers in which both calyx and corolla exist, and

shall deal first with the division _Gamopetalæ_ or _Monopetalæ_, in

which the petals are united.

Our first example of this division is the Seaside Plantain (_Plantago

maritima_), of the order _Plantaginaceæ_. This is a stem-less

herbaceous plant, with ribbed leaves and small green flowers, common on

many parts of the coast, and also found on the mountains of Scotland,

flowering throughout the summer. It may be distinguished from the other

plantains by its narrow fleshy leaves. As in the other species, the

flowers form a cylindrical spike.

[Illustration: FIG. 296.--THE SEA-SIDE PLANTAIN]

[Illustration: FIG. 297.--THE SEA LAVENDER]

The order _Plumbaginaceæ_ contains several sea-side plants, including

the Sea Pink or Thrift (_Armeria maritima_) and the various species of

Sea Lavender (genus _Statice_). They are characterised by a tubular

membranous calyx, persistent and often coloured, a regular corolla of

five petals united at their bases, five stamens opposite the petals and

attached at the base of the ovary, and a free one-celled and one-seeded

ovary. The well-known Sea Pink, with its compact head of rose-coloured

flowers, in bloom throughout the spring and summer, and linear

one-veined leaves, may be seen on most of our coasts, as well as on high

ground in inland districts. The Sea Lavender, of which there are four

British species, have their flowers arranged in spikes. The commonest

species (_Statice limonium_) may be found principally on muddy shores.

Its leaves are narrow and one-ribbed, and the bluish-purple flowers

arranged in short dense spikes, the flower stalk being branched only

above the middle. One variety of it has its flowers in a loose pyramidal

cluster, while another bears its spikes in a compact level-topped corymb

with short firm branches. Another species (_S. bahusiensis_) is

characterised by long spikes of distant flowers, the stalk being

branched from near the base. The Upright Sea Lavender (_S. binervosa_)

of rocky shores has the stalk branched from the middle, with, usually,

nearly all the branches flowering, though there are varieties in which

the flowers are differently arranged. The Matted Sea Lavender (_S.

caspia_) grows in salt marshes on the east coast of England. Its flower

stalk is branched from the base, but the lower branches are barren and

tangled, while the upper bear small crowded lilac flowers. The leaves of

the last two species are spatulate in form.

The Bittersweet or Woody Nightshade (_Solanum Dulcamara_) of the order

_Solanaceæ_ is common in hedgerows and waste places almost everywhere,

but a variety of it (_marinum_) has its habitat along the coast. It may

be distinguished from the normal form by its prostrate branched and

non-climbing stem, and by its fleshy leaves. The latter are all cordate,

while in the normal the upper leaves are auricular. The order to which

_Solanum_ belongs is characterised by a regular five-cleft calyx and

corolla, four or five stamens attached to the corolla, and a superior

two-celled ovary. The flowers are in axillary cymes, and the fruit is a

berry.

_Convolvulaceæ_ is represented on sandy shores by the Sea-side Bindweed

(_Convolvulus Soldanella_), a small species, with pinkish purple

flowers, the prostrate stem of which rarely measures more than a foot in

length. The plants of this order are generally climbing plants with

alternate leaves and regular showy flowers. The calyx is composed of

five sepals, the corolla of four or five lobes, and the stamens are

attached to the corolla. The ovary is superior, two- or four-celled, and

the fruit a capsule. The above species may be recognised by its reniform

leaves (sagittate in the others), which are also fleshy.

To the order _Gentianaceæ_ belong the Centaury (_Erythræa_), three out

of the four British species of which grow on sandy shores. In the

flowers of this order the calyx has from four to ten lobes; the stamens

also number four to ten, and are alternate with the lobes of the

corolla. The ovary is one- or two-celled, and the fruit is a berry with

many seeds. The leaves are usually opposite and entire, and the flowers

are generally showy, regular, and solitary. _Erythræa_ has a

funnel-shaped corolla, five stamens, and two stigmas, on a deciduous

style; and in all our species the flower is rose-coloured. The Dwarf

Centaury (_E. pulchella_), which is common on some sandy shores, is much

smaller than the species that thrives in pastures, being only two or

three inches in height. Its stem is also more freely branched, and its

flowers are axillary and terminal. The Tufted Centaury (_E. littoralis_)

and the Broad-leaved Centaury (_E. latifolia_) occur in similar

situations, but are comparatively rare. They are both small species, the

former with an unbranched stem, narrow leaves, and corymbose

inflorescence; and the latter with branched stem, broad elliptical

leaves, and flowers in dense forked tufts.

[Illustration: FIG. 298.--THE DWARF CENTAURY]

The extensive order _Compositæ_ contains comparatively few sea-side

plants, and, in dealing with these, we pass to another division of the

monopetalous flowers, in which the ovary is inferior and the stamens are

on the corolla. The order includes those herbaceous plants in which

sessile flowers are collected together into compound heads (_capitula_)

surrounded by a whorl of bracts. The corolla is either tubular or

strap-shaped (_ligulate_), the stamens four or five in number, and the

fruit one-seeded, usually crowned with the limb of the calyx in the form

of a scaly feathery or hairy pappus.

The Little Lettuce (_Lactuca saligna_) is found in chalky pastures near

the east and south-east coasts, growing to a height of about a foot, and

bearing heads of yellow flowers in July and August. All the flowers are

ligulate and perfect, the pappus is composed of silvery hairs, and the

fruit is compressed and beaked, the beak being twice as long as the

fruit. The leaves are smooth, linear, and sagittate, terminating in a

sharp point. The Sea-side Cotton Weed (_Diotis maritima_) is

occasionally met with on sandy shores, and may be recognised by its

dense coating of downy hair, its sessile obtuse leaves, and heads of

yellow flowers forming a corymb. The heads are discoid, and the fruit

has no pappus. The Sea Wormwood (_Artemisia maritima_) is a common

sea-shore composite, bearing drooping heads of reddish-white flowers in

August. This is another of the downy species, its pinnatifid leaves

having quite a woolly appearance. The capitulum contains but few

flowers, all of which are perfect; and the fruit has no pappus. A

variety of this plant is sometimes seen, with dense erect capitula. The

Sea Aster or Michaelmas Daisy (_Aster tripolium_) of salt marshes may be

known by the yellow discs and purple rays of its flower heads, which are

arranged in a corymb. The florets of the ray form a single row, and the

fruit has a hairy pappus. The leaves of this plant are spatulate and

fleshy. A variety occurs in which the purple florets of the ray are

absent. The Golden Samphire (_Inula crithmoides_) is a very local

sea-side plant, being found principally on the south-west coast. Its

leafy stems grow to a height of a foot or more, and bear yellow heads of

flowers that radiate in all directions. The leaves are linear, acute,

and fleshy, and the bracts are linear and imbricated. Our last example

of the sea-side composites is the Sea-side Corn Feverfew or Scentless

Mayweed, which is a variety of _Matricaria inodora_ of waste places. The

leaves are sessile and pinnatifid, with very narrow segments, and the

white flowers grow in solitary heads. The maritime variety differs from

the normal form in having fleshy leaves.

We next deal with another very extensive order (the _Umbelliferæ_),

which, however, has only three or four representatives on the shore, and

these introduce us to the last great division of the flowering plants,

namely, the _Polypetalous Dicotyledons_, in which the petals are not

united. Of these we shall first deal with that subdivision in which the

stamens are attached at the side of or upon the ovary.

The most obvious characteristic of the _Umbelliferæ_ is that implied in

the name--the arrangement of the flowers in that form of inflorescence,

called the umbel, in which the pedicels all branch from one point in the

main stalk, and are such that the flowers are all approximately on a

level. The flowers are mostly small and white, with five sepals (when

present), five petals, and five stamens. The inferior ovary is

two-celled, bearing two styles; and the fruit separates into two dry

one-seeded carpels that are ribbed longitudinally.

