After so thoroughly discussing the requisites of the teacher—those

elements that will make success possible—it is expedient that a short

discussion should follow on the school, the child’s home during his

school career. The influence of a well kept building and premises is far

reaching. Some years ago a stranger stopped in a western town, where he

was very favorably impressed with the neatness of the homes and their

surroundings. Upon investigation he found a small school building, but

to his surprise, the humble, little three-room school was beautiful in

its setting, and ivy clung to its brick walls making them look cheerful.

There were flower beds in the yards and neatly kept gravel walks. Over

the gate were vines. The windows had neat blinds and snowy-white

curtains. The stranger asked to be admitted into the school building. On

the inside he saw the same careful attention to neatness. The floors

were clean, the walls tinted and adorned with excellent pictures and

mottoes. The furniture showed no marks of defacement. With this little

school as an example, the stranger could understand why the little town

presented such a neat appearance. He further learned that the people,

including the boys and girls, were a quiet peace-loving people whose

culture was far above the average. The little, well kept school may not

have been the only influence, but it played a great part in shaping the

ideas of the town folk. It must not be overlooked, however, that no

matter in what condition the building and its surroundings may be, the

success of the teacher will depend largely upon his preparation, ability

and those other essentials and qualities that make the true teacher.

Still it cannot be denied that the surroundings of the child are

important factors in his development.

Clean Surroundings

It follows that a teacher who is trying to meet every requirement of the

true teacher will not allow his school-room or the premises to be

unkept, unclean and unsanitary. The room and premises will be in keeping

with the teacher. The question is this: if a teacher possesses every

element of a good teacher, but allows the school-room and premises to be

unkept and disorderly, will it affect the character of the work? It will

to an extent. As was stated in the introduction to this book, every

factor in the child’s surroundings has some influence. We simply can not

expect to encourage order and system in a child’s school work if that

child is in the atmosphere of disorderly surroundings. Just as a

well-cooked meal would lose much of its appetizing effect, and possibly

even be rejected, if it were served in an unclean place, so a teacher’s

good influence may be lost to a considerable extent through carelessness

about details and lack of proper attention to the general appearance of

the room.

“The master of a school who found that the boys misused the halls,

scribbling on the walls, throwing things around carelessly, breaking the

glass globes of the gas jets, and playing rough games, changed the

situation, not by making new rules or devising new punishments, but by

improving the halls. He reformed the manners of the boys by repainting

the dingy corridors, hanging them with attractive pictures, and

improving the general order. For order invites order, and the perception

that the school authorities care for the comfort and the pleasure of the

children calls out a quick response.”[8]

In the school-room, the spirit of work will be enhanced by pleasant and

orderly surroundings. Orderliness in the arrangement of school

equipment, including definiteness of instruction given, will beget order

in the pupil’s work and habits. It will go further; it will transplant

itself to the child’s home, where order will be established, because the

child’s life is being moulded in the school-room. Whatever influence is

at work to better the homes in any way, is a most worthy influence.

However small the school-room may be, it is the duty of every teacher to

see first of all that the room is clean, the seats and other furniture

dusted and a few well-chosen pictures on the wall. No teacher is so poor

that he cannot afford a few simple pictures for his school-room. Then a

vase of flowers on the desk and one in a window will add charm. Much

better would it be to have several potted plants in the school-room.

They add freshness to the looks of the surroundings. It has been

suggested that pupils can bring pictures from their homes, thereby

saving that expense for the teacher. The author believes it is a poor

teacher, indeed, financially and in spirit, who can not afford several

pictures for his school-room. His pride would be at a low ebb, and no

doubt, it would be well for him to read articles on the value of

pictures. In this connection it is worth while to consider the custom of

relegating that which does not appeal to one. The children will bring

from their home such pictures as the home does not prize. Will such

pictures have an æsthetic value?

-----

Footnote 8:

Sneath and Hodges, op. cit., p. 190.

Relegated Pictures

Neither should the teacher adorn the walls of his school-room with

pictures relegated from his own home. Pictures in a school-room are a

necessity. Their presence means much. Where the surroundings are not

luxurious, the pictures need not be expensive, but they should have

meaning. Where the school-room is modern and the walls are well painted

or papered, better and more expensive pictures can be used. Large showy

frames should be avoided. Great care should be exercised in the

selection of pictures. By no means, allow the common advertising

pictures or calendars to be hung in the room. They are gaudy and have no

place in a study of art. A room in which the walls are decorated with

various advertising pictures and calendars, indicates a teacher of poor

taste. It would be better to use no pictures at all than to use

advertisements.

Effects of a Good Picture

The author has often taken keen delight in watching a pupil, who had

been busily engaged in study for half an hour, look up, and finally let

his eyes fasten upon some simple picture on the school-room wall, and

then go into a reflective mood. Who can tell the worth of some fancy

being indulged, or some air-castle being built, and besides the pupil

was getting a rest by change of occupation. No great achievement has

ever been attained, but that it was first a day-dream or an air-castle.

Good Mottoes

How many men recall how they were inspired to much greater ambition when

as boys in the school-room they looked upon the simple mottoes, “Do

Right,” “Never Give Up,” “He Succeeds Who Tries,” etc.? The benign face

of Abraham Lincoln, of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, of Francis E. Willard

or some other celebrity has carried many a pupil’s ambition to higher

levels. Pictures of the Christ Child, of Madonnas, of Nature scenes, and

other standard subjects are very appropriate for the school-room. They

will have their influence. Little did the mother of three sons, who all

became sailors, think that a certain impressive picture of the sea in

her home would create love for the sea in the bosoms of her offspring.

It did. So will many other beautiful pictures create a love for the real

which the picture idealizes.

It must be borne in mind that while the surroundings of the child are

vital factors in his educational progress, still the best teacher can,

to a certain degree, do good work in bad surroundings. But the work will

be far better in clean, sanitary and orderly buildings and premises. The

opposite, likewise is true; the best kept house and premises will not

enable a poor teacher to do good work. Good surroundings will have a

good effect and make the work easier. A good teacher in poor

surroundings can not be conceived of as being satisfied.

The Seating of Pupils

A few other details of the school should be mentioned. It is important

that the seating of pupils be the best. Pupils should not be required to

sit in seats, either too small or too large for them. Often teachers

attempt to have pupils sit by grades, frequently putting a large pupil

into a seat much too small, or the opposite, just as bad, a small pupil

into a seat much too large. Teachers should not do this. To endanger a

child’s health in order to have him sitting with his grade is a crime.

Put the pupil in a seat that will suit him, irrespective of grade. If no

such seat is in the room, see to it at once that one is provided. That

may mean a visit to the Board of Education. The teacher is the guardian

of the children and it is his duty to ask the Board for proper seats for

pupils, if such have not been provided. Pupils should not be compelled

to sit so as to face a window or any opening admitting light. The best

lighting for a school-room is from the left and back, but if this is

impossible, it should at least not be from the front. Should any

school-room be so constructed as to have light from the front, shades

should be wisely used. Bright sunlight should never be allowed to shine

upon the pupils’ desks. It is extremely hard on the eyes to study from a

page lighted by the direct rays of the sun.

Color Schemes

Perhaps, no more thoughtless injury is done the eyes of pupils than that

caused by the choosing of unwise color schemes for papering and painting

the wall of school-rooms. In short, to make a school-room look cheerful,

pink, yellow, and often red are chosen as the colors that will produce

the desired effect. The motive is all right, but the cheerfulness is far

outweighed by actual harm done the eyes of the pupils. Aside from the

bad effect of bright colors on the eyes, there is a tendency to increase

restlessness on the part of the pupils by their use. Many nervous pupils

are irritated by striking surroundings. A school-room in which colors

and furnishings are harmoniously blended so as to obtain soft contrasts,

always produces quiet and will have a restful effect upon all pupils. No

color is better than a very soft green, with ceiling just tinged with

green. Nature for the greatest part of the year has green in her color

arrangement. It is restful to the eyes. Again, taking a suggestion from

Nature, her grays are soft and free from sharp contrasts. In papering or

painting walls gray, care must be exercised, not to select a gray that

is too dark; it will have a tendency to make the school-room appear

dreary. Another good color is tan. Great care must be exercised in using

tan, since, in most cases it is too bright. Blue is one of Nature’s

colors, but as a rule blue in any shade is not suitable for school-room

walls. The author is aware of the fact that thousands of schools have

white walls. This should not be. Ten cents worth of green coloring

matter in the hands of a decorator will give a suitable tint to a

school-room interior.

Ventilation

The matter of school-room ventilation is important. In every

school-room, even during the coldest weather, some opening or openings

should admit fresh air. Children should not sit where a direct draught

blows upon them. Small openings at the tops of the windows furnish a

safe inlet for fresh air. It is a good plan to open all the windows and

doors of the school-room, for at least half an hour, after school is

dismissed each day if no general ventilation system is installed. This

will avoid having impure air shut in the school during the night,

thereby permeating every nook and crevice of the school-room and even

becoming offensive. Fresh air admitted after dismissal will keep the

school-room pure and fresh and afford a place where the pupils will feel

invigorated upon entering the next morning. Often, pupils come in from

the fresh air only to breathe the stifling air of the school-room.

Little wonder then that the teacher must complain of dull pupils before

the clock points to ten. No foul air is likely to be found in a

school-room at the hour of opening if fresh air is admitted each day

after dismissal.

The Basement

Another very common source of foul odors in the school-room is the

basement. Though many school-rooms do not have a basement, yet so many

have a problem at this point that it is necessary to speak about the

matter. The author has visited many schools with basements, and recalls

one only that was actually sanitary. Most basements of schools are the

receptacles for the garbage and refuse of the school. In it are kept

broken seats, old brooms, things forgotten and left at school by pupils,

waste paper, paint cans, flower pots, and a hundred other things. To

make matters worse, the basement windows, if there are any, are never

opened. A disease producer is beneath the children; contagion gets

through the cracks of the floor and is a constant source of

contamination of the air in the room above. Many basements are even

abodes of rats and mice, thereby exposing the pupils to different

diseases. Damp and rainy days increase the offensiveness of an

unsanitary basement. Unscrupulous teachers often use the ill-ventilated

basement for a play room during bad weather. Such a practice is

abominable. No teacher should be guilty of such an offense. Better not

let the pupils play at all, for exercise in offensive air is dangerous

and far worse than none. If any place in the entire school should be

sanitary, it should be the basement.

After all has been said about the equipment of the school-room, the

greatest asset is its sanitary condition and cleanliness. This must be

at its best to secure good results. The unclean school-room—especially

the unventilated one, usually a condition indicating a lazy, careless

teacher—is dangerous. Disease may lurk in such a place and the mental

activities of the pupils be stupefied.

The Janitor

Closely related to the teacher’s care of the school-room is the work of

the janitor. True, many schools do not have any problem respecting the

janitor, yet a word about his relations with the teacher or supervisor

is necessary. The supervisor should see to it that the janitor is

thoroughly educated in the proper care of the school and premises. If

the janitor knows little about such matters, as is usually the case, he

should be instructed in every detail. Here caution is very needful. A

teacher should never appear to be authoritative to a janitor; he is the

school’s most necessary adjunct and should be treated with every

respect. When giving orders always talk the matter over with him, asking

his opinion; when he gives his ideas, request him to carry them out for

the benefit of the school. Never fail to inspect the work of the

janitor; that is, his regular work as well as that which was specially

assigned to him. If it does not meet your approval, kindly suggest

wherein it may be improved. If the work is satisfactory, never fail to

tell the janitor, not in a formal manner, but make him feel your

sincerity and appreciation of his efforts. To show him the good results

that will arise from his painstaking labors, will heighten his desire to

do his best.

