THE MACKENZIE RIVER REGION.
Topography, Agriculture and Arable Land.
Mackenzie River a King of Northern Waters.—Over Three Thousand
Miles of Waterway.—Domestic Cattle have Succeeded.—Barley
Always Ripens at Fort Simpson.—Potatoes and Other Vegetables
have for Many Years Been Grown at Fort Good Hope, a few Miles
from the Arctic Circle.—Wheat and Barley Grown at Liard for
Many Years.—Interesting Comparison With the Russian Province of
Tobolsk.—A Large Town as Far North as Fort Wrigley.—Why Better
Results in Grain Growing May be Expected in the Future.
Northern Alberta, including the Athabaska and Peace countries treated of
in the chapters immediately preceding, is generally considered, and
properly, as forming part of the Great Mackenzie Basin, and that it has
been in this volume considered as separate from the immense region on
both sides of the Mackenzie, surrounding Great Slave lake, and on both
sides of Slave river from Fort Smith to its mouth at the lake in
question, is due to the purpose, previously expressed, of treating as
separate geographical units regions possessing particular
characteristics either of location, soil, climate or natural resources.
The region discussed in the present and immediately succeeding chapters
as “The Mackenzie River Region” includes the country north of the
Alberta and British Columbia boundary line (the 60th parallel of north
latitude) extending as far north as Beaufort sea. To the westward it is
bounded by the Yukon territory boundary line, and to the eastward by the
height of land east of Slave river, the height of land between the
valley of Coppermine river and the lake and river system extending from
the north arm of Great Slave lake to Great Bear lake, and a line in
prolongation thereof northward to the sea.
There might be some question as to the advisability of considering the
country north, south and east of Great Bear lake as part of the country
lying more immediately adjacent to the great river of the north. It is
true that the slight knowledge of the country north, south and
immediately east of Great Bear lake tends to show that it is a region
far less inviting than the immediate valley of the Mackenzie, and that
it practically forms part of the so-called “Barren Lands” which extend
as far eastward as Hudson bay. But this unfavourable evidence is not
quite conclusive, and after all, the whole of the country within the
limits decided upon is in the Mackenzie watershed, and has been
considered in a broad sense as part of the Mackenzie region by the
explorers, missionaries, traders, and travellers who have written of the
country. So the adoption of the limits decided upon should simplify the
geographical situation for the reader, and that is an important thing in
considering a territory so vast as that immediately under review.
A KING OF NORTHERN WATERS.
Mackenzie river is one of the longest and broadest streams in the world.
According to Mr. R. G. McConnell, of the Geological Survey, one of the
first to attempt a scientific survey of the river, the Mackenzie “drains
an area of six hundred and seventy-seven thousand, four hundred square
miles, and has an approximate discharge at a medium stage of the water,
according to some rough measurements made by the writer, of five hundred
thousand cubic feet per second. Its basin is traversed for nearly one
thousand three hundred miles by Rocky mountains, and the Mackenzie is
probably unique among the rivers of the world in the fact of having a
large proportion of its basin situated on the farther side of a great
mountain chain. Two of its principal tributaries, Liard and Peace
rivers, pierce Rocky mountains and drain large areas beyond, while the
third, the Athabaska, originates in the heart of the same range, and is
confined entirely to the eastern slope. The country from which the
Mackenzie draws its supplies is of the most varied description and
includes part of the broken plateau region west of Rocky mountains,
Rocky mountains themselves through fifteen degrees of latitude, the
northern part of the prairie district and the wooded and moss-covered
country which succeeds it towards Arctic ocean, while tribute is also
drawn from a wide belt of rough Laurentian country on the east, and from
portion of the “Barren Lands.” From Great Slave lake to the sea the
Mackenzie is an imposing stream, averaging about a mile in width with
occasional expansions for long distances to twice this size. It is
characterized by the comparative purity of its water, by its long
straight reaches and by the absence of sudden bends. Its valley, usually
shallow, follows closely all the sinuosities of the stream without the
intervention of large flats. Clusters of islands obstruct its channel in
a number of places, and are met with at intervals all the way down,
while ranges of lofty mountains run parallel with it for part of its
course, and form a fitting background to this king of northern waters.”