Our first example of this group is the Sea Carrot, a variety of the Wild

Carrot (_Daucus carota_). In the ordinary form, which is so common in

fields, the leaflets are pinnatifid, with acute segments; and the

central flowers of each umbel are purple, while the outer ones are

white. The umbel, when in fruit, is concave above. The maritime variety

differs from this in having fleshy leaves, and the umbel convex above

when in fruit. The Sea Samphire (_Crithmum maritimum_) grows on the

rocks close to the sea, and thrives well where there is hardly a

vestige of soil. It usually grows to a height of seven or eight inches,

bearing greenish-white flowers surrounded by a whorl of very narrow

leaves. The other leaves are glaucous and bi-ternate, the leaflets being

narrow, fleshy, and tapering towards both ends. On cliffs near the sea,

especially in chalky districts, we meet with the Fennel, with its

finely-divided leaves, split up into numerous capillary leaflets, and

its small yellow flowers without bracts. It may be distinguished from

other closely-allied plants by the form of the fruit, which is flattened

at the sides. It is grown in some parts for use as a potherb, and an

aromatic oil is also obtained from the seeds. The plant grows to a

height of four or five feet, but there is a smaller variety known as the

Sweet Fennel, and distinguished by the stem being compressed at the

base. Our next example of the _Umbelliferæ_ is the Sea Holly (_Eryngium

maritimum_), easily distinguished from the other umbellifers by its

spiny glaucous leaves, and the thistle-like heads of blue flowers

surrounded by a whorl of spiny bracts. Its fleshy creeping roots were

formerly gathered largely for the purpose of converting them into the

once-prized ‘candied eryngo root,’ which is still prepared in a few of

the fishing villages of our coast. The lower leaves of this plant are

spinous and very glaucous, and the upper ones palmate. The venation is

particularly strong and durable, so that the leaves and flowers are used

largely by the sea-side cottagers in the construction of skeleton

bouquets and wreaths. Another plant of the same genus--The Field Eryngo

(_E. campestre_)--is occasionally seen on sandy shores. It differs from

the last in having ternate radical leaves with pinnatifid lobes, and the

upper leaves, bi-pinnatifid. Our last example of the sea-side

umbellifers is the Wild Celery (_Apium graveolens_) of salt marshes and

ditches. This is the plant from which our highly-valued garden celery

has been produced, and it is remarkable that this sweet crisp and

wholesome vegetable has been derived from a wild plant of coarse taste

and odour, the acrid sap of which is highly irritating if not dangerous.

The plant may be known by its furrowed stem, and ternate leaves, the

leaflets of the lower leaves being round and lobed, while those of the

upper ones are notched. The umbels are sessile or nearly so, the flowers

have no calyx, and the fruit has five prominent ridges.

[Illustration: FIG. 299.--THE SEA SAMPHIRE]

On the sandy shores of the south-western counties we may meet with the

very local Four-leaved Allseed (_Polycarpon tetraphyllum_) of the order

_Illecebraceæ_. It is a small plant, only four or five inches in height,

with the lower leaves in whorls of four and the upper ones in opposite

pairs. The flowers are minute, and are disposed in small dense clusters.

Another rare species is the shrub known as the English Tamarisk

(_Tamarix anglica_), which is our only representative of the order

_Tamariscaceæ_. There is some doubt, however, whether even this is

indigenous to Britain, though it occurs in a wild state on the coast. It

is a very twiggy shrub growing from six to ten feet in height, with

minute scale-like, acute leaves, and slender spikes of small

pinkish-white flowers.

We now pass to the large order of Leguminous plants, characterised by

their stipuled leaves, and irregular papilionaceous flowers. The latter

usually have five united sepals, five petals forming an irregular,

butterfly-like corolla, ten stamens, and a superior ovary that develops

into a pod.

Of these the Starry-headed Trefoil (_Trifolium stellatum_) is very

partial to the sea shore, though it is sometimes found some distance

inland. The genus to which it belongs is so called on account of its

trifoliate leaves which are characteristic of the clovers, trefoils, and

vetches, and which have stipules adhering to the petioles. The species

under notice receives its name from the star-like arrangement of the

long teeth of the hairy calyx. The stem of the plant is procumbent,

usually about six or eight inches long, with cylindrical and terminal

heads of yellowish-grey flowers.

The Rough-podded Yellow Vetch (_Vicia lutea_) is somewhat rare, and

occurs principally on very rocky coasts. In common with the other

vetches it has pinnate, tendrilled leaves, without a terminal leaflet,

one stamen free and the rest united into a bundle, and a long, slender,

hairy style. Its stem is tufted and prostrate, averaging about a foot in

length, the leaflets long and narrow, and the yellow flowers sessile and

solitary. The teeth of the calyx are unequal, and the pods hairy and

curved.

[Illustration: FIG. 300.--THE SEA-SIDE EVERLASTING PEA]

The Sea-Side Everlasting Pea (_Lathyrus maritimus_) is a much commoner

plant of the coast, and may be readily recognised by its general

resemblance to the garden sweet-pea. The genus to which it belongs is

closely allied to the vetches, but may be distinguished by the style,

which is flattened below the stigma, hairy on the inner or upper side,

but quite smooth on the outer side. The sea-side species has an angled

(but not winged) stem, from one to three feet long, compound tendrilled

leaves with many oval leaflets, and large oval or cordate stipules. Its

purple flowers are in bloom during July and August. A variety of this

plant (_acutifolius_), with a slender straggling stem and narrow acute

leaflets, occurs on some parts of the Scottish coast.

[Illustration: FIG. 301.--THE SEA STORK’S-BILL]

The _Geraniaceæ_ is represented at the sea-side by the Sea Stork’s-bill

(_Erodium maritimum_), which, however, is by no means a very common

flower. Its relationship to the other stork’s-bills and the

crane’s-bills may be readily proved by the five persistent sepals, five

distinct clawed petals, the five to ten stamens attached _under_ the

ovary (for we have now reached that division of the polypetalous exogens

distinguished by this mode of insertion of the stamens), and the five

carpels surrounding a long beak resembling that of the stork and the

crane. The plant may sometimes be seen on sandy shores, averaging a foot

in height, though very variable in this respect, and displaying its

pretty pink flowers during the whole of the summer. The principal

features by which it is to be distinguished from the two other British

plants of the same species are its ovate or cordate leaves with very

short petioles, and the presence of only one or two flowers on each

peduncle.

Passing now to the Sea Mallow (_Lavatera arborea_), we are dealing with

another rather rare plant, of the order _Malvaceæ_, sometimes met with

on rocky coasts, chiefly, it appears, on the north coast of Cornwall and

Devon. This is a very shrubby plant, as its specific name implies, and

it is sometimes popularly known as the Tree Mallow on that account. It

has a very woody stem, growing to a height of four or five feet, and

bearing seven-pointed, downy leaves, and solitary, axillary, purple

flowers. As in the other mallows, the flowers have five petals, which

are curiously twisted when in the bud, five sepals, a large number of

stamens united into a tube, and an ovary of many cells, but it may be

distinguished from the other species of the order by its three-lobed

bracts. The plant is found principally in wild, uncultivated spots, but

is commonly grown as a garden plant by the cottagers of villages in the

south-west, and under cultivation it frequently grows to a height of

nine or ten feet, with a tree-like stem three or four inches in

thickness; and it produces such a quantity of fibre that its cultivation

for manufacturing purposes has been suggested.

We now come to another of the very extensive orders, at least as far as

British plants are concerned, although it contains only a few sea-side

species. We refer to the _Caryophyllaceæ_, containing the pinks,

campions, catchflies, chickweeds, &c. The chief features of the order

are jointed, herbaceous stems, opposite leaves, and regular white or red

flowers with four or five sepals and petals, eight or ten stamens, and a

capsular fruit opening at the top with teeth.