Often, although it is extremely poor policy, the janitor is asked to aid

actively in discipline; this is not his province, as he is not appointed

to take charge of such matters. It is the teacher’s duty to discipline

his own pupils. The janitor can often become a factor in discipline.

Many teachers treat him with such a domineering spirit that they incur

his ill will. When ill-treated the janitor will gossip and sometimes he

may say something detrimental about the teacher to the pupils. This has

a tendency to weaken the teacher’s influence and ability to control. A

janitor should be required to keep his clothing neat and clean. He

should not use offensive language, nor should he smoke or use tobacco in

any form or become intoxicated. In fact, his morals should be excellent.

Allow the janitor and his family to attend all school functions, free of

charge. Often the janitor desires a day of half day off; do not deny him

this privilege. Whenever, unfortunately, an inefficient janitor has been

employed, he, as well as an unqualified teacher, should be discharged.

Summary

1. It is important that any discussions of the requisites of the teacher

should be followed by a discussion of the proper care of the school-room

and premises.

2. The condition of the school-room and the premises will have an

influence upon the teacher as well as upon the work done by the pupils.

3. A good teacher, filling every requisite, will see that the condition

of the school-room and premises has proper attention.

4. A good teacher’s work will be made better by good surroundings, and

far more difficult by bad surroundings.

5. A poor teacher’s work will be improved by good surroundings, and poor

surroundings will make good work practically impossible.

6. The condition of the school-room and premises will have an influence

on the condition of the homes of the pupils.

7. Every school-room should have good mottoes and pictures on the walls.

Some potted plants should be in the room. Never put advertising pictures

and calendars on the walls.

8. Waste paper, ash heaps and other rubbish should not adorn the school

premises. The latter should be kept clean and orderly.

9. Proper seating of pupils is necessary.

10. Light should be from the left and back, never from the front. Direct

sunlight should never fall on pupils’ desks or books.

11. The walls of the school-room should not be tinted or papered with

bright colors. Soft green, gray and tan are suitable colors.

12. School-room ventilation is very important.

13. The basement of a school should be as sanitary as any part of the

building.

14. The teacher or supervisor should exercise wise control over the

janitor.

PART THREE

DISCIPLINE: ITS PROVINCE AND END

What is discipline? It is the habit of obedience. It is submissiveness

to order and control. It is subjection to rule. It is a training to act

in accordance with established rules. Discipline obviously must be

control. Definition after definition may be sought, all ultimately

designating discipline as control. Though it is known that discipline is

control or submissiveness to order and system, still there remains much

to be said to clear up the idea of discipline. In examining the province

of discipline, many questions arise. Does discipline guarantee that a

teacher is able to punish all offenses with the correct punishment, and

by so doing insure against the recurrence of offense; or does it mean

any given code of rules that will prevent misdemeanors; or does it mean

the assigning of punishment for offenses so as to display vengeance

against the wrong doer, suppressing him for the time being, but

instigating him to further wrong when the opportunity offers itself? It

means far more than can be fully explained in any brief answer.

The Province of Discipline

Discipline is that vital control of an individual that molds character.

All those agencies that are employed to perfect and round out character

are disciplinary devices.

“The daily discipline of a good school is a constant instruction in

morals. The idea of order that is suggested in the appearance of the

school is here perceived in action. There is a regulated system into

which the individual must enter. He must subordinate his own desires and

impulses to the general social welfare. Thus he learns the elementary

virtue of obedience. He takes orders and obeys them. He becomes

accustomed to an authority which he must respect.”[9]

Were every product of the school-room a perfectly disciplined product,

the pupil would be self-controlling and the prophecy that perfect

discipline would annihilate prisons, reforms and courts of justice would

become a fact. A human being self-controlled after experience under a

sound system of discipline would offer little difficulty as a subject of

school management. Since discipline is a training in self-control and

self-direction, which are prime elements in character, discipline is

indispensable in character building.

Training in self-mastery is impossible without a prearranged

determination of conduct. Some one must analyze the possible types of

activity and wisely direct the immature person in choosing his standards

of conduct.

-----

Footnote 9:

Sneath and Hodges, op. cit., pp. 194-5.

The End in Discipline

Assuming that the teacher understands the great importance of

discipline, it becomes necessary, before discussing its underlying

principles, to consider some other phases of the subject. First of all

it is most important to understand the end to be achieved in discipline.

It is true that all aimless discipline is poor discipline whatever may

be the teacher’s zeal. A clear knowledge of the end to be attained is

not only important as a guide to methods of discipline, but will fully

predetermine the results. The question now arises: “Just what is the end

to be sought in discipline?” Some one may say, “The end to be sought in

discipline is good order;” some one else may say, “application.” It is

neither chiefly. These are mere conditions of successful school work,

and are not at all ultimate ends to be attained through discipline. The

teacher who regards these as the ends of discipline is not only likely

to use improper means, but will be satisfied with a mere semblance of

success. The true end of discipline is none other than the achievement

of self-control. This includes an efficient moral training by: (1) the

awakening of proper sentiments, (2) quickening of the conscience, (3)

enlightening of moral judgment, (4) training the will to act habitually

from high and worthy motives, (5) thoughtfulness as to the rights of

others and (6) a practical religious training.

Bagley discovers three chief functions of discipline: (1) the creation

and preservation of conditions that are essential to orderly progress of

the work for which the school exists; (2) “The preparation of the pupils

for effective participation in an organized adult society;” (3) “The

gradual impression of the fundamental lessons of self-control.”

“Discipline is, therefore, the last directive factor of the educative

process. It is to the soul what logic or geometry is to the mind, or

gymnastics to the body: it aims at bracing the will. But it has been

seen that self-direction grows out of external direction;

self-discipline out of the discipline of the home and the school.

External discipline is good only when it does lead to the development of

self-control.”[10]

-----

Footnote 10:

Welton and Blandford, op. cit., pp. 156-7.

The Teacher as a Concrete Ideal

A clear vision of the end to be attained in discipline presupposes that

the teacher embody every ideal of self-control that is needed to build

up the perfectly rounded-out character. The teacher is the soul of his

measures. The child is a pilgrim, needing to be led; a growing entity,

needing to be nourished. Then it follows that the teacher becomes the

ideal—a living, growing, real ideal for the pupil. This is not true in a

general and abstract way only, for in every phase of his work, the

teacher must by the very nature of the process adapt himself—his

thought, his action, his feeling, _his life_—to what the pupil is and

should next become. Here it becomes apparent that the teacher is not a

remote or unattainable ideal, but a very near and present help for every

succeeding activity of the pupil—a help-meet for good. The remote end of

discipline, self-control, is realized by a constant presentation of the

ideal embodied in the teacher, by a vitalizing association with the

child. In this way the ideals of the teacher dominate the life of the

child.

There is a story extant that an eagle was hatched with a brood of

goslings. Unconscious of its eagle nature, it kept to the earth with its

unnatural mates, until one day an eagle soaring along, swooped down near

it and touched it with the spirit of the freedom of the upper air. It

took wing into the realms of its natural abode. The child, beautiful in

his simple life, needs but the touch of that ideal embodied in a spirit

that will bring him into his rightful sphere. Many years ago a venerable

pastor, whose life was a fountain of constant inspiration for good,

returned to the scenes of his boyhood and called upon the aged pedagogue

who had taught him in his youth. He reported the good work he believed

he had accomplished. He told the teacher that he was regarded as a bad

boy in his school days, but that the pedagogue had turned him into paths

of right, where-upon the old man asked, “What was it I said?” The worthy

pastor replied, “Ah, it was not what you said; it was your life.”

The teacher’s life, his ideals, his habits will be lived over again in

those whom he teaches. Thus it can be seen that it is not sufficient for

the teacher to set up imaginary ends and theories for realizing them in

pupils; he himself must be the realized end. It is scarcely worth while

for a teacher to set up as an end in the pupils the formation of correct

habits and forms of thought without realizing them in himself. It need

not be said that a teacher who can not think with scientific patience

and precision can not train others to such patience and precision.

Honesty can be cultivated only by him who is honest. Truth can be

cultivated only by him who is truth-loving. The love of work can be

taught only by him who works. Noble thinking can be stimulated only by

him who is imbued with nobleness of thought. The idealized spirit of

faith and hope can shine forth only from the soul that hopes and has the

faith that radiated from the spirit of the Teacher of Galilee. “In

another aspect discipline is a relation between the child and the

teacher, and here the contribution of the teacher is his personality and

the force of his will, to which the child responds with trust, obedience

and the will to please.”[11]

-----

Footnote 11:

Welton and Blandford, op. cit., p. 169.

Both Good and Bad Traits Are Copied

This introduces the distinction between conscious and unconscious

instruction. The teacher by planned and immediate efforts, by definite

and formal instruction, draws the pupil into his own more perfect

thought and life; but much of the influence exerted by the teacher is

unconscious and without forethought; effort and purpose would diminish

it. Pupils are so susceptible to the silent influence of the teacher

that they are supposed to make some permanent change each time they come

into the presence of the teacher. There is a reason for this belief.

Experience and observation have taught that personal contact works

marvellously on the young who are continually in the presence of those

whom they admire. Pupils instinctively copy the teacher, even in the

case of mannerisms. Thrice fortunate is the teacher who possesses a

strong personality, if his life incarnates all that is ideal and

beautiful. Pupils assimilate both the evil and the good. How expedient

it is then that they find only beautiful traits and a wholesome spirit

which, like a fragrance filling the air, surrounds the noble-minded and

warm-hearted teacher. Not so much by the daily task imposed and the

instruction meted out as by the silent worship of the heart, does the

child flower into beautiful life, and ripen into worthy manhood or

womanhood.

Every teacher should be to the child a worthy model. Thus, by admiration

and worship directed toward a superior, would the pupil realize the

worth and beauty of all the good in the true teacher’s life. Using the

wisest and most precise method of instruction does not fill the measure

of the teacher’s responsibility. After all the pupil is circumscribed

and continues to walk on earth among common things, unless quickened by

a touch from the hovering spirit in the higher life of a teacher.

In a former chapter it has been pointed out that the school, as a home

for the child during his school career, definitely molds character.

Also, the teacher’s intellectual qualifications have been fully set

forth. But meeting these requirements alone cannot insure success for

the teacher. In this chapter the moral influence of the teacher has been

clearly explained as an agency in the character building of the child.

Discipline has been interpreted as a training in self-control, and

self-control as a prime element in character. Then it must be evident

that _discipline is the teacher’s one great function_. When the teacher

has directed his every effort and energy toward discipline, he is doing

his utmost to build permanent, worthy character, providing that he

possesses every attribute of the true teacher and uses those underlying

principles of discipline, that alone can make _true discipline_

possible.

“In childhood the trainer makes the child; during adolescence the youth

makes himself. In childhood habits are forged by the unreasoned

processes of reiteration; during youth they are made by voluntary

acceptance of an inner ideal and the conscious nurture of that ideal.

For the child habit-making should be as unconscious as breathing; for

the youth it should be his deliberate and high-born duty. A wise teacher

will never talk habits to children; before they know it, he will have

them chained—no, that is a hateful and vicious figure—he will have them

free as the wings of a bird in the unconscious and happy regulations of

their lives.”[12]

-----

Footnote 12:

Arthur Holmes, op. cit., p. 216.

Summary

1. Discipline is defined as a training to act in accordance with

established moral principles.

2. If true discipline could obtain, most school-room problems would

cease to exist and there would be no need of courts of justice and penal

institutions.