SILENT SWEEP OF A MIGHTY RIVER.
“Opposite Fort Simpson,” according to Mr. McConnell, “the main channel
of the Mackenzie is almost exactly a mile wide, and it maintains and
often exceeds this width for many miles below. Its course, as far as the
Great Bend, a distance of seventy miles, is north-northwest, and its
current in average stages of the water has a velocity of about four
miles an hour. The banks of the valley appear low owing to the great
size of the river, but in reality have often a height of two hundred
feet or over. The appearance of this part of the Mackenzie and of the
unending spruce forests which border it is monotonous and uninteresting,
and is only relieved by the majesty inseparable from the silent sweep of
a river of its magnitude.”
Slave river, which discharges the water of Lake Athabaska and Peace
river into Great Slave lake, is practically an upper reach of the
Mackenzie, its course being in the same general direction but the name
“Mackenzie” is given only to that long stretch of navigable water from
Great Slave lake to the sea.
As Mackenzie river itself is the outstanding geographical feature of the
country, as it is the main channel of communication, and as all the
settlements are situated upon its banks or those of its tributaries, a
table of distances along this gigantic waterway may prove to be a useful
guide to those readers of these pages, who are not familiar with the
geography of the country. The table is compiled from the report by Wm.
Ogilvie, D.L.S., of his survey, and the figures cover the route from
Fort Smith, on Slave river, practically on the Alberta boundary line, to
Fort McPherson on the delta of the Mackenzie:—
MILES.
Fort Smith 0
Fort Resolution 190·5
Buffalo creek 202·5
Buffalo river 249·5
Hay river 276·5
Great Slave lake 311·5
Fort Providence (lat. 61·4°) 357·5
Little lake 381·5
Yellowknife river 417·9
Head of Line 444·0
Fort Simpson (lat. 61·8°) 515·0
Nahanni river 590·2
Willow lake river 606·5
River between Two Mountains 645·5
Fort Wrigley (lat. 63°) 649·0
Le Vieux Grand Lac river 723·0
Gravel river 764·2
Fort Norman (lat. about 65°) 829·3
Great Bear river 829·5
Carcajou river 945·5
Mountain river 950·2
Sans Sault rapids 950·8
Beaver river 987·8
Ramparts 989·9
Fort Good Hope (lat. 66·16°) 998·8
Hare Indian river 1001·1
Loon river 1022·7
Large river entering on east side,
name unknown 1153·0
Red river 1213·4
Delta of Mackenzie 1241·4
Fort McPherson (lat. 67·26°) 1273·5
The Dominion census of 1911 gives us the following figures of the
population of these places, and of one or two other posts which will be
referred to later:—Fort Good Hope, 434; Fort Liard, 136; Fort
McPherson, 387; Fort Norman, 315; Fort Providence, 473; Fort Rea, 774;
Fort Resolution, 766; Fort Simpson, 375; Fort Smith, 50; Fort Wrigley,
79; Hay river, 146.
These figures do not represent only the local population at the posts,
but in addition the inhabitants, white and red, of the surrounding
districts.
MACKENZIE NAVIGATION.
For many years the Hudson’s Bay Company have maintained steam
communication on the Mackenzie from Fort Smith to Fort McPherson by
means of steamers. The pioneer steamer “Wrigley” is one of the
historical associations of the country. According to Mr. William
Ogilvie, the “Wrigley’s” log shows the following average between Fort
Smith, the most southerly part of her run, and Fort McPherson, the most
northerly, the distance between these points being about one thousand
two hundred and seventy miles. From Fort Smith to Fort Resolution,
nearly all on Great Slave river, average running time, about eighteen
hours; between Resolution and Providence about seventeen hours, of which
twelve and a half are in Great Slave lake; between Providence and
Simpson about fourteen hours; Simpson to Wrigley about ten and a half;
Wrigley to Norman, about fourteen hours; Norman to Good Hope, about
thirteen hours; Good Hope to McPherson, about twenty-four and a half
hours. The total running time is one hundred and twenty-three and
one-half hours, somewhat over ten and a quarter miles an hour.