One of the commonest species we have to consider is the Sea Campion

(_Silene maritima_), common on nearly all coasts, and often growing in

small crevices of the bare rocks quite within the reach of the spray of

storm-waves. In common with the other members of its genus it is

characterised by a tubular calyx of united sepals, ten stamens, and a

three-celled capsule opening at the top with six teeth; but it may be

known at once by its small size, being only a few inches in height, and

its solitary flowers with calyx much inflated and the corolla only

shortly cleft.

The Sea Sand Wort (_Spergularia marina_) is another common plant of the

coast, recognised by its slender, creeping stems; linear, stipuled,

fleshy leaves, convex below and blunt at the apex; and its pinkish-white

flowers. The Sea Purslane (_Honckenya peploides_), belonging to the same

order, is also a creeping plant, with ovate, acute fleshy leaves,

flowering from May to August. It is the only British plant of its genus,

and may be distinguished from others by the absence of stipules,

distinct sepals, petals entire, ten stamens, and from three to five

styles. The flowers are white, solitary, and sessile. The one remaining

species of the sea-side _Caryophyllaceæ_ is the Sea Pearl Wort (_Sagina

maritima_). This plant is closely allied to the last, being a creeper

with exstipulate leaves and distinct sepals, but its flowers are reddish

white, on erect peduncles, with very small petals. The leaves, too, are

linear, fleshy, and obtuse. There are three distinct varieties of this

plant, two of which have erect stems with short internodes, while the

third is procumbent with long internodes; and in all three the capsules

are shorter than the sepals.

[Illustration: FIG. 302.--THE SEA CAMPION]

A variety of the Common Milk Wort (_Polygala vulgaris_)--order

_Polygalaceæ_--is moderately common on sandy shores. The ordinary form

of the species, which is so common on heaths, is a small plant with a

woody stem, small ovate leaves crowded below, and opposite lanceolate

leaves above. The flowers are irregular with five persistent sepals, two

larger than the others; three to five petals, the lowest keeled, and all

united to the tube formed by the eight stamens, which are divided above

into two bundles; and the fruit is a flat capsule with two one-seeded

cells. The flowers are very variable in colour, being white, pink,

lilac, or blue; and the seeds are downy. The sea-side variety

(_oxyptera_) has smaller flowers than the normal form, and the wings of

the calyx are narrower.

One species of Pansy (_Viola Curtisii_) is occasionally to be met with

on sandy shores, and may be at once recognised as one of the _Violaceæ_

by its irregular spurred corolla, its five persistent sepals, and the

three-parted, one-celled ovary. The flowers are variable in colour and

size, the prevailing tints being blue and yellow, and the diameter of

the corolla occasionally reaching to one inch. It has a creeping woody

rootstock, and a rough angular stem; and the petals are generally but

little longer than the sepals.

[Illustration: FIG. 303.--THE SEA PEARL WORT]

[Illustration: FIG. 304.--THE SHRUBBY MIGNONETTE]

The Shrubby Mignonette (_Reseda suffruticulosa_), of the order

_Resedaceæ_, is a common sea-side plant that grows to a height of one or

two feet on sandy shores, bearing spikes of white flowers in July and

August. The order is characterised by alternate exstipulate leaves,

persistent calyx with four or five sepals, corolla of from four to seven

petals, many stamens, and a three-lobed, one-celled ovary. The sea-side

species is very much like the wild mignonette so common in chalky

districts, but differs in having all its leaves pinnate, waved, and

glaucous, with linear segments; and in having five _equal_ sepals and

petals. In a variety of the species, however, the sepals and petals are

six in number.

The Crucifers are fairly well represented by coast plants, there being

several maritime species of the order. The _Cruciferæ_ are named from

the nature of the corolla, the limbs of the four petals of which are

arranged so as to resemble the Maltese cross. The flowers have also four

sepals, six stamens, two of which are shorter than the other four, and

the fruit takes the form of a two-celled pod or pouch which opens by the

separation of its two valves from the central partition.

[Illustration: FIG. 305.--THE WILD CABBAGE]

[Illustration: FIG. 306.--THE ISLE OF MAN CABBAGE]

Our first example is the Wild Cabbage (_Brassica oleracea_), which,

although so unlike the cabbage of our gardens, is really the parent of

all the cultivated varieties, including the cauliflower, broccoli,

Brussels sprouts, &c. It is a biennial plant, with fleshy lobed wavy

leaves that are covered with bluish bloom, and a fleshy cylindrical

root. It grows erect to a height of one or two feet, bearing yellow

flowers during the summer months. An allied species (_B. monensis_),

with a prostrate stem and deeply-divided leaves, occurs locally on the

sandy shores of the Isle of Man.

Two species of Stock (_Matthiola_) are to be found on the coast, both

being characterised by purple flowers. The Great Sea Stock (_M.

sinuata_) is a rare plant growing on the shores of Wales and Cornwall,

and may be known by its herbaceous stem and narrow downy leaves; and the

other species--the Hoary Shrubby Stock (_M. incana_)--is also a rare

plant, found principally on the cliffs of the Isle of Wight, and is the

parent of the Brompton Stocks of our gardens. The latter has a branched

woody stem and narrow leaves. Both species grow to a height of about

eighteen inches, and the latter flowers in May and June, while the

former is in bloom during the hottest summer months.

The Hare’s-ear Treacle Mustard (_Erysimum orientale_) is a rare

crucifer, frequenting the cliffs of the southern and eastern counties.

It grows to a height of one to two feet, and bears its white flowers

about midsummer. It has glaucous leaves, and the fruit-pods are

quadrangular in form.

[Illustration: FIG. 307.--THE GREAT SEA STOCK]

[Illustration: FIG. 308.--THE HOARY SHRUBBY STOCK]

The Common Scurvy Grass (_Cochlearia officinalis_) is abundant on many

shores, and its fleshy leaves, once highly valued as an antiscorbutic,

are still used for salad by the cottagers near the sea. It generally

grows to a height of six or seven inches, and displays its white flowers

during late spring and early summer. The root-leaves are cordate in

form, and the upper ones are sessile and angled, half embracing the

stem. The fruit is a rounded pouch. A variety (_danica_) with stalked,

deltoid leaves and an oval veiny pod, is _plentiful_ in some places.

[Illustration: FIG. 309.--THE SCURVY GRASS]

[Illustration: FIG. 310.--THE SEA RADISH]

On some coasts we find the Sweet Alyssum (_Koniga maritima_)--a

naturalised plant with procumbent stem, narrow lanceolate, acute

leaves, and white flowers. It may be recognised by its compressed,

pointed pouch with one-seeded cells. This species flowers towards the

end of the summer.

The Sea Radish (_Raphanus maritimus_) is a much larger plant, growing

three or four feet in height. In common with the Wild Radish of our

corn-fields, it has a tapering pod divided into one-seeded joints, but

it may be distinguished from the latter by its superior height and the

deeply-divided radical leaves. Its flowers are always yellow, while in

the field species they may be either yellow or white; and the style is

also shorter, being about the same length as the last joint of the pod.

On sandy shores the Sea Rocket (_Cakile maritima_) is commonly seen, and

is readily distinguished by its zigzag branches, deeply-lobed, smooth,

fleshy leaves of a glaucous colour, and its succulent pod, which is

divided into two one-seeded cells by a horizontal partition. It grows

from one to two feet high, and bears pretty lilac flowers about

midsummer.