3. The end of discipline is self-control on the part of the child.

4. Discipline is necessary for the production of worthy character.

5. A clear understanding of the end to be attained in discipline will

decide the nature of the methods to be employed.

6. The teacher is the agent who must embody the ideal of self-control

and thereby make perfect discipline possible.

7. It is impossible to secure any results in discipline unless its ideal

is first embodied in the teacher’s life.

8. The teacher’s ideal must be lived out in his own life unconsciously.

There can be no successful attempt on the part of the teacher to live in

accordance with an artificial ideal.

9. The teacher’s influence over the child helps or hinders the growth of

good character.

10. Pupils instinctively copy the teacher’s ideal.

11. Discipline is the teacher’s greatest function.

PART FOUR

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES IN DISCIPLINE

Before entering into the discussion of the fundamental principles

underlying discipline, it will be well to explode the erroneous notion

that too many teachers hold: namely, that general principles of

discipline are not broadly applicable. To illustrate, recently a certain

magazine made the announcement that a notable educator was writing a

course in child training. To this, one of those all-wise pessimists

replied that the educator would have to write just as many courses as

there were children, assuming that each child is a totally different

entity and what can be used in the training of one child cannot possibly

be employed in the education of another. Such an assumption is unsound,

unfounded and absurd. In the following pages the writer proposes to

prove the fallacy of such a notion.

Various Dispositions

Again and again it may be heard that should a school have twenty-five

pupils, there would be twenty-five different dispositions to handle and

that what might be used in disciplining one child could not be used in

disciplining another. No one wishes to gainsay that there are as many

different dispositions as there are individuals, but these different

dispositions will all undoubtedly respond to the great fundamental laws

underlying discipline. To attempt to deny the operation and general

effectiveness of fundamental principles in discipline would be an

attempt to overthrow a bulwark of accumulated evidence of the past.

Principles that are fundamental, not alone in discipline, but in every

activity, have operated in unmistakable surety since the dawn of

history. To deny this would only tend to weaken one’s faith in

principles that when properly applied have always overcome the most

stubborn problems in discipline.

Small minds often find it impossible to collect useful knowledge into

general statements. They prefer to settle each difficulty by reference

to a similar former experience. On the other hand one who profits

largely from his experience is able finally to draw broad conclusions

which he can use in widely different situations.

This power of generalization makes easy the comparison of experiences of

teachers and so skill in disciplinary matters multiplies itself at every

opportunity for the exchange of ideas.

A number of careful observations made in the school-room will sustain

the assertion that any fundamental principle will certainly become

applicable to the mass of individuals. It is a universal law that a

fundamental principle of psychological import works toward the same end

in every normal individual. Several years ago a principal in a large

high school made the following observations. One of his teachers was

keenly sensitive to all the little faults of the pupils. Seven of the

boys and five of the girls had been reported by her to the principal for

various offenses. Each of the twelve pupils portrayed entirely different

characteristics. Their offenses too were entirely different as well as

their motives. Here was a plain case of twelve different dispositions,

which no one would attempt to ignore, but quite naturally, the teacher

did not use twelve different methods of procedure; she had a feeling of

distrust toward all of these pupils. She did not openly show it, but

before the school closed there was an open rupture between those pupils

and the teacher—they hated her—why? They could hardly tell. It was due

to her attitude of distrust. This evil was not openly at work (except to

a keen observer) but silently, it operated upon twelve different

dispositions in the same way—all to one end.

In the same school and at the same time, labored another teacher who

reported the same boys and girls, but her reports were followed up by a

deep love toward and helpful trust in those boys and girls. She did not

tell them that she trusted and loved them. The principle accomplished

its mission silently—as is always the case. These boys and girls,

without knowing why, came to love, respect and obey this teacher. She

did not use different methods on the different dispositions, but in

silence a fundamental principle at work, won for her the admiration of

all her pupils. She was a successful disciplinarian. She skillfully

applied fundamental principles, and it is needless to add that no

serious outbreaks against discipline ever occurred under her management.

It is all too true that the failure to understand fundamental principles

in discipline is the certain cause of perplexing problems that will

suggest “so-called” different methods for different dispositions.

Broad underlying principles in discipline are safe and the teacher who

would seek skill in school management will ground himself in these broad

underlying principles—principles that have been effective through

countless decades of successful school management. It is an axiom that

the teacher who fails to use the fundamental principles of confidence

will have many examples of distrust. The teacher who persists in fault

finding will always have sufficient material upon which to exercise his

fault finding impulse. The teacher who is constantly expecting trouble

will soon be rewarded; while on the other hand, the teacher who has an

abiding faith in his pupils and himself does not expect real

antagonism—true to the universal law, never meets an insoluble problem

in school-room discipline. The teacher who displays a deep interest in

his work and an interest in the work and welfare of his pupils, will

have an industrious school; he will not need to lecture to his pupils

about the necessity of diligence; they will show their zeal by doing the

work assigned. It is “catching” from the teacher who has an interest and

works upon the principle that it is necessary for a teacher, _first_, to

enjoy doing school work well before the pupils can be expected to do

likewise. No one denies that trust will beget trust, confidence will

beget confidence, good-will will beget good-will and affection will

beget affection. The opposite is likewise true, hate will beget hate,

distrust will beget distrust, suspicion will beget suspicion, and fault

finding will beget dissatisfaction. From the foregoing, it may be

assumed that the most skeptical must be convinced concerning the broad

and effective application of general principles. In this connection, it

is well to remember, that fundamental principles can not apply

themselves, the teacher is the agent that must apply the principles and

adjust the laws to every given case.

The Principle of Suggestion

The principle of suggestion will be given the first consideration, not

because it is more important than any of the fundamental principle in

discipline, but because it is so obviously and vitally correlated with

all others. At the very outset it is a truth that cannot be overlooked

that the teacher’s very life is a silent suggestive stimulus. In fact

all the other principles would lose their effectiveness to a great

extent were not the principle of suggestion interwoven in their

operations. For example, the teacher has occasion to use the principle

of approval. In it the principle of suggestion is involved. The teacher

approves of a pupil’s behavior, immediately there is suggested to the

pupil the idea of future good behavior for the sake of approval, and

furthermore because it means better class-standing. The operation of the

principle can even effect other than direct results. A pupil or a number

of pupils, who were indifferent regarding this special point of good

behavior, indeed, who may have been misbehaving at the time the other

pupil was conducting himself so as to elicit approval from his teacher,

will be affected by the approval. The principle of suggestion leads them

to infer that they too can gain approbation for good behavior. Thus, the

principle operates in channels where the teacher may not have directly

applied the principle.

The principle of suggestion can be defined or explained as the process

by which associated ideas follow one another into consciousness.

Sometimes it is explained simply as the association of ideas. It can be

termed an intrusion into the mind of an idea; met with more or less

opposition by the person; accepted uncritically at last; and realized

unreflectively, almost automatically. Suggestion is always a stimulus to

action. The proposed action may be external or internal, a movement or

an attitude. A suggestion can never refer to a mere idea. If a mere

notion is aroused in the mind it is not suggestion; it becomes such if

an impulse to act is aroused. This impulse may be suppressed or it may

ripen into action. One idea in the mind or consciousness recalls another

and so on, a chain of ideas may pass through consciousness, one

suggesting the other. Quite often the last idea is very unlike the first

in content, and yet if the suggestion is strong action results. “A

supply of ideas of the various movements that are possible, left in the

memory by experiences of their involuntary performance, is thus the

first prerequisite of the voluntary life.”[13]

Henry R. Pattengill, the great Michigan educator and editor, recalls

that when a small boy in his log-cabin forest home, his father brought

an ax into the house one cold winter morning. As the father laid the ax

on the floor beside the fireplace, he said to the children, “Don’t touch

that ax or your fingers will stick fast.” Then he left the room. He had

unconsciously applied the principle of suggestion. No sooner was the

door closed than Henry revolved this question in his mind, “Why will my

fingers stick to the ax?” This suggested that he try for himself and

see. The trial was made and the results were as the father had

intimated, but the boy did not learn the true reason until years

afterward.

Another illustration is in point. One of the best rural schools in a

Western State had employed a new teacher. He was one of that class of

teachers who believe that rules were necessary to cover every known

misdemeanor that might happen during the school-year. After opening his

school on the first day, he read his list of rules. The pupils had

always been well-behaved and well-governed, but not unlike other

children were buoyant with abundant life. Among his many rules was one

that forbade any pupil to climb upon the woodhouse roof. The punishment

for disobeying the rule was a whipping. He skillfully, but in the wrong

place, applied the principle of suggestion. Many of the pupils had

attended the school for six years and had never thought of climbing upon

the woodhouse roof. The new teacher had given the suggestion. Great was

his surprise when he walked into the back yard at recess and found every

boy and several of the bolder girls on the woodshed roof. They had acted

in accordance with the principle of suggestion and it was “up to him” to

make good. His predestined punishment was next in order to meet this

result of a never-failing operation of a fundamental principle. The most

lamentable part of the affair was that the whipping was an impossibility

with so large a number of pupils. The teacher was compelled to break one

of his rules, which true to a fundamental principle was a suggestion to

his pupils that he would break the others as well. It is needless to say

that his discipline was of the poorest kind. He failed.

-----

Footnote 13:

Tracy, Psychology of Childhood, p. 95. Heath.

Rules

How many young teachers feel that it is very necessary to have a code of

rules! They make themselves believe that it will display authority to

begin their first school by reading a list of rules. No worse mistake

could be made. By reading a list of rules they are showing a distrust in

the boys and girls and thereby laying a foundation for future trouble.

It is better to say nothing about order on the first day of school than

to parade authority by setting forth rules. Authority and firmness can

be far better indicated by beginning earnest work at once on the first

day without any reference to rules. “Authority may compel because of its

might, and often it must compel because of its responsibility; but the

type of order that is most effective is that in which the fact of

coercion is least in evidence. In the city and state, as in the school,

the condition that is sought is a “fashion” of obeying the law and

respecting the rights of others; and while the forces that can coerce

must be made plainly evident to those who can be appealed to in no other

way, the wise executive keeps them from constantly and irritatingly

impinging upon public attention.”[14]

Do not emphasize the idea of authority in the pupils’ minds and your

authority will not be forever put to the test. It is a wrong use of the

principle of suggestion to exercise authority in a way that is still far

too common among teachers. The average boy with good red blood in his

veins tends to take the attitude of authority on the part of a teacher

as a kind of challenge. The teacher who is constantly flaunting his

authority will most assuredly have occasion to use it. The less

authority shown the less need for it, is a safe rule to follow. It is

bad policy to make rules for the government of a school, and then attach

punishments of various kinds and degrees for the infringement of the

rules. In governing a school, it is time enough to deal with a

misdemeanor after it is committed. Often a certain rule against a

certain misdemeanor encourages that act, thus operating in accordance

with the principle of suggestion. To apply unvarying rules to varying

conditions is a prolific source of error and confusion. No rule can be

made to fit a case before it arises.

Suggestion is certainly nothing abnormal and exceptional. It does not

lead us away from our ordinary life. Child life is a rich field into

which suggestion may enter in a hundred different forms. The life of the

family, education, law, business, politics, art, public life and

religion are all dependent upon suggestion. Everywhere, at all times

individuals are stimulated to actions by outside suggestion, that they

would not perform, if they were to act upon their own impulses or

reasons. Experience shows that different individuals have different

degrees of suggestive power. Attendant circumstances have a great

influence upon the power of suggestion. Individual characteristics

differ widely as to the effect of suggestion.