[Illustration: A Typical “Husky” dog.]
On “up” runs the following averages have been made:—McPherson to Good
Hope, forty hours; Good Hope to Norman, thirty-four hours, Norman to
Wrigley, thirty-nine hours; Wrigley to Simpson; nineteen hours; Simpson
to Providence, about twenty-eight hours; Providence to Fort Rae, not
certain, appears to be about thirteen hours; Providence to Resolution,
about twenty hours; Resolution to Smith, about thirty-five hours;
Resolution to Rae, about fifteen hours and a return about the same, as
it is all lake water. The duration of these runs varied somewhat by the
force and direction of the wind. The total running from McPherson to
Smith as shown above is two hundred and fifteen and one-half hours,
which give a rate of 5·9 miles per hour. The mean of the up and down
times is a fraction over eight miles an hour, which is said to be her
normal speed.
A LONG NAVIGABLE STRETCH.
Mr. Ogilvie, in his report, points out:—“Excepting a short distance at
the head of Mackenzie river, where it is doubtful, it is certain that
vessels drawing at least seven or eight feet of water can navigate from
the delta of the Mackenzie to the rapids on Great Slave river, a
distance of one thousand two hundred and seventy-three miles. If
Mackenzie delta also allows that draught, we have about one thousand
three hundred and forty miles of navigable water from the rapids to
Arctic ocean.”
“Wherever possible the width of the river was determined by
triangulation. Between the narrows and Fort Good Hope it is never less
than a mile wide and is often more than two, even reaching three miles
at some points.
“Since I followed the shore, I cannot speak of the depth of water from
personal observation. Captain Bell, of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s
steamer ‘Wrigley,’ informed me that the shallowest water found by him in
any part of the river, in what he considered the channel, was eleven
feet. But as, when I saw him, he had made only two trips on the lower
river, he could not speak very definitely as to its depth. Sir Alexander
Mackenzie, who discovered the river and descended to its mouth in July,
1789, had a lead line with which to make soundings; but in the swift
current a short distance above Fort Simpson his lead caught in the
bottom, the line broke and the lead was lost. I have the depths
according to him, and will give them in their proper place. One would
expect, in such an expanse of water as this, to find some of it shallow,
but it appears from all the evidence I could gather that vessels drawing
from eight to ten feet of water would find no difficulty in navigation
as far as Great Slave lake. Although the river is reported to be shallow
where it leaves this lake, doubtless a channel could be found affording
the draught above mentioned.
“In the fall of 1887, a whale made its way up the river to the Ramparts,
remaining there the whole season, and before the river froze over it was
often seen blowing. At first the Indians were afraid, but they soon
became accustomed to the sight, and shot at the whale whenever it
approached the shore. In the spring its dead body was beached by the ice
on the west shore seven or eight miles below Fort Good Hope, and the
Indians used part of it for dog meat. I enquired its dimensions of
several who had seen it. They described it as being about twice as long
as one of their canoes and thicker through than their own height. This
would mean a length of from twenty-five to twenty-eight feet. I have
often heard it stated that all the channels of Mackenzie delta are
shallow, but the presence of this whale assures us that one of them at
least is over six feet deep.”
OVER THREE THOUSAND MILES OF WATERWAY.
Mr. Ogilvie claims that there is a grand total of three thousand three
hundred and sixty-nine miles of water in Mackenzie basin, all navigable,
except for eighteen miles, at but two points, one a rapid two miles long
on Peace river, and the other Sixteen Mile rapid on Great Slave river. A
thorough knowledge of the two great lakes (Great Bear and Great Slave)
with all their tributary streams would probably increase this vast
length of navigable water by several hundred miles. This does not take
into account the Mackenzie delta and sea near its mouth, of the
navigability of which nothing very definite is known at present.