[Illustration: FIG. 311.--THE SEA ROCKET]

Our last example of the crucifers is the Sea Kale (_Crambe maritima_), a

hardy perennial, commonly seen growing among the sand and shingle of the

shore, which is the parent of the sea kale now so commonly cultivated in

our market gardens. It may be readily recognised by the fine glaucous

bloom of its stem, and its broad wavy toothed leaves of a glaucous grey

colour. It grows to a height of about eighteen inches, and bears white

flowers in June. The fruit is a two-jointed pouch, the upper being

rounded and one-seeded, while the lower is stalk-like and barren. This

plant is particularly common in the south-west of England, where the

leaves are sometimes blanched for food by burying them in the sand.

One of the most striking plants of the coast is the Yellow Horned Poppy

(_Glaucium luteum_) of the order _Papaveraceæ_, which contains the

well-known poppies of corn-fields. The general characteristics of the

order are two deciduous sepals, four petals, many stamens inserted below

the ovary, and the ovary one-celled with membranous divisions. The

plants of this species usually contain a milky juice, have alternate

leaves without stipules, and the flowers, which are regular, generally

nod when in bud. The Horned Poppy is a very conspicuous plant, usually

growing quite alone on some inaccessible portion of the cliff, or among

the pebbles or shingle not far from high-water mark. Its stem is

glaucous and branched, and the large waved and deeply-cut leaves, which

clasp the stem, are also of a glaucous hue. The flowers are rendered

conspicuous by their large yellow petals, which, however, last only for

a day, and are succeeded by the hornlike seed-pods that sometimes reach

a foot in length.

[Illustration: FIG. 312.--THE SEA KALE]

We will conclude our list of sea-side flowers by a brief mention of the

Lesser Meadow Rue (_Thalictrum minus_), a variety of which (_maritimum_)

grows on sandy shores. The Meadow Rue belongs to the _Ranunculaceæ_, as

may be seen from the fruit of several distinct carpels, each containing

a single seed, the corolla of distinct petals, and the numerous stamens

inserted below the carpels. The normal form of the Lesser Meadow Rue,

which grows freely in some chalky pastures and thickets, has leaves

three or four times pinnate, and lax panicles of drooping flowers

without any petals. The sea-side variety differs from this in having the

stem leafless at the base, and the panicles leafless and broad. The

flowers are greenish white, and bloom in July and August.

[Illustration: FIG. 313.--THE HORNED POPPY]

To assist the reader in the identification of sea-side flowers we append

a list of the orders to which they belong, together with the principal

distinguishing characteristics of each.

SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS

WHICH CONTAIN OUR PRINCIPAL

SEA-SIDE FLOWERING PLANTS

I. MONOCOTYLEDONS

A. GLUMIFERÆ

FLOWERS WITHOUT A PERIANTH, ENCLOSED IN GLUMES

=1. Gramineæ=--Grassy plants with hollow stems enclosed in split

sheaths. Flowers generally bisexual with (usually) three

stamens.

=2. Cyperaceæ=--Grassy plants with solid stems and entire sheaths.

Flowers arranged in spikelets, unisexual or bisexual, with

from one to three stamens.

B. PETALOIDÆ

PERIANTH PETALOID

=3. Juncaceæ=--Rushes, with narrow leaves and small brown flowers.

Perianth 6-partite, with scarious segments. Stamens

usually 6; ovary superior; fruit a 3-valved capsule.

=4. Naiadaceæ=--Aquatic herbs with inconspicuous, unisexual or

bisexual flowers. Perianth absent or scale-like. Stamens

as many as the segments of the perianth. Fruit of from one

to four carpels--superior.

=5. Alismaceæ=--Aquatic plants with radical net-veined leaves, and

(generally) conspicuous, white, bisexual flowers. Perianth

6-partite. Stamens 6. Fruit of many carpels--superior.

=6. Liliaceæ=--Herbs with narrow leaves and showy, bisexual

flowers. Perianth 6-partite. Stamens 6. Ovary superior,

3-celled. Fruit a berry or capsule.

II. DICOTYLEDONS

A. CALYX, OR COROLLA, OR BOTH ABSENT

=7. Euphorbiaceæ=--Herbs with entire leaves and (generally) a milky

juice. Flowers small, unisexual, diœcious (male and

female flowers on separate plants), sometimes enclosed in

calyx-like bracts. Perianth 3- or 4-partite or absent.

Stamens one or more. Ovary inferior. Fruit separating

into carpels elastically.

=8. Eleagnaceæ=--Shrub with silvery scales, alternate, entire

leaves, and small, unisexual flowers--the staminate

flowers in catkins. Sepals of male flowers 3 or 4. Stamens

4 to 8. Ovary superior. Fruit indehiscent (not splitting).

=9. Polygonaceæ=--Herbs with sheathing stipules, alternate leaves,

and small (generally) bisexual flowers. Stamens 5 to 8.

Ovary superior. Fruit indehiscent.

=10. Chenopodiaceæ=--Herbs with jointed stems and small unisexual or

bisexual flowers. Stamens usually 5, sometimes 1 or 2,

opposite the sepals. Ovary superior. Fruit indehiscent.

B. PLANTS WITH BOTH CALYX AND COROLLA

_a._ COROLLA MONOPETALOUS

1. _Ovary Superior and Stamens generally on the Corolla_

=11. Plantaginaceæ=--Herbs with radical entire leaves, and spikes

of small, green flowers. Calyx 4-cleft. Corolla 4-lobed,

scarious. Stamens 4. Ovary 2- to 4-celled. Fruit

many-seeded.

=12. Plumbaginaceæ=--Herbs with radical or alternate leaves, and

(generally) regular, blue flowers. Calyx tubular,

scarious. Corolla of 5 petals, united below. Stamens 5,

opposite the petals, attached below the ovary. Ovary

1-celled and 1-seeded.

=13. Primulaceæ=--Herbs with (generally) radical leaves and

conspicuous, regular flowers. Calyx 4- to 7-cleft. Corolla

4- to 7-cleft. Stamens 4 to 7, generally opposite the

petals. Ovary 1-celled. Fruit a capsule with many seeds.

=14. Solanaceæ=--Herbs with alternate leaves and axillary clusters

of regular flowers. Calyx 5-cleft. Corolla 5-cleft.

Stamens 4 or 5. Ovary 2-celled. Fruit a berry.

=15. Convolvulaceæ=--Climbing herbs with alternate leaves and showy,

regular flowers. Sepals 5. Corolla 4- or 5-lobed. Stamens

4 or 5. Ovary 2- to 4-celled. Fruit a capsule.

=16. Gentianaceæ=--Herbs with opposite entire leaves and solitary

regular flowers. Calyx 4- to 10-lobed. Corolla 4- to

10-lobed. Stamens 4 to 10, alternate with the lobes of the

corolla. Ovary 1- or 2-celled. Fruit a capsule.

2. _Ovary Inferior and Stamens on the Corolla_

=17. Compositæ=--Herbs with flowers (generally yellow or white)

collected into compact heads. Calyx absent or represented

by a pappus. Corolla tubular or ligulate. Stamens 4 or 5.

_b._ COROLLA POLYPETALOUS

1. _Stamens Perigynous_ (_around the Ovary_), _or Epigynous_

(_upon the Ovary_)

=18. Umbelliferæ=--Herbs with (generally) compound leaves, and

small, white, umbelled flowers. Sepals (if present) 5.

Petals 5. Stamens 5. Ovary inferior. Fruit of two

adhering carpels.

=19. Illecebraceæ=--Small herbs with sessile, entire leaves, and

small flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5 or absent.

Stamens 1 to 5. Ovary superior.

=20. Tamariscaceæ=--Shrub with small, scale-like leaves, and lateral

spikes of small regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4

or 5. Stamens 4 or more.

=21. Leguminosæ=--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled, pinnate

or ternate leaves, sometimes tendrilled, and irregular

flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Corolla of 5 petals,

papilionaceous (butterfly-like). Stamens usually 10. Ovary

superior. Fruit a pod.