In no field of activity is the principle of suggestion so powerful and

useful as in the teachers profession. It will be well to deviate from

the subject of suggestion to note that imitation plays a vital part in

suggestion in the school-room. It must be remembered that imitation

follows suggestion; it is a resultant of suggestion. The teacher who

embodies every qualification that makes a true teacher will suggest the

traits of his character to his pupils. They will as a natural sequence

imitate them. Every trait of a noble character is important and deserves

to be emulated by the child; the characteristics that make successful

men and women in every activity of life are worthy of imitation. The

greatest trait of character is morality, and it is the most vital of the

teacher’s requisites. To the average pupil this trait in the teacher’s

character will appeal. If the pupil’s moral life is near perfection, the

teacher’s life will only aid in helping the pupil to maintain his

standard. This may be termed an unconscious co-operation of the teacher

with his pupil. Building a strong character is not an easy matter for

the average pupil. He sees in his teacher those requisites which he

wishes to incorporate in his own life; he must overcome his own

weakness; when he does so, he is allowing the teacher’s worthy

characteristics to suggest to his the possibility of incarnating them

into his own life. This is neither co-operation or imitation merely, but

suggestion. It is also true of the law of suggestion that if the teacher

exhibits unworthy traits of character, these too will act as suggestions

to the pupils. It need not be argued further that the teacher’s life is

a powerful incentive to imitation through suggestion.

Suggestion as an agency for effective volition does not stop with those

elements that build character. It reaches into the child’s life at every

opening. His habits of work, of study, of play, and every physical,

mental and spiritual process are largely influenced by the principle of

suggestion. In fact, his first notions always come from some suggestion.

His first ideas of play, of work, and of study come as ideas from some

one else or from some outside source. The notion in itself, at first, is

abstract, but becomes concrete and a part of the child when he allows

the suggestion of the notion to cause him to act so as to make the

notion a reality and a part of his life.

One of the most powerful agencies for suggestion is the school community

itself. The principal of a school had the pleasure of transferring his

pupils to a new building, erected at a cost of more than sixty thousand

dollars. He resolutely set his mind to the task of preserving the

property from defacement.

In the old building a succession of teachers and pupils had allowed to

grow up the custom of grossly injuring both the structure proper and the

equipment as well. Both in public and in private he judiciously drew the

picture of the contrast between the appearances of the two buildings. At

the proper moment on each occasion he asked the individual or the school

as a whole, as the case might be, if the preservation of the new

building in its perfect condition was desirable: “Do you want to keep

the new school house fresh and in perfect order as long as possible?”

The pupils in a large majority, of course, declared that that was their

desire. The public sentiment soon became so strong that it entirely

suppressed the few who otherwise would have continued the policy of

defacing school property. There arose a community will among the pupils

that made itself felt and held in easy control the unruly members of the

school.

The teacher who fails to make use of this agency for suggesting courses

of action to his pupils is neglecting a powerful force in the management

of his school. Suggestions are rapidly transferred from pupil to pupil;

a proper choice of the occasion is necessary; a careful balancing of

diverse elements in the school group must be achieved; a variety of

appeals to meet differences in dispositions is required; a knowledge of

these guiding facts can not but make the plan of community suggestion a

feasible and in fact a necessary instrument in school management.

“The best disciplined school that the writer has ever seen was under the

charge of a principal who had worked for six years to make the

collective will of the pupil-body give its sanctions to good order,

courteous behavior, and aggressive effort. Interest in school work and

co-operation with the teachers had become distinct fashions. So powerful

was the force thus generated and directed that the superintendent not

infrequently transferred to this school pupils who had got beyond

control in other schools of the city.”[15]

Since suggestion is by nature a stimulus to action it may be well to

urge that all attempts to use suggestion as a disciplinary measure

should be moulded by some specific plan of action for the pupil.

If the teacher attempts to direct merely the attitudes or feelings of

the pupil he will often fail in the use of suggestion. Every person

whether child or adult has far more interest in activity than in

inaction. Even rest is always considered a preparation for further

activity.

Activity may be of two kinds: work and play. Suggestion may be used in

both. Madame Montessori says: “The first dawning of real discipline

comes through work.”[16] The fascination of a piece of work even in the

kindergarten will fix attention, inspire persistence and in countless

ways actually direct the impulses of the child. Discipline through work

is the most ready and appropriate agency for the moral training of all,

both young and old.

The teacher who understands the disciplinary resources of the school

tasks is a competent teacher and disciplinarian. The more completely the

discipline of the school is fused with the established school program of

activity the better will be the results reached.

Play is a part of the recognized outline of school functions. It is

second only to work as an educative instrument. All that may be said of

the wise use of suggestion in work may be repeated with slight

modifications in respect to play. The teacher must give as much wise

thought to the suggestive features of play as to any other element in

school life.

-----

Footnote 14:

Bagley, op. cit., p. 132.

Footnote 15:

Bagley, op. cit. p. 5.

Footnote 16:

The Montessori Method, p. 350. Stokes.

The Principle of Leading Suggestion

Some years ago a young country teacher called upon one of his city

friends late one winter afternoon. Just as the teacher was leaving his

friend’s home, the conversation turned to a topic that was very

interesting to both, but the teacher had three miles to walk into the

country and knew that he could not tarry to finish the conversation.

However, he asked his friend to walk with him from the house to the

first telephone post so that they might carry on their conversation. The

friend knew that supper would be ready in a few minutes but the

suggestion to walk so small a distance from his home in order to carry

on an interesting conversation was appealing and he yielded to the

teacher’s wish. Upon reaching the telephone post the conversation had

grown more interesting instead of reaching an end, so the teacher

suggested that his friend walk two blocks further with him to a certain

school building. The friend acted upon the suggestion, but upon reaching

the school building the conversation had reached a greater point of

interest and was in no way near completion. Both were deeply interested.

The teacher made the suggestion that his friend walk to a certain bridge

with him. Again the friend acted upon the suggestion. So, on they

journeyed until the friend discovered that he had walked half of the way

from his home to the teacher’s home, besides forgetting all about his

supper. No one will doubt that had the teacher asked his friend to walk

half way to his home with him just as they left the house, he would not

have succeeded in inducing him to do so, even by the use of most

persistent persuasion. But he succeeded in taking his friend with him by

suggesting a little part of the journey at a time. He had used a

principle that for the want of a better name will be called the

Principle of Leading Suggestion.

However, it is not a matter of the name of the principle, but the

principle itself and its application that interests the teacher. How

many teachers have failed to lead pupils to do what they have asked them

to do, all because the imposed task appeared to be too hard. This same

task could have been readily accomplished had the teacher divided it

into inviting portions and requested the pupil to do just one part at a

time. In this case the whole task should not be discussed at first. At

no time in the journey described above did the friend think but that the

small distance suggested would be the last part of the journey and at

the end of it he would turn homeward.

The teacher discovers among his pupils a boy who dislikes to read. The

teacher knows the boy’s likes and dislikes and is sure that certain

books would interest him, but to ask the boy to read an entire book

would only mean to further discourage him as to the reading habit.

Hence, the teacher asks the boy to read the first chapter on a certain

day for a specific purpose which he frankly makes known to the boy. A

few days may elapse before the teacher asks the boy to read the second

chapter with some other aim in view, perhaps. Thus the teacher labors

until the boy has read the book. In most cases the boy will announce

that he read on ahead of the teacher’s assignment and will ask for

another book “just like this one.” He has broken the ice and by a wise

choice of books on the part of the teacher, he may become an

enthusiastic reader.

The teacher with a keen insight will see no limit to the number of

results that may be obtained by the use of leading suggestion. In the

primary grades it can be made a very effective tool for advancing the

child’s interests. The stubborn and willful child will respond readily

to this principle and may thus be cured of his habit of obstinacy. This

principle can be applied to advance the interests of children as well as

to cure traits of disposition that are not desirable. The teacher who

wishes to accomplish results along these lines will carefully study the

dispositions of pupils; and further, watch for every advantage whereby

he may tactfully apply the principle of leading suggestion for the

furtherance of effective work.

Imitation

Reference has been made to imitation as being closely connected with

suggestion. Its further discussion is in place here. Aristotle said,

“Man is the most imitative of animals, and makes his first steps in

learning by the aid of imitation.” The thought has a broader

application. The first steps in all of the child’s activities are made

because of imitation. The first phase in the gaining of power and

facility in action is imitation of the action of another. It is highly

important for the teacher to remember, in attempting to direct boys and

girls, that all are imitators of those whom they admire. Men have been

described as the composite of all those who have directly or indirectly

made some impress upon their lives. Too great care cannot be exercised

as to the kind of associations and friendships pupils make, as each

contact will leave its effect upon them for good or for evil. The

teacher is the most important associate and friend of many, many pupils;

consequently, it is of the utmost importance that his life conform to

the best standards of character. Imitation is an inborn disposition

which is not learned but precedes learning. In fact, it is a means

employed in learning. By using both imitation and suggestion properly,

the teacher will have a device that will go a great way toward his

success in discipline.

In another volume entitled “Applied Methods,” a book which gives the

practical applications of our fundamental principles—the principle of

suggestion will be applied to various school-room difficulties. The

application will be made in such a manner that the teacher can easily

understand its use to best advantage in his own problems of discipline.

All other fundamental principles discussed will be shown in their

practical applications. This will leave no doubt in the teacher’s mind

as to the use of fundamental principles in school-room problems.

The Principle of Approval

The next principle under consideration is the principle of approval. The

desire for approval appears early in childhood, and continues through

life. It acts both as a restraint and as an impulse, and is often an

active principle in human conduct. No true child is insensible to the

good opinions of his classmates or to the commendation of his teacher.

It has been wisely said, “A young man is not far from ruin when he can

say with honesty, ‘I don’t care what others think about me.’” He has

lost a needed check against evil and a beneficent impulse toward right

action.

Just how far the application of the principle of approval may justly

extend in school-room discipline, does not occur to the average teacher.

It is very safe to assume that the principle of approval rightly used

would be an effective preventative of three-fourths of the perplexities

that harass the teacher in the school-room. The usual process of dealing

with a fault, is to aggravate it by constant reference to it. This is

wrong. But the teacher replies, “How can a fault be removed except the

child be constantly reminded of its existence, and also reminded of the

corrective?” The teacher, too, may add that reminding the pupil of his

fault is not disapproval, unless it be done in a fault finding manner.

That may all be very true. But the principle of approval can affect the

cure. The following incident well illustrates the point.

Some years ago there lived in one of the coast towns of Maine, a

big-hearted seaman, who was considerably worried about his only son’s

stoop shoulders. In the kindliest manner possible, he had reminded his

son almost daily, that he should throw back his shoulders. The son

understood his father’s kindness and interest in the matter and at no

time felt that his father was finding fault with him. However, the boy

continued to be stoop shouldered. An uncle happened into the house one

day for a visit of several weeks. The uncle was soon annoyed by the

constancy and utter uselessness of the father’s corrective for his son’s

stoop shoulders. The uncle called the father aside and asked him if he

would not allow him to make an attempt at correcting the boy’s stoop

shoulders. The father gladly agreed and also consented to have nothing

whatever to do with the affair. He felt that he had done all he could

and was unable to guess what method the uncle would pursue. The uncle

very shrewdly saw a condition of the lad that he might approve and

thereby he would be able to correct the stoop shoulders. The lad knew

nothing of his uncle’s plan and for that reason responded the more

readily, all unconscious of the process at work. On the following

morning the father was amused to see the uncle give his son a jovial

slap on the chest, and hear him remark, “Say, Tom, that is some chest.”