Mr. Ogilvie, writing in 1890, figured out these distances in this
way:—“The Hudson’s Bay Company’s steamer ‘Grahame’ traverses the waters
of Peace and Athabaska rivers, the former from the falls to the rapid at
Fort Smith, and the latter up to McMurray. The distance from Chipewyan
to the post at the falls on Peace river is two hundred and twenty-two
miles.”
“During the last two years the Hudson’s Bay Company has had another
steamer, the ‘Athabaska,’ plying on upper Athabaska river, between
Little Slave river and Grand rapids. Both this steamer and the ‘Grahame’
on the lower river are flat bottomed stern-wheelers, drawing, when
loaded, not more than two and a half to three feet of water. They can
each carry about one hundred and forty tons.”
“Upper Peace river is navigable for steamers drawing three or four feet
of water, and, with a little improvement at two points, a draught of
five to six feet could be utilized. This upper Peace river affords a
navigable stretch of five hundred and fifty-seven miles, which, with two
hundred and twenty-two miles on lower Peace river, and two hundred on
Lake Athabaska, and, say, two hundred on the lower Athabaska, together
with the distance given in the above table, gives us two thousand five
hundred and sixty-nine miles of navigable water.”
“From our present knowledge, meagre as it is, I think we may assume that
Great Slave lake affords us at least five hundred miles more,
considering its length and its many deep bays. To this we may add two
hundred and forty miles on the Liard, and at least sixty on Peel river.”
THE SEASON OF NAVIGATION.
As to the length of the season of navigation on the Mackenzie, Mr. Wm.
Ogilvie, in his report, publishes some tables showing dates at which the
ice formed and broke up at Fort Norman (latitude about 65°), and Fort
Simpson (latitude 61° 52′ north). These tables were compiled from
figures taken from the journals kept at all Hudson’s Bay Company’s
posts. From these figures it appears that the first ice, between 1872
and 1888, never formed earlier than October 7 at Fort Norman, and in
1883 did not form until October 24. The earliest date at which the river
was closed by the ice was November 2, in 1879, and the latest November
18, in 1874. The earliest date at which the ice broke up was May 9, in
1879, and the latest May 24, in 1887.
At Fort Simpson, during the decade of 1876-1886, the drift ice was seen
as early as October 11, in 1884, and as late as November 12, in 1879.
The earliest date at which the river closed was November 17, in 1876,
and the latest was November 30, in 1882. The earliest date at which the
ice broke up was May 1, in 1883, and the latest May 14, in 1876.
LANDMARKS ALONG THE MACKENZIE.
Some notes culled from Mr. Ogilvie’s report as to the principal
tributaries of the Mackenzie between Great Slave lake and the sea, and
as to a few of the more remarkable stretches of the main river, will
prove interesting at this point. Seventy miles below Great Slave lake is
Little lake, which is about twelve miles long and ten to twelve miles
wide, being merely an expansion of the river, like Lakes St. Francis and
St. Peter in St. Lawrence system. Thirty-six miles lower down,
Yellowknife river enters the Mackenzie from the south. It would appear
from the statements of Indians to Mr. Ogilvie that this is the largest
tributary of the Mackenzie between the Liard and Fort Providence.
Twenty-seven miles below the confluence of the Yellowknife, and
continuing to a short distance above the confluence of the Liard, the
Mackenzie narrows to an average width of a little over half a mile, with
a generally swift current. This continues for seventy and a half miles
or nearly as far as Fort Simpson, near the mouth of the Liard and causes
this part of the river to be called “The Line,” from the fact that large
boats cannot be rowed against the current, but have to be hauled by a
line attached to them, and pulled by men on shore. This is the common
mode of navigation on all the northern rivers where there are no
steamers, as it is less laborious than rowing against a current.
By the survey it is seven hundred and fifty-eight and one-half miles
from Fort Simpson to Fort McPherson. The former fort is situated on an
island just below the junction of Mackenzie and Liard rivers.
Ninety miles below Fort Simpson, on the west side, a river flows in from
the southwest. Mr. Ogilvie had seen its name spelled Na-hone, but
remembered that it is spelled by the Reverend Father Petitot, Na-hauner.