2. _Stamens Hypogynous_ (_attached below the Ovary_)

=22. Geraniaceæ=--Herbs with stipuled, lobed leaves, and showy

regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or 10.

Fruit of 5 carpels surrounding a long beak.

=23. Malvaceæ=--Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves, and axillary,

red, or purple flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, twisted in the

bud. Stamens numerous, united into a tube. Ovary of many

cells.

=24. Caryophyllaceæ=--Herbs with (generally) jointed stems, opposite

leaves, and regular white or red flowers. Sepals 4 or 5.

Petals 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10. Fruit a 1-celled capsule

opening at the top with teeth.

=25. Polygalaceæ=--Herbs with alternate, simple leaves (without

stipules), and irregular flowers. Sepals 5, the inner

petal-like. Petals 3 to 5, unequal. Stamens 8, in two

clusters. Fruit a 2-celled capsule.

=26. Violaceæ=--Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves and irregular

flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, unequal, the lower one

spurred. Stamens 5. Ovary 3-partite, but 1-celled.

=27. Resedaceæ=--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate leaves,

and spikes of irregular, green flowers. Sepals 4 or 5.

Petals 4 to 7, unequal. Stamens more than 10. Ovary

3-lobed, and 1-celled.

=28. Cruciferæ=--Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and

regular flowers. Sepals 4. Petals 4, cruciate. Stamens

6--4 longer and 2 shorter. Ovary 1- or 2-celled. Fruit a

siliqua or a silicula.

=29. Papaveraceæ=--Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, a milky

juice, and regular, showy flowers. Sepals 2, deciduous.

Petals 4. Stamens numerous. Ovary 1-celled with membranous

partitions.

=30. Ranunculaceæ=--Herbs with (generally) alternate leaves and

regular flowers. Sepals generally 5, distinct. Petals 5 or

more. Stamens numerous. Fruit of many, distinct carpels.