No more was observed by the father for that day. But the day following,

the uncle again slapped the boy on the chest, remarking, “I believe you

will have a broader and fuller chest than I have;” at the same time

displaying his chest well filled out. Casual remarks of this kind were

dropped at opportune times. Tom’s chest expanded until the stoop

shoulders disappeared. The cure was effective. The boy did not realize

that a double effect would follow his breathing properly. Approval won

where disapproval failed.

Many a teacher has ruined the best of his pupils by constantly finding

fault with, or disapproving of their small faults and inabilities; while

on the other hand many a prudent teacher has made a good pupil out of

one who promised to be but a dullard by commending those small things

which he could do, and entirely overlooking the things that he was

unable to do. If attention was called to what he could not do well, it

was only to offer some friendly assistance. It is a fact that must not

be forgotten that any activity is made easier by its constant

repetition. Thus, if the small things that the pupil can do are approved

he naturally will work the harder and thereby gain strength, until he

has become a master of himself accomplishing the most difficult tasks.

This principle is broadly applicable to all school-work. There is no

child that cannot do something in every phase of school-work. This

“something” the teacher should approve. It will without fail stimulate

the child to the fullest use of his ability. The teacher should not

ignore that which the child fails to accomplish; the task is often too

difficult. Only such work should be assigned as can be done, and the

necessary assistance should be given; by no means should disapproval be

meted out. This plan followed conscientiously will improve the most

backward child. The question may be asked, “What about the pupil who is

indifferent or neglects to complete his work?” It is well to approve

that which he _does_. If the teacher is sure the pupil is indifferent or

negligent, the child should be told the truth about his work and have

his attention called to his ability to do better work. To approve wisely

and effectively does not mean to deceive.

In the matter of school-room discipline, the principle of approval is

even more valuable than in school-room instruction. Everyone believes

that no boy or girl is so depraved that some good traits can not be

found. At some time they will manifest their kindlier natures and do

those things which should elicit approval. Whenever such pupils do

anything worth while it gives the teacher opportunity to use the word or

look of approval. This will encourage them to repeat whatever elicits

approval. It will increase the frequency of such acts and create a

desire to do other things that are worth while. It is a time-honored

saying that if all one’s time is taken up in doing good deeds, there

will be no time left for evil deeds. This is no vague notion as to the

child’s life. Whatever increases the time spent in doing things worth

while will decrease the time left for worthlessness and idleness.

But what shall be done with those actions of the pupils that are

annoying? They cannot be approved. Should they be disapproved? Yes. But

with caution. Should the teacher find fault with the pupil on account of

his misdemeanors? No, decidedly no. It is the province of the teacher to

assist the children under his tuition. Their faults and misdemeanors

should not be tools in the teacher’s hands to be used against them. Such

a procedure would be a crime. Then how shall their faults and

misdemeanors be treated?

The teacher who will succeed, will call the pupil who has annoyed him

aside and in a business-like manner discuss the misdemeanor with the

pupil. The teacher must not accuse the pupil but ask him for

information; if the teacher has met his pupil in a kindly way, he will

get the desired information; the teacher should admit anything in which

he may have been at fault and then ask the pupil to admit his own fault.

At this point the teacher should never express his opinion about the

misdemeanor, before he has asked the pupil to give his own opinion about

the action in controversy. With few exceptions the pupil will express

himself correctly about the misdemeanor. The shrewd teacher will then

agree with his pupil, and in an offhand way add any variance of opinion

or give suggestions. If this method is followed by a teacher in a kindly

but firm mood, the difficulty will have been dealt with in the correct

manner. The fault will doubtless not be repeated by the pupil. And

without fail the teacher will have another firm and true friend in this

child.

While much importance is attached to the teacher’s correct use of the

principle of approval, still more is demanded of him. The value of

approval clearly depends upon its source—on the character of him who

approves. The approval of the wicked or unscrupulous teacher is a snare.

The approval of the wise and good teacher can never be valued too

highly. A teacher must watch lest his pupils put approval before honor

and duty. The motive which the teacher must seek to cultivate, is not a

craving for unmerited praise and flattery, but a desire to merit

approval; and, this involves no surrender of conscience or honor. This

is a worthy motive, but it must be remembered that it can easily be

submerged under pride and vanity.

The degree of satisfaction to the child resulting from approval depends

upon his esteem for those who bestow it. The satisfaction that comes

from approval of one’s equals, as classmates, is less than that which

comes from one’s superiors, as parents or teachers. What has been said

is sufficient to show that the teacher needs to be very careful in the

use of approval as a disciplinary device. The one thing to be avoided is

false praise or flattery. No weakness in the pupil is more easily

aroused, or with more difficulty suppressed than vanity. The desire for

praise, and especially public praise, grows on its own gratification;

the more the child gets the more he wants. It is a good rule to speak

ten words of commendation to one of censure; but the commendation should

be sincere and honest and the censure kind and just. Finally, it may be

concluded that whatever of good may come from the use of the principle

of approval in discipline, depends in a large measure upon the teacher.

Encouragement

Broadly speaking, encouragement is involved in the principle of

approval. Some years ago a young man (Mr. X) of marked ability but of

such a temperament that he was easily discouraged, was prevented from

teaching school by some crafty scheme of the county superintendent and

others who were opposed to the young man. Mr. X was thoroughly prepared

to teach and far worthier in character than the county superintendent

and his accomplices. A friend of the applicant, chancing to be with him

one evening in August just at sunset, took occasion in view of the

beautiful sunset to tell the young man how much beauty there is in life.

He explained that adversities, such as he had just experienced are only

stepping stones to nobler efforts. He told him not to heed the

discouragement, but go right on in his chosen work and success would

crown his efforts; and that after all, life was so full of beauty that

it would overshadow all difficulties. The young man and his friend

parted. The friend had forgotten Mr. X and did not know of his

whereabouts until one day a letter came to him from the young fellow.

The following extract from the letter will explain how encouraging was

the talk of a few years before. “I now have a good position in this city

(the city was Akron, Ohio) and can also teach if I care to. I have often

been discouraged, but remembered your talk and resolved upon this

sentiment for myself: ‘There are two ways in life and if young men and

women would consider these ways soberly and earnestly before moving

onward they would choose the one which truth and reason tell them will

lead to honor, success and happiness.’ You and I know the other way too

well to need description. Life is not mean; it is grand. If it is mean

to anyone he makes it so himself. God made it glorious. How much life

means to every individual, words cannot explain. I have often been

discouraged but I looked upon the bright side and went on.” There could

be no more eloquent appeal for encouragement as a device in the hands of

the serious teacher. Many are the times and opportunities when a teacher

can speak an encouraging word and thereby send a life into a fuller

realization of its worth.

Sometimes the best pupil in the school meets with adversities (and they

will come to every individual ofttimes in life); they would overwhelm

him were it not for an encouraging word from a thoughtful teacher. Every

teacher should keenly realize that it is a part of his work, his actual

_duty_ to lend encouragement to his pupils. If the lessons are hard, the

teacher must encourage; if the pupil has fallen into one or more of the

petty temptations that beset children on every side, the teacher must

forgive and forget, and point out corrective measures, thereby

reassuring him and if the pupil has failed the teacher must comfort him.

It was Lowell who said, “Not failure, but low aim, is crime.” Every

teacher can be a source of great good if he will wisely help and

encourage where encouragement is needed. Such a teacher’s work will live

long after he is gone, and he will be kindly remembered by many who are

treading life’s pathways.

A few years ago a young man sought to enter Columbia University for his

last year of college work, and discovered that he was quite deficient in

language requirements. Just as he was about to leave the college and

give up the fond hope of completing his education, he was accosted by a

fraternity man, who was a stranger, but who soon made himself a friend

and so encouraged and inspired the young student that he took double

work and succeeded in finishing his college education. That young

student is now a man occupying a useful and worthy place of trust in a

large institution. The teacher who can encourage a pupil as the

fraternity man reassured the young student, will have no trouble in

discipline with that pupil. The pupil who has been saved from despair

always has a warmth of feeling for the one who thus inspired him.

The Principle of Initiative in Co-operation

Speaking of the child, Arthur Holmes[17] says, “He is organic, living,

developing. He cannot be kneaded like dough, nor hammered like iron, nor

carved like marble, but he can be guided like a vine upon a trelis.”

This work of directing the life of a child is specially represented by

some act which brings satisfaction to the pupil and so begins an

interplay of personal forces that leads the pupil to have confidence in

the teacher.

To mark off this kind of action we choose to name the principle involved

in it, the Principle of Initiative in Co-operation.

Experience shows that no person can have the desired educative influence

over a child unless it be by doing deeds that draw forth the child’s

appreciation. The turn of affairs in the school depends on the teacher.

He must choose and choose wisely if his control over the pupils is

adequate. He must take the initiative in establishing good relations and

in maintaining them.

In the discussion following, the term co-operation is used, but it is to

be understood that the teacher thoughtfully takes the first step in all

acts of co-operation, anticipating, of course, the pupils’ reactions to

all of his acts of service.

There is no greater principle in discipline than that of co-operation.

No other one is more potent among the teacher’s devices. But it is a

fact, much to be regretted, that no principle is used less in the

school-room. The fact is that a majority of teachers do not realize what

disciplinary co-operation means. Its skillfull use as an instrument of

government is unknown to them.

The inquiring teacher asks for an explanation of the principle of

co-operation. It means a gratifying or yielding to a child’s wishes or

desires. Or, it is a forbearance from restraint or control. It may be

gratitude for a favor granted; no doubt some teachers need to “Learn the

luxury of doing good.”

Leniency and tolerance are forms of co-operation. The term certainly

denotes companionship in performing every school duty.

Co-operation requires mutual understanding and sympathy. Clearly

demonstrated by Pestalozzi, this fundamental method of child management

has found recent advocates in the founders of the Gary and Fairhope

systems of instruction.

The question comes up at once, “Will not deviation from a uniform

firmness which is implied in co-operation weaken discipline?” Upon close

examination the opposite will be found to be true. It has been explained

that the real end of discipline is self-control on the part of the child

and further that self-control is the basal element in character.

Co-operation demands that we understand the nature of the child and

enjoy giving him freedom, at the same time working with him, not over

him.

The home or the school which manages children by the use of authority

chiefly is not working toward the true object of discipline, but away

from it. The child who is constantly governed, who has all his decisions

formed by some one else, has all his motives influenced by a parent or

teacher, in fact, his every activity controlled by another mind, will be

weak in self-mastery. How can he learn to control himself if he is

always under the will of another? Similar questions that will help the

reader to understand might be asked. For example: how can a boy learn to

swim if he is not allowed in the water? How can a girl learn to sew if

she is not given sewing materials? Then is it not just as logical to

ask: how can a child learn to control himself if he is not given the

opportunity to learn? It is to be feared that too many teachers have had

the wrong idea of discipline; namely, that it means to have a child

constantly under restraint. That is erroneous. Neither discipline nor

authority requires that. True discipline is that which directs the child

to become a self-governing individual, so that when he leaves the

school, he can go into the world and lead an efficient life. Happy is

such a child, but unfortunate is the child who has been so much

subjected to another that when he must face the realities of life he

still needs a guiding hand.

The following incident is very much to the point. It is the story of two

mothers. Each had a son who had reached his majority and was ready to

step onto the threshold of the world. Said the one mother to the other,

“I am so fearful for my boy when he gets into the world. I have

controlled him so carefully, that when he can not have my oversight, I

am sure he will go into wrong paths.” The other mother replied, “I am

not at all concerned about my boy. I have kept close to the life of my

son, helping him yet training him for independent action. I am confident

that with his ability to control himself he need have no fears that the

conflicts of life will overwhelm him. I am assured that he will

succeed.” The latter mother had a true conception of discipline. The

notion of discipline that the former mother had, is too prevalent among

teachers. It is well worth repeating, that true discipline is the kind

which trains the child to be self-governing.