INDEX

Acalephæ, 134

Acanthias, 319

Acarina, 304

Aclis, 246

Acmæa, 240

Acorn Barnacles, 263

Actinia, 142

Actinoloba, 143

Actora, 300

Adamsia, 154

Adeorbis, 243

Ægirus, 235

Æolidæ, 235

Æpophilus, 297

Aëpus, 303

Agonus, 335

Aiptasia, 144

Alaria, 385

Alcyonium, 155

Algæ, 344, 347

-- reproduction, 351

Alismaceæ, 401, 423

Allseed, 413

Alopecurus, 397

Ambulacrum, 163

Ammodytes, 326

Ammophila, 396

Amœba, 102

Amphibia, 307

Amphipoda, 267, 304

Anarrhichas, 334

Anatinidæ, 204, 255

Anemones, 127, 138

Angiosperms, 346, 348

Angler Fish, 336

Angling, 34

Anguilla, 324

Anguillidæ, 323

Angular Crab, 289

Annelida, 177

Anomia, 222

Anomura, 279

Antedon, 160

Anthea, 149

Anurida, 299

Apetalæ, 402

Aphaniptera, 305

Aphrodita, 179

Apium, 412

Aporrhais, 245

Aquarium, 51

-- aeration of, 61, 63

-- cement for, 54, 57

-- construction of, 53

-- fountain, 64

-- temporary, 52

-- weeds for, 61

Arachnoidea, 257, 293, 304

Araneidæ, 304

Arca, 216

Arcadæ, 216, 255

Arctopsis, 289

Arenicola, 178

Armeria, 408

Artemisia, 410

Arthropoda, 255

-- classification, 304

Asiphonida, 198, 216, 255

Asparagus, 402

Asperococcus, 383

Astarte, 212

Aster, 410

Asteroidea, 171

Atherina, 332

Atherinidæ, 332

Atriplex, 406

Aurelia, 135

Aviculidæ, 219, 255

Badderlocks, 385

Baits, 39

Balanophyllia, 152

Balanus, 6, 263

Banded Cockle, 216

Barley Grasses, 395

Barnacles, 261

Bass, 338

Beach Fleas, 263

Beadlet, 142

Beard Grass, 397

Beet, 405

Bembidiidæ, 301

Bembidium, 302

Beroe, 137

Bittersweet, 409

Bledius, 304

Blennies, 332

Blenniidæ, 332

Blennius, 334

Blue Shark, 320

Bonnet Limpet, 240

Bopyrus, 267

Boring Pill-ball, 268

Boring Sponge, 124

Bottle-brush, 132

Brachelytra, 303

Brachiopods, 224

Brachyura, 271, 279, 285, 304

Branchiopoda, 265, 304

Brassica, 418

Bread-crumb Sponge, 123

Bristle-tails, 298

Brittle Starfish, 157, 159, 161

Broad-clawed Crab, 280

Brome Grasses, 395

Bromus, 395

Bryopsis, 354

Bryozoa, 188

Buccinidæ, 248, 255

Buccinum, 248

Bugs, 297

Bulla, 236

Bull-heads, 335

Bull Huss, 320

Bunodes, 150

Butter Gunnel, 334

Byssus, 43, 195

Cabinets, 89

Cæcum, 245

Cakile, 420

Calamary, 252

Calcarea, 119

Calcareous Sponges, 119

Callianassa, 277

Calliblepharis, 367

Callionymus, 335

Callithamnion, 61, 358

Callophyllis, 365

Calpurna, 248

Calyptræa, 241

Calyptræidæ, 240, 255

Canary Grass, 396

Cancer, 292

Carangidæ, 338

Caranx, 338

Carapace, 272

Carchariidæ, 320

Carcharius, 320

Carcinus, 291

Cardiadæ, 214, 255

Cardium, 214

Carex, 398

Carrageen Moss, 61, 364

Caryophyllaceæ, 415, 425

Caryophyllia, 151

Catometopa, 286, 289

Cave-dweller, 147

Cell for live objects, 95

Cement for aquarium, 57

Centaury, 409

Centipedes, 305

Cephalophora, 191, 225, 255

Cephalopoda, 191, 250, 255

Ceramiaceæ, 358, 389

Ceramium, 61, 362

Cerati-solen, 207

Cerithiadæ, 245, 255

Cerithium, 245

Cetacea, 340

Chætopoda, 177

Chalina, 122

Chalk, 109

Chambered Mussel, 219

Channelled Wrack, 387

Charales, 343, 348

Chenopodiaceæ, 405, 424

Chenopodium, 405

Chilognatha, 305

Chilopoda, 305

Chironomus, 301

Chiton, 237

Chitonidæ, 237, 255

Chlorophyll, 74

Chlorospermeæ, 350, 389

Chondria, 374

Chondrus, 61, 364

Chorda, 385

Chordaria, 381

Chordariaceæ, 380, 390

Chrysaora, 136

Chylocladia, 364

Cillenium, 303

Circe, 212

Cirripedia, 261, 304

Cladophora, 352

Cladostephus, 380

Cliffs, 2

Cliona, 124

Cloak Anemone, 154

Club-mosses, 345

Club Rush, 399

Clupea, 322

Clupeidæ, 322

Coast--general characters of, 1

Cochlearia, 419

Cockles, 214

Cod, 327

Codium, 353

Cœlenterates, 127

Cœlopa, 300

Coleoptera, 301, 305

Columella, 226

Common sponges, 119

Compositæ, 410, 425

Cone Shells, 248

Conidæ, 248, 255

Coniferæ, 347, 348

Confervaceæ, 352, 389

Convolvulaceæ, 409, 425

Convolvulus, 409

Copepoda, 264, 304

Corallina, 61, 369

Corallinaceæ, 369, 390

Corallines--preserving 87

Corals, 151

Corbula, 206

Cord Grass, 398

Cordylecladia, 366

Cornish Sucker, 330

Corrosive sublimate, 75

Corystes, 286

Cottidæ, 335

Cottus, 335

Cowries, 247

Crab-pots, 26

Crabs--as bait, 44

-- preserving, 81

Crambe, 420

Crangon, 278

Crenella, 219

Crinoidea, 171

Crithmum, 411

Cruciferæ, 417, 426

Crustacea, 257, 304

Crustaceans--preserving, 80

Cryptogams, 343, 347

Cryptonemiaceæ, 363, 389

Ctenophora, 137

Cup Coral, 151

Cup-and-saucer Limpet, 240

Cutleria, 382

Cuttlefishes, 191, 251, 253

Cycadeæ, 347, 348

Cyclometopa, 286, 291

Cyclostomata, 307, 308

Cydippe, 137

Cynodon, 396

Cyperaceæ, 398, 423

Cypræa, 248

Cypræidæ, 247, 255

Cyprina, 212

Cyprinidæ, 212, 255

Cystoclonium, 365

Cystoseira, 387

Cythere, 266

Cytheria, 211

Cyttidæ 338

Dactylopteridæ, 335

Dahlia Wartlet, 143

Daisy Anemone, 146

Danica, 419

Dasya, 376

Daucus, 411

Dead Men's Fingers, 155

Decapoda (Decapods), 251, 255, 269, 271, 279, 304

Delesseria, 366, 368

Delphinidæ, 340

Demospongia, 119

Dendronotus, 235

Dentaliadæ, 238, 255

Desmarestia, 385

Devon Cup-coral, 151

Dibranchiata, 251, 255

Dicotyledons, 347, 403, 424

Dictyosiphon, 383

Dictyotaceæ, 382, 390

Dillisk, 365

Diotis, 410

Diptera, 299, 305

Dissecting microscope, 91

Dissecting trough, 98

Dissection, 91

Dog-fishes, 318

Dog Whelks, 248

Dog Winkles, 248

Dog's-tooth Grass, 396

Dolichopodidæ, 300

Dolphin, 340

Donax, 208

Doridæ, 235

Doto, 235

Dragonet, 335

Dredge, 26

Dreissina, 219

Dromia, 282

Dulse, 61, 365

Dumontia, 363

Dyschirius, 304

Ear-shell, 242

Echinocyamus, 168

Echinoderms, 157

Echinoidea, 171

Echinus, 168

Ectocarpaceæ, 378, 390

Ectocarpus, 378

Edible Cockle, 214

Edible Crab, 292

Edible Mussel, 217

Edriophthalmata, 266, 304

Eel, 323

Elachista, 381

Elasmobranchii, 318

Eleagnaceæ, 403, 424

Eleocharis, 399

Elymus, 395

Elysia, 235

Emarginula, 242

Enteromorpha, 61, 355

Entomostraca, 266, 304

Equisetales, 345, 348

Erato, 248

Erodium, 414

Eryngium, 412

Eryngo, 412

Erysimum, 418

Erythræa, 409

Establishment of port, 17

Eulima, 246

Euphorbia, 403

Euphorbiaceæ, 403, 424

Euplexoptera, 305

Exogenæ, 402

Father Lasher, 335

Feather Starfish, 159, 160

Ferns, 345

Fescue Grass, 396

Festuca, 396

Filicales, 345, 348

Fishes, 307

-- classification, 318

-- colour of, 313

-- distribution, 317

-- fins of, 311

-- gills, 312

-- preserving, 85

-- scales of, 309

-- skeleton, 314

-- tails, 315

Fishing, 34

Fishing Frog, 336

Fissurella, 241

Fissurellidæ, 241, 255

Five-fingered Starfish, 157

Flat-fishes, 324

Floating Crab, 289

Flounders, 325

Flowering Plants--classification, 423

Flowers--fertilisation, 393

-- preserving, 86

-- structure, 346

Flustra, 188

Flying Gurnards, 335

Foraminifera, 106

Formaldehyde, 73

Fox-tail Grass, 398

Fragacea, 142

Fucaceæ, 386, 390

Fucus, 386

Fungi, 344, 347

Furbelows, 384

Furcellaria, 364

Fusus, 249

Gadiadæ, 327

Gadus, 327

Galeomma, 214

Gamopetalæ, 403

Gaper shell, 205

Gasteropoda, 232, 255

Gastrochæna, 203

Gastrochænidæ, 203, 255

Gastrosteidæ, 331

Gastrosteus, 331

Gebia, 276

Gelidiaceæ, 390

Gelidium, 367

Gem Pimplet, 150

Gentianaceæ, 409, 425

Geodephaga, 301

Gephyrea, 176

Geraniaceæ, 414, 425

Gibb's Crab, 289

Gigartina, 364

Glass-wort, 407

Glaucium, 420

Globigerina, 109

Globular Beroe, 137

Gloisiphonia, 364

Glumiferæ, 423

Glycerine, 73

Goadby's fluid, 73

Gobies, 334

Gobiidæ, 334

Gobioesocidæ, 330

Gobius, 334

Golden Samphire, 411

Gonoplax, 290

Goosefoot, 405

Gracilaria, 366

Gramineæ, 392, 423

Grantia, 120

Grass-wracks, 400

Green Laver, 61

Green Pea-urchin, 168

Grey Mullet, 332

Griffithsia, 61, 360

Ground bait, 49

Gurnards, 335

Gymnosperms, 346, 348

Haddock, 327

Hake, 328

Halecium, 131

Halibut, 326

Halichondria, 123

Halidrys, 388

Haliotidæ, 242, 255

Haliotis, 242

Halurus, 361

Hapalidiaceæ, 390

Hare's Ear, 418

Heart Cockle, 212

Heart Urchin, 168

Helminthocladiæ, 389

Henslow's Crab, 293

Henware, 385

Hepaticæ, 344, 348

Hermit Crab, 44, 154, 280, 232

Herring, 322

Herring-bone Polype, 131

Hexactinellida, 119

Himanthalia, 387

Hippoglossus, 326

Hippophaë, 403

Hog-louse, 268

Holostomata, 236, 255

Holothuroidea, 169

Homarus, 274

Honckenya, 416

Honeyware, 385

Hook-nose, 335

Hooks--fishing, 37

Hordeum, 395

Horned Poppy, 420

Horse Limpet, 240

Horse Mackerel, 338

Horse Mussels, 218

Horsetails, 345

Hydrozoa, 130

Hymenoptera, 305

Hypnæa, 365

Ianthina, 242

Illecebraceæ, 412, 425

Inachus, 289

Infusoria, 104, 112

Insecta (Insects), 257, 294, 305

Inula, 411

Iridæa, 364

Irish Moss, 61, 364

Isocardia, 212

Isopoda, 267, 304

Isotoma, 299

Jania, 370

Jelly-fishes, 127, 134

John Dory, 338

Juncaceæ, 400, 423

Juncus, 400

Keyhole Limpet, 241

Knappia, 397

Knot-grasses, 404

Knotted Wrack, 386

Koniga, 419

Labial palpi, 197

Labridæ, 329

Lactuca, 410

Lacuna, 244

Lady Crab, 292

Lamellibranchiata (Lamellibranchs), 191, 192, 255

Laminaria, 384

Laminariaceæ, 384, 390

Lampreys, 308

Lathyrus, 413

Laurencia, 370

Laurenciaceæ, 370, 390

Lavatera, 415

Laver, 61, 354

Leathesia, 381

Leda, 217

Leguminosæ, 413, 425

Lemon Sole, 326

Lenses, 91

Lepadogaster, 330

Lepidoptera, 305

Lepturus, 395

Lesser Rue, 422

Leucosolenia, 121

Ligia, 268

Liliaceæ, 402, 423

Limnoria, 268

Limpets, 43, 238

Ling, 328

Lithodes, 282

Litosiphon, 383

Little Lettuce, 410

Littorina, 243

Littorinidæ, 244, 255

Liverworts, 344

Lobster pots, 26

Lobsters, 274

preserving, 81

Loligo, 252

Lomentaria, 371

Long-armed Crab, 286

Lophius, 336

Lucinidæ, 213, 255

Lugworm, 39, 178

Lutraria, 209

Lycopodiales, 345, 348

Machilis, 298

Mackerel, 337

Macrura, 271, 279, 304

Mactra, 209

Mactridæ, 209, 255

Maia, 289

Malacostraca, 266, 304

Malvaceæ, 415, 425

Mammals, 307, 339

Mantis Shrimps, 270

Marginella, 248

Marine aquarium, 51

Marsipobranchii, 308

Mat-grass, 396

Matricaria, 411

Matthiola, 418

Maugeria, 366

Meadow Grasses, 395

Meadow Rue, 421

Medusæ, 134

Medusoids, 133

Melanospermeæ, 350, 376, 290

Melobesia, 370

Merluccius, 328

Mesembryanthemum, 142

Mesenteries, 139

Mesogloia, 381

Methylated spirit, 72

Michaelmas Daisy, 410

Micralymma, 303

Milkwort, 416

Millepedes, 305

Modiola, 218

Molluscs, 190

-- bivalve, 192

-- classification, 255

Molva, 328

Monera, 110

Monocotyledons, 347, 391, 423

Montagu's Sucker, 331

Morone, 338

Moss Polyps, 188

Mosses, 344

Motella, 328

Mud-burrower, 277

Mugil, 332

Mugilidæ, 332

Mullidæ, 338

Mullus, 338

Murex, 249

Muricidæ, 249, 255

Murlins, 385

Musci, 344, 348

Muscineæ, 343, 344, 348

Museum, 88

Mussels, 42, 217

Mustelus, 320

Mya, 205

Myacidæ, 205, 255

Myrionema, 381

Myriopoda, 257, 305

Myriotrichia, 379

Mytilidæ, 217, 255

Mytilus, 217

Naiadaceæ, 400, 423

Nassa, 249

Natica, 246

Naticidæ, 246, 255

Nautilidæ, 255

Needle-fish, 329

Nephrops, 275

Nereis, 284

Nerophis, 329

Nesæa, 268

Nets, Collecting, 23

Neuroptera, 305

Nitophyllum, 367

Noctiluca, 114

Norway Lobster, 275

Notched Limpets, 242

Nucleobranchiata, 232, 255

Nucula, 217

Nudibranchiata, 233, 255

Nummulites, 108

Nummulitic limestone, 110

Nurse Dog, 320

Nut Crabs, 286

Obione, 405

Octopoda, 251, 255

Octopus, 251

Odonthalia, 375

Odostomia, 246

Oleasters, 403

Oligochæta, 177

Omar, 242

Oniscoda, 268

Opelet, 149

Operculum, 83, 227

Ophidiidæ, 326

Ophiuroidea, 171

Opisthobranchiata, 232, 255

Opossum Shrimps, 270

Oraches, 406

Orange-disked Anemone, 148

Orthoptera, 305

Osmerus, 321

Ostracoda, 265, 304

Ostrea, 221

Ostreidæ, 221, 255

Outdoor work, 21

Ovulum, 248

Oxyptera, 416

Oxyrhyncha, 286

Oxystomata, 286

Oysters, 221

Padina, 382

Pagurus, 282, 285

Pallial line, 193

Pansy, 417

Papaveraceæ, 420, 426

Parasitic Anemone, 153

Patella, 239

Patellidæ, 255

Paternoster, 48

Pea Crabs, 289

Pea Urchin, 168

Peachia, 145

Pearl Oysters, 219

Pecten, 222

Pectunculus, 216

Pennant's Crab, 286

Pepper Dulse, 370

Pericardium, 196

Peristome, 226

Periwinkle, 62, 243

Petaloidæ, 423

Phalaris, 396

Phanerogams, 343, 346, 348

Phasianella, 243

Pheasant Shell, 243

Phleum, 397

Phocæna, 340

Pholadidæ, 199, 255

Pholadidea, 201

Pholas, 200

Phosphorescence, 18, 111

Phyllirhoidæ, 286

Phyllophora, 365

Piddocks, 200

Pilchard, 322

Pileopsis, 241

Pilota, 361

Pimplet, 150

Pinna, 221

Pinna Pea-crab, 290

Pinnotheres, 290

Pipe-fishes, 328

Plaice, 325

Plantaginaceæ, 408, 424

Plantago, 408

Plants, classification, 343, 347

Plate-gilled Molluscs, 191

Pleuronectes, 326

Pleuronectidæ, 324

Plocamium, 61, 366

Plumbaginaceæ, 408, 424

Poa, 396

Podded Sea-oak, 388

Podophthalmata, 266, 269, 304

Pogge, 335

Pollack, 327

Polybius, 293

Polycarpon, 413

Polychæta, 177

Polygala, 416

Polygalaceæ, 416, 426

Polygonaceæ, 404, 424

Polygonum, 404

Polypetalæ, 403

Polypogon, 397

Polysiphonia, 372

Polystomata, 115

Polyzoa, 188

Porcelain Crab, 280

Porcellana, 280

Porifera, 115

Porphyra, 355

Porpoise, 339

Portland Spurge, 403

Portunus, 292

Prawn, 44, 278

Preservation of marine objects, 71

Preservatives, 72

Prickly Cockle, 215

Prickly Salt-wort, 407

Primulaceæ, 424

Prosobranchiata, 232, 236

Protophyta, 343, 347

Protoplasm, 102

Protoplasta, 104, 110

Protozoa, 102

-- classification, 104

Psammobia, 208

Pteropoda, 230, 255

Pulmonifera, 255

Punctaria, 383

Puncturella, 241

Purple Spurge, 403

Purple-tipped Urchin, 168

Purpura, 249

Pycnogonum, 293

Pyramidellidæ, 246, 255