Remember that any deviation from the routine of school discipline, any

pleasure that may be granted, any offense that may be forgiven, any aid

in performing a task that may be difficult, in short any service that

shows your devotion to the child’s welfare may be considered

co-operation.

The principle of co-operation when properly applied will very materially

strengthen discipline. The boy or girl whose every activity is

controlled is being robbed of the greatest gift that the school can

give—self-control. “All seeming _suppression_ of impulses will be found

to be based upon _expression_ of _other_ impulses, not upon sheer brute

repression.”[18] Boys and girls must be compelled to make decisions for

themselves. But some one will say, “In making their own decisions they

may blunder and decide in the wrong way.” No permanent harm need result.

Experience is the wisest of teachers. Children can not be taught in the

school of every-day life until they enter into its experiences; and

fortunate are they, when they enter, if they have been taught carefully

the lessons of self-control by some prudent parent or teacher. It will

make them stronger if they must help themselves over their own

difficulties. This does not mean that the teacher must not have taught

the principles of self-control. The real test of good teaching will come

when the boys and girls are compelled to hold their own in the world.

Those who have read Myrtle Reed’s “The Master’s Violin,” will recall how

Mrs. Irving never allowed her son, Lynn, to solve any of his own

difficulties. Instead of co-operating with him she dominated him. She

was his mind and bore his trials as well as all his joys and sorrows. He

was often eager to dive into the world with all its temptations and

perplexities, but she could not permit him to get away from her

authority. She was not an unkind mother, but she was not a wise mother.

When he desired to mingle with the street lads she would not indulge him

lest he become contaminated. She restrained him from everything which to

her seemed to forecast any danger. She could not tolerate that he should

have boyhood fancies and passions. Instead of guiding him wisely through

his boyhood problems, she laid the hand of restraint upon him. Her

authority was firm though not unkind. The day finally came when she

could no longer solve or mitigate her son’s problems. Life brought to

him what it may bring to all, dark troubles, hidden within the soul. He

was untutored and unprepared to meet his trials; his mother could not

meet them for him; she had only greatly weakened her boy, she had not

prepared him by sensible discipline to meet his troubles. Had she

allowed him to experience some of the problems that must confront every

child, he would have been prepared to meet his later trials. He could

not escape, so in the bitterest agony he was compelled to fight his own

battles at a grievous loss.

A certain fifth grade teacher—in the fifth grade are often found some of

the most troublesome boys—discovered that by gaining their friendship

she could control and discipline her room perfectly. Frequently, all the

pupils were allowed to spend an hour or two in some nearby forest, if in

the country, or a park if in the city, because they had behaved well.

Sometimes school was suspended for a short time and every pupil was

allowed to tell a story. This same teacher often checked an unruly boy

who seemed on the verge of some impending mischief, by asking him a

question about that which was of the most interest to him. This might be

about his pets, his gun, the striking novelties in some recent lesson,

or even about some imaginary trip.

It is not unusual that healthy pupils even though well reared should be

mischievous; this is due to surplus energy. The teacher, who could make

himself believe that such children are his enemies, is in the wrong

profession. It is, indeed, a pleasure to work with pupils exuberant with

energy. This energy directed into the proper channels will insure growth

of character in boys and girls. A certain superintendent in a small

school in Western Ohio found himself in a high school were the pupils

never tired of playing tricks. They cut down the bell rope, turned mice

loose in school, imitated a cat in another room and did all kinds of

tricks for fun. The superintendent was new in the school, but it did not

take him long to learn that it was all due to a surplus of energy in

healthful boys and girls. His solution was to use this energy. To this

end he set about at once securing funds to build a gymnasium. The Board

of Education could not finance the undertaking, so he enlisted the corps

of teachers and together they secured funds by private subscription to

build the gymnasium. After the gymnasium was finished, the

superintendent taught the classes in calisthenics and physical culture.

More than once, without discussing it with the boys and girls, he

directed the entire high school twice a day, for fifteen to thirty

minutes longer than the usual recess period; the time was used for

physical education: work in folk dances, games and gymnastics. When the

pupils returned to the school-room, their surplus energy was worked off,

their blood was filled with oxygen and they were very studious. He even

arranged that those who were excellent in deportment might attend a

night class, where interesting games were played. He had boys’

basketball teams, girls’ basketball teams, volley ball clubs, roller

skating clubs, track work, Saturday afternoon clubs, and other

activities which delighted the pupils. Because of this mischievous

pranks disappeared entirely and the efficiency of the pupils was

increased nearly fifty per cent. The high school enrolled seventy pupils

on the first day. During the year only three dropped out, making the per

cent of attendance ninety-five, which is a very good record.

Initiative in co-operation, as it is here discussed, must not be

confused with the common practice of parents who buy their children’s

good behavior. It is all too common and one of the worst faults of

parents, to tell their children that they will give them a penny, or

some candy or other articles pleasing to the children if they will

behave while company is in the home. This may be called a form of

compact, but it is simply a wrong use of co-operation. Many teachers

resort to just such a system of purchasing good behavior or good

lessons. This is wrong. The proper use of reciprocity has a worthier

motive in it. The teacher who rules by prudent companionship is

kindhearted and sympathetic, has a broad outlook on child life, and a

spirit that can forgive and forget, and take back into his love and

sympathy the erring pupil.

There are many ways of giving freedom to a pupil which will work to his

advancement and advantage. It is true, as it is in all school work, that

caution is necessary, that the true end sought by the device should not

be defeated. Every teacher knows how kindly a pupil will feel toward

him, if he is allowed to share in some of the duties to which great

honor is attached. This privilege can be given for good lessons, good

behavior, punctuality or any kind of effort in school work. Some pupils

like to draw, others to do favors for the teacher, even some will feel

that the teacher appreciates them, if they can work problems on the

black-board, go to the manual training or domestic science room. It is

indeed a splendid and effective indulgence to allow any pupil, whether

he is the best or the most indifferent one, to run an errand for the

teacher. To let a boy, who feels that everybody distrusts him, run down

town, or if it is in the country, to town after dismissals and make a

trivial purchase for the teacher, will make him gain, first, confidence

in himself, and then in his teacher, because of the fact that his

teacher has confidence in him. Should a pupil abuse the privileges

extended to him as indulgences, then the teacher, without any

explanation can withhold the privileges for a few days. He will soon

find his pupil asking for, or that which is better, deserving the

privilege. It can be granted, and it is safe to assume that the pupil

will take care not to forfeit his privileges again.

In the primary grades, the little ones like the sand-pile, the colored

blocks, the privilege of leading the procession, of drawing on the

black-board with colored crayons, of putting the teacher’s desk in

order, of watering the flowers in the school-room windows, of running

errands, and a score of similar activities. They will work hard for

hours, or act with great self-restraint, in order to enjoy one of the

above accessories of the regular school work. They feel that they are

co-operating with the teacher when they work for her. In the grammar

grades pupils often beg the privilege of holding a spelling-match. It

may often be well to indulge them. They will appreciate it and have a

deeper respect for the teacher.

It is too important a matter of school-room discipline, and means far

too much in the future of many a boy’s or girl’s life, to overlook the

fact that if pupils are met with authority only they will challenge that

authority. No teacher will deny that if he allows his pupils many

pleasurable privileges, they will be obedient to his wishes because he

is obedient to their wishes. One does not have to go far to find a

teacher who has kept many a boy from smoking, chewing tobacco, gambling

or resorting to evil practices, all because that teacher gave the boy

his friendship, and filled his life with innocent pleasure. The boy’s

own words—and they are often heard—bear testimony to the fact. Who has

not heard a boy say, “That teacher wanted us to have a good time, I

liked him because he liked the boys, I minded him because he knew what

was good for us.” What teacher could not feel proud of such an encomium?

It is a reward far more lasting than any stipend for the teacher’s work.

It is not the purpose of this Course to enter into the discussion of why

pupils indulge in many evil practices, but the teacher should know that

often privileges that lead to no harm are denied pupils; this causes

them to seek to break away from restraint. As a rule pupils do not

admire or like a teacher who denies them the privileges they seek.

Because of this dislike they are prone to antagonize the teacher as much

as possible, thus making discipline a more difficult problem for him.

Besides, they will do many things unknown to the teacher that will lead

to evil. Every one can recall a school where every pupil seemed bent on

getting into mischief, where the girls were out late at night, the boys

frequented pool-rooms and often saloons, smoked, attended questionable

dances and were vicious generally. On the other hand, schools can be

recalled where all the pupils seemed well-behaved. In the former

instance the teacher was a cold, formal individual who did not indulge

his pupils in those many pleasures that amuse and please and keep them

out of mischief. In the latter instance the teacher was a big-hearted,

sympathetic individual, who loved the boys and girls. He made room for

their youthful sports and even entered into the games himself. Thus he

could lead his pupils into nobler lives because he acted as one of their

number.

A teacher who wishes to render efficient service in his work and make

himself more successful in discipline, will use the principle of

co-operation. It would be worth while to spend a week or two observing

all the exercises and activities of the school and to keep a memorandum

of every phase of the work which could be improved by working more

intimately with the pupils. _The teacher who discretely employs the

principle of co-operation in discipline will improve his ability to

govern fifty per cent._ But the good to the pupils that will result will

be gratifying and lasting. For discipline is a failure if the results do

not appear in the child’s entire life.

-----

Footnote 17:

Principles of Character Making, p. 1. Lippincott.

Footnote 18:

Angell, op. cit., p. 436.

Consistency

While good results can be obtained by the use of co-operation, yet it

can be made effective only by practicing consistency. In the application

of the principle of co-operation in discipline, the teacher needs to be

consistent. The entire school should be treated as a unit. Particular

pupils should not be singled out as recipients of the teacher’s

companionship. Such a procedure would defeat the effectiveness of the

principle. Many pupils are so amiable that they are more closely

associated with the teacher than more diffident and bashful pupils. Such

pupils will naturally secure for themselves a goodly share of the

privileges given by the teacher—not because they are selfish, but

because they are more forward. Thus it will happen that the diffident

pupil will get few or no privileges from the teacher. This will work

great evil in a school. Soon some one will accuse the teacher of being

partial when in reality the teacher is not at fault, since the forward

pupil really causes the teacher to seem partial. Teachers must guard

against this condition, for often parents misunderstand the situation

and likewise accuse the teacher of being partial. When this happens his

influence is undermined. A careful teacher will explain to his pupils

that the confident pupil gets more from the teacher than the diffident

and bashful pupil. It is his duty to insist that the diffident pupil

help himself to all privileges. The teacher needs often to aid bashful

pupils to get privileges; he should in many instances seek to reassure

such pupils. This will lead them to love and cherish him. No teacher has

not had pupils who invited him into their homes, desired to walk with

him, took him riding, or brought him various little favors. The sociable

teacher will accept with good grace all these kindnesses that pupils

extend to him. But here it happens that many pupils will not offer their

teachers such favors. This would be well if other pupils did not infer

that the teacher is partial. He should make it plain that he loves his

pupils all alike, though some treat him with more consideration than

others.

A common fault with teachers who indulge their pupils is that sometimes

they meet with adversity in the form of an irate parent or some

incompatible person and because of their ruffled spirits they spend a

day in the school-room without showing even friendship to the pupils.

The next day their feelings are placated and, somehow, in trying to make

up lost time they make unwise use of indulgence. Such a lack of day by

day consistency will surely destroy the effectiveness of companionship.

A principal of a well-known high school had accustomed himself to be

very friendly and amiable outside of the school, but when he was in the

school-room his manner was antagonistic. He seemed unfriendly and not at

all courteous to his pupils. This contrast of mannerism or temperament

had become so marked that many of the pupils wondered why he did not

conduct himself in the school-room as he did on the street. Most of his

pupils disliked him but admitted that they could admire him, were he to

conduct himself as amiably in the school-room as he did outside. This

principal failed to practice a consistency in his life which is so

necessary to make and hold friends.

The Principle of Substitution

The law is, “Resist not evil,” for in resisting it it is only

aggravated, “but overcome evil with good.” When in darkness, fight it

not, but strike a light. When dealing with vice, excite it not, but

awaken a positive virtue. If a child has a fault, ignore the fact as

much as possible, and develop his better nature. Encourage a virtue and

a vice may disappear.

This law is universal in its application. The teaching profession has

yet to learn its significance. It can be termed the Principle of

Substitution. It means that when one thing is taken out of a life,

something else must be put in to fill up the void. When parents and

teachers come fully to appreciate this principle and magnify virtue,

honor and character in the child—ignoring his evil tendencies—then, and

only then, will it be possible to develop every child into noble manhood

or womanhood.

Positive virtues make vice impossible. Aggressive goodness leaves no

room for evil. Pronounced righteousness once developed in a child, the

problem of his government is settled. It is prudent to ignore his

tendency not to study when inculcating the habit of study in the pupil.

The habits of idleness, inattentiveness, irregularity and others

detrimental to a pupil’s welfare can only be eliminated from his life by

inciting opposite habits. Great as may the principles of suggestion,

approval and co-operation, no greater principle can be discussed than

that of substitution. It is a principle widely useful in many diverse

activities. Just as it is practical in other fields, so it is feasible

and useful in school-room discipline.

The street gamins of New York and other large cities are addicted to

many bad habits. They lie, steal, swear, gamble and practice many other

vices. They learn these vices by observing them in others and since

there are no other activities to engage their attention, they live from

day to day in habitual vice until they become criminals. The settlement

workers and such institutions as the George Junior Republic, work upon

the principle of substitution when they take these boys into their

reformatory institutions. In them, the boy is not asked to quit his

vices; on the contrary, nothing is said or even suggested about his

former evil habits. Instead, his day of twenty-four hours is filled with

other employment, so that he has no time left to indulge himself in any

of his former evil habits. This practice is kept up until the boy has

acquired as habits the activities of the settlement. When he has reached

this stage, he can enter the world. It is true that some of the most

worthy men of this day are products of boy settlements.

A typical day at a boy’s settlement will include a morning bath and

toilet which will send the boy freshened and cleanly to his breakfast

which is preceded by a short prayer and Bible reading or some other form

of devotional exercise. After breakfast the boys take up their school

work, or occupation and continue until noon, when they get their

noon-day meal and an hour or two of rest. Care is taken that the rest is

rather a change of occupation than idleness. The boys play games or

read. In the afternoon some school work and occupational duties are

done. Part of the afternoon is spent in some recreation which the boys

enjoy. Similarly their time is occupied until supper. Following supper,

games, reading and any other forms of recreation that will interest the

boys are provided. At a reasonable hour the boys retire. After such an

active day, they are usually tired and sleep well until morning when the

same routine is followed for another day. When it is feared the boys may

tire of their work, enough of a change is made to keep them satisfied.

The work is all conducted in such a way that interest is paramount. From

the above it can readily be seen that boys in such circumstances have

little time for evil deeds.

There is no question but that the same principle can be used in the

school-room to great advantage. The following are truthful maxims:

“Idleness breeds vice” and “The devil finds some mischief for idle hands

to do.” The school-room in which everybody is busy is a quiet

school-room. There will not be the proverbial “pin-drop” quietness, but

the little noise that can be heard will be a noise of busy pupils. Very

often, teachers in planning their daily programs, fail to have the work

so arranged as to utilize every minute; then in the interval when the

pupils have a lull from their work, they find time to perpetrate

mischief.

Another prolific source of mischief is the recess period. The greater

majority of teachers believe the pupils will take care of themselves

during the recess periods and the noon intermission. It is true that

some of the pupils do use the time profitably, but too often, it is a

lounging period and the real aim of the intermissions is not carried

out, but rather that which is least desirable results. It will be a

great step in the direction of advancement when there will be no longer

a free-for-all recess or noon intermission, but instead supervised play

periods in which every pupil _must_ take part. It is just as reasonable

to compel a pupil to take regular recreation as it is to demand that he

learn his arithmetic or history lesson. It is more important. He must

have a strong healthy body and it can only be made and kept so by

regular recreation. The arrangement for getting pupils to the play

ground and from it to the school building again, should be carefully

planned. Opportunities for mischief should be eliminated. As soon as

pupils are seated, work and study should begin. Habits of ease and

quietness are easily cultivated in pupils. Whatever of useful employment

and recreation takes up the time of the pupils, leaves no time for

idleness and mischief.

It is worth mentioning that many children are opposed to supervised

play. There are parents too who oppose it. There are several reasons for

this opposition. First, the opposition is due to the lack of knowledge

of child life on the part of the teacher or those who supervise the play

of children. Children very naturally follow a leader and if the teacher

is a lover of children and their sports, he will be their leader. It is

not uncommon on the play grounds to see the boys and girls flock to an

adult who is a real lover of sports. This shows that they really like

older folks in their games. So whenever such an objection arises it is

very necessary that the teacher or supervisor examine himself for the

cause of the opposition and then speedily remedy the defect. Another

reason is this, however much we regret it—nevertheless, it is true—there

are many children especially in grammar grades and high school who like

to use slang or suggestive language and often indulge in practices that

are little less than immodest. Such children could not be friendly to a

supervisor. But it is essential that _such_ children should have a

supervisor for their own good. Boys and girls who conduct themselves in

this fashion will not unaided make virtuous men and women. It is hard to

conceive of parents who would object to supervised play, but in face of

the fact that many parents are strong agents in the weakening of their

children’s characters, it becomes the more necessary for the teacher to

be fearless and supervise the play. A good teacher must many times do

that which parents will not approve, but it is his duty to act always

according to his best judgment.

The following story was told by an old man. He said that when he was

young he was quite wicked; among the evils in which he indulged was evil

thinking and vulgar and blasphemous language. He had become so offensive

that many people shunned him. He was aware of his condition but was

unable to change himself. One day a friend advised him to memorize a

number of good poems and sacred songs. Whenever his mind should revert

to evil thoughts or he had a desire to use vile language, he was to

repeat the poems, or if he was where he could sing, he was to sing some

of the sacred songs. He did as he was advised. Persistently he followed

his friend’s counsel, and in less than six month’s time, he had cured

himself of his evil-mindedness and the use of vile and blasphemous

language.

The same principle of substitution that the old man used when he was a

youth is very applicable to many problems that arise in the school-room.

Of course, it must be borne in mind that the teacher does not have the

child for the entire day, and that the home may offset much that the

teacher does. If such is the case, the teacher’s only chance of success

is to solicit the aid of the home. While he may not be able to do this

in every instance, it is fair to assume he will get the home aid

necessary in almost every case. All voluntary acts of the child are

founded upon some motive. The teacher’s attack against any bad habit of

a pupil must not be a direct attack against the habit itself. Another

type of action should be substituted for it. It is a very homely

illustration but nevertheless true, that a cesspool can not be removed

by removing the refuse. It will fill up again. But if the pool is filled

with good solid earth, the pool will not return again. So it is with an

evil in any child’s or adult’s life. If the evil is removed, put a

positive good habit or activity in its place or the evil habit will

return. It is often the case that the evil habit crowds out the good

habit after it has been admitted into the child’s life. This cannot

happen under the watchful care of a good teacher.

The principle of substitution may be likened to the planting of a lily

garden where once flourished a bed of thistles. The teacher must ever be

on the look out for a place where he can plant a positive virtue. When

planted it must be nurtured and cared for until it reaches perfection.

It will then crowd out at least one vice. Discouragement should not

thwart the teacher in his attempts to eliminate evil from a child’s

life. His duty is clear and he should summon every aid to his assistance

in order to accomplish his purpose.

The Principle of Expectancy

“Seek and ye shall find,” “Knock and it shall be opened,” are Biblical

injunctions that embody more truth than appears on the surface. Just as

true is it to say, “Expect and ye shall receive what ye expect.” The

following true incident is very much to the point and worth repeating.

During the first few years of the nineteenth century a French lad was

learning to be a drummer for the French Army. Among the various

selections of army music which he was required to learn was a retreat.

When it came time to learning the army retreat, he refused, telling his

teacher that he never expected to beat a retreat. “But,” said the

teacher, “no army can be so victorious but that sometime in its career

it must retreat.” Again the boy replied, “I never expect to beat a

retreat.” It was but a year later when he became a drummer boy in

Napoleon’s army. In one of the hardest fought battles of Napoleon’s

military career, it became apparent to Napoleon that his army would be

defeated and practically all captured. To save this situation the great

general ordered a retreat. The drummer boy did not beat a retreat.

Napoleon angered, rode up to the boy and in harsh tones ordered the lad

to beat a retreat. The lad looked up and replied, “I can not beat a

retreat.” The now enraged general shouted, “Beat a retreat!” Again came

the firm, resolute reply, “I can not beat a retreat.” There was in the

lad’s expression a look of firm expectation that he would not need to

beat a retreat. The general was furious, he whirled his horse about and

derisively shouted back, “Then beat a charge.” At once that firm

determination which made the boy self-confident and expectant, fired his

spirit and he began to beat a charge. All the years of resolution and

expectancy that were pent up in his soul now echoed and re-echoed in

those drum beats. The soldiers caught the spirit of firmness and,

thrilled with an ardor that they had never felt before, they followed

the drummer boy to victory.

The above story illustrates the Principle of Expectancy—a principle that

is fundamental in discipline. It goes much further than merely to expect

a thing to be done when it is commanded. It becomes a part of the

individual, if that individual has a firm grip upon the principle of

expectancy. It is a principle that will inspire the teacher with

self-confidence. Everyone can recall some teachers who had so firm a

belief in their ability to do things and secure results as to have no

fear that assigned tasks would not be well done. When the teacher has

the principle of expectancy so well fused into himself as to have

confidence that he will get whatever he justly seeks, then, and only

then, will he be an accomplished disciplinarian.

The writer once visited the gymnasium of a public school just when the

high school pupils were taking their regular daily exercises. The

exercises were being directed by the principal. At the close of the

gymnastic period, the principal in a whining tone of voice with these

words commanded the pupils to leave the gymnasium: “I want you to leave

the gymnasium now—right away now.” This teacher did not expect the

pupils to leave the gymnasium promptly. He implied that much in his

command. He got what he expected. Many of the pupils continued to loiter

about the gymnasium striking at each other and making other useless

movements. It took several more whining commands before he succeeded in

getting the gymnasium cleared of pupils. In fact, some left it so

reluctantly as to show that they had been antagonized by the principal.

This all came about by an improper attitude of the principal in his lack

of expecting his command to be obeyed. Had he said to the pupils in a

firm tone of voice at the close of the gymnastic period, “This is all,”

and then stepped to the door and opening it, standing aside and

expecting nothing else, except that every pupil would promptly leave the

building, the result would have been different. Every pupil would have

left the gymnasium promptly and the spirit of antagonism would not have

appeared.