Radiata, 140

Radiolaria, 104, 110

Ragworm, 40, 179

Raiidæ, 318

Ranunculaceæ, 422, 426

Raphanus, 420

Rays, 318

Red Mullets, 338

Red-specked Pimplet, 150

Reptilia, 307

Reseda, 417

Resedaceæ, 417, 426

Rhizocarpeæ, 345, 348

Rhizopods, 104

Rhizostoma, 136

Rhodomela, 372

Rhodomelaceæ, 372, 390

Rhodophyllis, 61

Rhodospermeæ, 350, 355, 389

Rhodymenia, 61, 365, 367

Rhodymeniaceæ, 365, 389

Rhombus, 326

Rhynchota, 297, 305

Rissoa, 244

Rock-fishes, 46

Rocklings, 328

Rock-pools, 6, 31

Rosy Anemone, 149

Rosy Feather Star, 160

Rotifers, 189

Rushes, 400

Rytiphlæa, 375

Sabella, 184

Saddle Oyster, 222

Sagartia, 146

Sagina, 416

Salicornia, 407

Salmo, 321

Salmon, 321

Salmon Dace, 339

Salmonidæ, 321

Salsola, 407

Salt-wort, 407

Sand Eels, 326

Sandhoppers, 268

-- preserving, 81

Sand Smelts, 332

Sandworm, 178

Saxicava, 203

Scalaria, 244

Scallops, 222

Scentless Mayweed, 411

Schizopoda, 304

Schizymenia, 61, 364

Scirpus, 399

Scomber, 337

Scomberidæ, 337

Scorpionidæ, 304

Scorpion Spider-crab, 289

Scurvy Grass, 419

Scylliidæ, 319

Scyllium, 319

Sea angling, 34

-- Aster, 410

-- Buckthorn, 403

-- Bullheads, 335

-- Bream, 338

-- Campion, 415

-- Carrot, 411

-- Cat, 334

-- Cat's-tail Grass, 397

-- Cucumbers, 169

-- Devil, 336

-- Eggs, 165

-- -- preserving, 79

-- Girdles, 384

-- Grass, 61, 353, 400

-- Hard-grass, 395

-- Holly, 412

-- Kale, 420

-- Lavender, 409

-- Lemons, 233

-- Lettuce, 61

-- Loach, 328

-- Lyme-grass, 395

-- Mallow, 415

-- Mat, 188

-- Meadow Grass, 396

-- Mouse, 179

-- Pearl-wort, 416

-- Perch, 338

-- Pill-ball, 268

-- Pink, 408

-- Purslane, 406, 416

-- Radish, 420

-- Reed, 396

-- Rocket, 420

-- Rushes, 400

-- Salt, 17, 59

-- Saltness of, 17

-- Samphire, 411

-- Sand-wort, 415

-- Sedge, 398

-- Slater, 268

-- Slugs, 233

-- Snails, 331

-- Spurge, 403

-- Squirts, 188

-- Stock, 418

-- Stork's-bill, 414

-- Urchins, 157, 165

-- -- preserving, 79

-- -- shell of, 166

-- teeth, 167

-- water, artificial, 59

-- composition, 59

-- weeds, 343

-- -- classification, 389

-- -- preserving, 86

-- Wormwood, 410

Seaside Arrow Grass, 401

-- Bindweed, 409

-- Cottonweed, 410

-- Feverfew, 411

-- Grasses, 392

-- Knot Grass, 404

-- Plantain, 408

-- plants, 391

-- classification, 423

Section cutting, 96

Sedges, 398

Selaginellales, 345, 348

Sepia, 253

Sepiadæ, 253, 255

Sepiola, 252

Serpula, 185

Serranidæ, 338

Serrated Pill-ball, 268

Serrated Wrack, 386

Sertularia, 128

Sessile-eyed crustaceans, 266

Shanny, 333

Sharks, 318

Shells, preserving, 83

Shore Crab, 261, 291

-- Spider, 293

Shrimps, 278

-- preserving, 81

Shrubby Mignonette, 417

Silene, 415

Silicia, 122

Siphonaceæ, 358, 389

Siphonida, 198, 255

Siphonostomata, 236, 247, 255

Six-rayed Sponges, 119

Skates, 318

Slender-beaked Crab, 289

Sloke, 61, 355

Smelt, 321

Smooth Hound, 320

Snoods, 37

Solanaceæ, 409, 424

Solanum, 409

Soldier Crab, 280

Sole, 326

Solea, 326

Solecurtus, 207

Solenidæ, 255

Sparidæ, 338

Spartina, 397

Sparus, 338

Spergularia, 415

Sphacelaria, 279

Sphærococcoideæ, 366, 390

Sphærococcus, 366

Sphæroma, 268

Spicules, 118

Spider Crabs, 288

Spike Rush, 399

Spiny-finned fishes, 329

Spirorbis, 187

Sponges, 115

Spongiocarpeæ, 390

Spoon Worms, 176

Sporochnaceæ, 385, 390

Sporochnus, 385

Spotted Dogfish, 320

Spotted Hog-louse, 268

Spout Shell, 245

Sprats, 323

Spring-tails, 299

Spurges, 403

Spyridia, 363

Spyridiaceæ, 368, 389

Squamariæ, 390

Squid, 252

Squirt Worms, 176

Stalk-eyed crustaceans, 266, 269

Starfishes, 157

-- preserving, 79

Stargazers, 336

Statice, 408

Stenorhynchus, 289

Sticklebacks, 331

Stilophora, 383

Sting Bull, 337

Sting Fish, 335

Stock, 418

Stomopoda, 269, 304

Stone Crab, 280

Strawberry Beadlet, 142

Sucker Fishes, 330

Sweet Alyssum, 419

Swimming Crab, 293

Sycon, 121

Syngnathidæ, 328

Syngnathus, 329

Tamariscaceæ, 413, 425

Tamarisk, 413

Tangles, 384

Tapes, 211

Tealia, 143

Tectibranchiata, 238, 255

Tectibranchs, 236

Teleostomi, 318, 320

Tellina, 208

Tellinidæ, 207, 255

Terebella, 181

Terebratulina, 225

Teredo, 201

Tetrabranchiata, 255

Thalictrum, 421

Thallophytes, 343, 344, 347

Trichoptera, 305

Thornback Crab, 289

Thracia, 204

Thrift, 408

Thuiaria, 132

Thysanoptera, 298, 305

Tides, 9

Tooth shells, 238

Top shells, 243

Trachinidæ, 336

Trachinus, 337

Treacle Mustard, 418

Tree Mallow, 415

Trefoil, 413

Trifolium, 413

Triglochin, 401

Triopa, 235

Tritonia, 235

Tritoniadæ, 235

Trivia, 248

Trochus, 243

Trumpet Anemone, 141

Tubularia, 132

Tunicates, 188

Turbellaria, 175

Turbinidæ, 243, 255

Turbot, 326

Turkey-feather Laver, 382

Turret shells, 245

Turritella, 244

Turritellidæ, 244, 255

Twin-bladder Wrack, 387

Two-spotted Sucker, 331

Ulva, 61, 354

Ulvaceæ, 389, 354

Umbelliferæ, 411, 425

Umbilicus, 226

Umbo, 193

Vascular cryptogams, 345

Velutina, 247

Velvet Crab, 292

Veneridæ, 210, 255

Venus, 210

Vermes, 172

Vertebrates, 306

Vetch, 413

Vicia, 413

Viola, 417

Violaceæ, 417, 426

Violet Fiddler, 292

Water Ferns, 345

Weavers, 336

Wedge shells, 208

Whales, 340

Wheel animals, 189

Whelks, 248

Whirl Worms, 175

Whistle Fish, 328

Whitebait, 323

White Salmon, 339

Whiting, 327

Wild Cabbage, 418

Wild Celery, 412

Wing shells, 219

Wolf Fish, 334

Woody Nightshade, 409

Worms, 172

-- parasitic, 174

Worm Pipe-fish, 329

Wrangeliaceæ, 389

Wrasses, 329

Xantho, 292

Xylophaga, 201

Yellow Poppy, 420

Zeus, 338

Zoantharia, 138

Zoarces, 333

Zonaria, 382

Zostera, 353, 400

_Printed in England at_ THE BALLANTYNE PRESS

SPOTTISWOODE, BALLANTYNE & CO. LTD.

_Colchester, London & Eton_

Transcriber's Note

Minor inconsistencies in the punctuation of tables or captions are

silently corrected.

Hyphenation is variable. Those compound words which are hyphenated only

on line breaks are rendered using modern usage.

The word 'movable' appears only once as 'moveable' (165), which is

retained.

The index entry for 'Œpophilus' is considered to be an error. All

instances of the word appear in the text as 'Æpophilus'. This has been

corrected and moved to the appropriate alphabetic position.

The following corrections were made to obvious printer's errors,

devel[e/o]ped (336); co[n/m]posed (364);

The following list contains punctuation corrections made:

p. 65 one of them[.] Added.

p. 255 [Class] =LAMELLIBRANCHIATA= Added to match other

entries.

p. 257 their tendencies[,/.] Corrected.

p. 292 low-water[-]mark Unhyphenated elsewhere.

p. 340 [(]_Cetacea_) Added.

p. 390 in firm gelatine[,/.] Corrected.

p. 403 by its stipuled leaves[.] Added.

p. 434 Rhodospermeæ, 350, 355, 38[9] Added.