In actual school work, no principle can do more good in its application

than the principle of expectancy. One teacher can assign a lesson to a

class without any admonishing or even the slightest suggestion that they

should study the lesson. The class will return on the following day and

recite a good lesson. Another teacher may assign to this same class a

lesson, also without a suggestion as to the class preparing the lesson.

However, in the next recitation the class will not have the lesson. Upon

careful investigation it will be found that the one teacher has in his

make-up that something which makes pupils feel and know that he expects

nothing else than that his pupils will learn the lessons he assigns

them. He does not inform his pupils in so many words that he expects

them to study the lesson he assigns. He assumes as much; then, with a

confidence in his pupils that is compelling he expects them to do his

every bidding. The other teacher, not in words either, but in his very

manner, is vacillating. He lacks confidence in himself and in his

pupils. He is suspicious. He is not sure his pupils will study if he

tells them to. He can not assign a lesson with a safe feeling that the

pupils can do nothing else but learn it. He waits until the class comes

before him, and then begins the recitation in a half-hearted way as

though he knew they did not know the lesson. It is a safe assumption. He

is not disappointed. The class has not prepared the lesson. There are

many teachers who think themselves “smart” and wise, when they can say

to a class before they have even begun the recitation, “You look as

though you did not have your lesson. I can tell it by your eyes.” Such a

teacher is a liar. No teacher can tell beforehand whether a class has a

lesson or not. It is little wonder that so many teachers fail. They are

the rocks of destruction to their own pupils.

On the other hand, in the actual discipline of the pupils, the principle

of expectancy is of vital importance. Who can not recall a teacher going

to the back of the school-room to correct a pupil and then walking away

casting side-wise glances, and sometimes making quick turns about, as

much as to tell the pupil, “I am suspicious of you.” But the information

is far broader than that. That teacher by his suspicious attitude tells

his pupil that he is expecting the pupil to perpetrate more mischief. If

he did not think the pupil would repeat his pranks, he would not need to

watch him. Thoughtful teachers can afford to reflect upon this. Nothing

is more liable to breed mischief and contempt among pupils than to treat

them as though they can never be trusted. A teacher practicing such an

attitude of suspicion can never succeed in school-room discipline. To

reprimand a pupil and then have enough confidence to expect the pupil

not to repeat the offense will without fail reach the better self of the

pupil. He will not repeat the offense. Teachers should always expect the

best result to follow their efforts. They should make expectancy the

keynote of their lives. Not to be expectant is to be suspicious. The

question can very appropriately be asked: “What pupil likes to be

suspected always by his teacher?” And with emphasis: “What teacher would

like to be suspected?” Then it is high time that teachers expect more

from their pupils. They will get more. Expect them to know their

lessons, and they will prepare them. Expect them to be obedient, and

they will be obedient. Expect them to be kind and courteous, and they

will be kind and courteous. To live in expectancy is to live in hope. To

the teacher who expects the good and hopes for the better, there can

never be a dull and dreary school. The principle of expectancy is the

teacher’s beacon light; he should never take his eye from it.

Again, the principle of expectancy is correlated with the other

fundamental principles of discipline. A teacher who by word, a look, a

story or a deed, suggests something, would indeed be foolish if he did

not expect his suggestion to ripen into action. A teacher should approve

the well learned lessons of a pupil, his punctuality, his efforts, not

only that the child may have a reward in the form of the teacher’s

approval, but also that he may learn that any activity worth while will

meet with due appreciation. Such recognition by the teacher stimulates

the pupil to continue in his good efforts long after being lauded.

Teachers confer benefits upon pupils, thus rewarding them for their

activities, expecting the pupils to continue in well-doing after having

withdrawn from them these special privileges. The same can be said of

the principle of substitution. It is very closely correlated with the

principle of expectancy. It is apparent that a teacher would not attempt

to substitute in a child’s life some good habit, if he did not expect it

to crowd out an evil habit. A broad statement, but not too broad or

general can be made about the principle of expectancy. It is this: just

to the degree that the teacher practices and is permeated with the

principle of expectancy, just so successful will he be in the use of

other fundamental principles of discipline.

Firmness

Something has been said about firmness. It is implied in the principle

of expectancy. The teacher who failed to get his class out of the

gymnasium promptly, lacked firmness. He was weak and vacillating. A weak

and vacillating character is in no sense a moral force in any community,

and much less in the school-room. Pupils are quick to detect the lack of

firmness in a teacher and are ever ready to make a play-thing of him. A

safe rule in the school-room, and all its activities, is to decide a

right course of action and then firmly follow it. Firmness with a proper

determination and force on the part of the teacher adds charm to his

manner and personality, that easily elicits from pupils and parents both

respect and obedience.

In the preceding discussion emphasis has been placed upon five great

fundamental principles in discipline. The principles discussed are: (1)

The principle of Suggestion, (2) The principle of Approval, (3) The

principle of Initiative in Co-operation, (4) The principle of

Substitution, and (5) The principle of Expectancy. It has been clearly

explained how they are applied to the school-room work. Very concrete

and real illustrations have been given to show just exactly the province

of each principle.

Reference has been made to these fundamental principles as devices. They

are devices, or they may be designated as means to an end. It has been

pointed out that the end of discipline, that is, the goal sought, is

self-control. The fundamental principles when properly applied are

roads, devices or means—that lead to results, which results reach the

one goal, self-control. It is entirely unnecessary to indulge in a

lengthy discussion of results but, suffice it to say, the teacher by

this time is aware of many good results that will accrue from the

discreet use of the fundamental principles in discipline. There will

result the six basal elements in character—namely, the establishment of

sound sentiments, a quickening of the conscience, an enlightening or

moral judgment, a training of the will to act habitually from high and

worthy motives, a thoughtfulness of the rights of others, and last but

not least a practical religious training. “Character is the total

customary reaction of an individual to his environment.”[19] The child

who leaves the school well trained in these six basal elements of

character, has received at the hands of the school as much, and even

more, as some may suppose, than that institution owes to childhood.

-----

Footnote 19:

Arthur Holmes, op. cit., p. 28.

Summary

1. The idea, that fundamental principles in discipline are not broadly

applicable in the school-room, is false and unpedagogical.

2. Fundamental principles operate toward definite ends.

3. The failure to use fundamental principles in discipline gives rise to

difficulties in school-management.

4. Like begets like. The same spirit that the teacher manifests in the

school-room is the spirit that will take root and grow in the lives of

his pupils.

5. The principle of suggestion drops a stimulus into the child’s mind

which starts an action.

6. Suggestion for character building comes from the character of the

teacher—his every-day life.

7. All of the activities of the teacher are suggestive of good or bad to

the pupil.

8. Negative suggestions often incite the very actions they are supposed

to prevent.

9. Codes of rules against numerous offenses, usually suggest those

offenses to pupils. They are reminded to do that which they would never

have thought of, had it not been suggested.

10. Many of the activities of life depend upon the law of suggestion.

11. Suggestion is a potent agency in volition.

12. Leading suggestion is a name applied to a principle which says,

“Suggest only a small part of a duty at a time, then a little more and

so on until all the duty has been done.” Very often, to suggest a long

series of acts to the child does not appeal to him effectively.

13. Imitation is closely related to suggestion. Pupils especially

imitate and make use of suggestions from those whom they like.

14. The principle of approval in discipline is valuable in that it

appeals to the child by showing one’s satisfaction and pleasure in the

good work he has done.

15. The opposite of approval is fault finding. It is not too radical to

say that a teacher should never be guilty of fault finding.

16. Many faults in children can be eradicated by a judicious use of the

principle of approval.

17. It is an easy matter to discourage and ruin the best pupils by

constant fault finding.

18. By approving what little of good there is in a bad child, the child

may be improved, and helped to become a good child.

19. The teacher who does not embody in his life worthy traits of

character, can not effectively approve them in other lives. The source

of approval is important.

20. Encouragement is a form of approval.

21. Sometimes the best pupils have met grievous obstacles and need

positive encouragement.

22. The fundamental principle of Initiative in Co-operation may be

applied to advantage in discipline in several ways. A word, a look, a

deed, a material object, a privilege—all may be instruments of

initiative in co-operation.

23. Doing a favor must not be confused with the practice of buying good

behavior or work, because the effect is entirely different.

24. Pupils cannot be taught to govern themselves if they are always

governed by some stronger will. Children must be allowed to form

judgments of their own so that later they can make their own good

decisions.

25. Often even prudent concessions are denied to pupils; the result is

that they gratify themselves and as a rule fall into hurtful excesses.

26. Consistency on the part of the teacher is necessary if initiative in

co-operation is to be prudently applied.

27. A teacher cannot be consistent when he is liberal in kindnesses one

day and on another day makes no concessions at all.

28. Care must be exercised in using the principle of initiative in

co-operation, so that all pupils are benefited as nearly alike as their

merits will allow. Unless teachers are careful, they will be accused of

being partial.

29. The principle of substitution assumes that a positive virtue must be

cultivated in a child, when we desire to remove a vice.

30. The institutions for reforming bad boys from the large cities are

conducted on the principle of substitution. The boy’s life is filled

with useful work and recreation which replaces his idle habits.

31. In the school-room it is highly essential that the day be filled

with useful work and play; if there is idle time, pupils will use it in

mischief-making.

32. Free-for-all recesses and noon intermissions are breeding spots in

the school day for mischief and evil.

33. Supervised play is the only solution for the wise use of the play

period and the crowding out of occasion for evil at school.

34. The teacher should pay no attention to the objections to supervised

play. The objections come from those who misunderstand or those who have

low motives.

35. The principle of expectancy is closely correlated with the other

great principles underlying discipline.

36. Just to the extent that the teacher is able to use the fundamental

principle of expectancy, and only so far will he be successful in the

use of the other fundamental principles of discipline.

37. It is necessary to use firmness and determination with the principle

of expectancy.

38. The fundamental principles of discipline are the teacher’s

devices, or means, which he must use to obtain the end of

discipline—self-control.

THE END

INDEX

Aesthetic Appreciation, 63-65

Approval, 133-139

Associations, 46-48

Cheerfulness, 71

Color Schemes, 98

Confidence, 25

Consistency, 153

Corporal Punishment, 18

Courage, 72

Discipline, 105-113

Dispositions of Pupils, 115-119

Dress, 73-74

Education of Teacher, 32

Encouragement, 139

Expectancy, 162

Fault Finding, 133

Firmness, 168

Fundamental Principles in Discipline, 115-173

Summary, 170-173

General Principles, Value of, 115

Gossiping, 45

Health, 77-78

Honesty, 49

Imitation, 131-133

Initiative in Co-operation, 142-153

Impartiality, 83

Intemperance, 54

Janitor, 101

Leading Suggestion, 129

Morality, Meaning of, 42

Morals of Teacher, 41-42

Mottoes, 96

Nature, 33-35

Neatness, 59

Patience, 82

Pictures, 95

Reading, 36-37

Religion, 61

Rules, 122

School-grounds, 93

School, The, 92-104

Summary, 103-104

School-room, The, 92

Self Confidence, 67

Social Life, 82

Substitution, 155

Suggestion, 119

Sympathy with Pupils, 68

System, 78

Tact, 14, 66

Teacher, The, 27-91

Summary, 85-91

Temper, 57

Ventilation, 99

Transcriber’s Note

_Italic_ words in the original text have been marked in this version

with underscores.

A few minor typographical errors have been silently corrected.

End of Project Gutenberg's Practical School Discipline, by Ray Coppock Beery