It is, however, now known as North Nahanni river. This stream, as seen
from the opposite side of the river, seems about two hundred yards wide,
but it is shallow and rough at the mouth as was ascertained by the noise
of its waters being plainly heard across the Mackenzie, here a mile
wide. Mr. Ogilvie could get no information as to what it was like for
any distance above its mouth, but it pierces the range of mountains to
the west, which here come close to the river. The valley thus formed can
be seen extending southwesterly through the mountains for many miles.
The banks in the stretch of the Mackenzie from Simpson to this point are
alternately low and swampy and moderately high, consisting of gravel and
sand.
SOME TRIBUTARIES.
Sixteen miles below the confluence of the North Nahanni, but from the
opposite or eastern side, Willow lake river enters the Mackenzie. It is
a quarter of a mile wide, deep with a slack current. It is said to flow
out of a lake of considerable extent, not far from the Mackenzie.
Thirty-nine miles lower down, and three and a half miles above Fort
Wrigley, a stream known to the Indians as “The River between Two
Mountains” discharges into the Mackenzie from the east. It is about one
hundred and fifty yards wide and shallow.
Seventy-four miles below Fort Wrigley, on the west side, a river
discharges a large volume of clear, black water, which rushes bodily
half way across the Mackenzie, and preserves its distinctive character
for several miles before it mingles with the main stream. The name
applied to this river by the people at Fort Wrigley was “La Rivière le
Vieux Grand Lac.” It is said to flow out of a lake of considerable
extent lying not far from the Mackenzie. Many peaks can be seen up its
valley.
A little more than thirty miles lower down, on the same side of the
river, another stream enters, apparently not more than a hundred yards
wide at its mouth. Mr. Ogilvie saw it from the opposite side of the
river only, and heard nothing concerning it.
A small stream enters the Mackenzie opposite this place, and up its
valley, about two miles eastward from the river, a sharp peak rising one
thousand five hundred feet above the water was noted by Mr. Ogilvie.
GRAVEL RIVER.
Forty-one miles below the confluence of le Vieux Grand Lac river, or
sixty-five miles, by the survey, above Fort Norman, a large river enters
from the west. It is shallow at its mouth, as it is throughout its
course, according to the reports of the Indians. The current, they say,
is swift. They ascend it a long way in the winter to hunt, and descend
in the spring on rafts. How far they go up, Mr. Ogilvie could not learn,
their unit of distance being the unknown quantity of a day’s travel, but
they go much farther than on any other tributary of the lower river.
Mr. Ogilvie obtained the name from some Indians who had travelled it and
they called it “Pecat-ah-zah.” This translated means Gravel river, by
which name it is known to all the white men in the vicinity, on account
of its shallowness and numerous gravel bars.
Mr. Keele, reporting upon his descent of Gravel river in 1908,
wrote:—“On Gravel river the high mountains approach to within a
distance of about fifty miles of Mackenzie river, and are then replaced
by a belt of foothills about three thousand feet in height above
sea-level. These foothills in turn decline in elevation and finally die
out in a broken, wooded plain, about six hundred feet above sea-level,
bordering Mackenzie river. Gravel river has built up an alluvial flat at
its mouth, and several alluvial islands in the Mackenzie below this
point are probably due to the great load of sediment carried in at
flood-time. On account of the long period of sunshine during the days,
nearly all the snow disappears from Mackenzie mountains before the
summer ends. Vegetation advances very rapidly in summer, and where the
soil is good, vegetables of many kinds may be grown along the river
banks in the principal valleys.”
FORT NORMAN.
Fort Norman is situated on the east bank of the Mackenzie just above the
entrance of Great Bear river. This river is from two to three hundred
yards wide at the mouth, with a moderate current, but a short distance
up becomes shallow and the current increases. The color of the water is
a beautiful greenish-blue, although when Mr. Ogilvie passed it was
somewhat turbid.
Ten miles below Great Bear river, a stream about one hundred yards wide
comes in on the westerly side.
Eighty-three miles below Fort Norman, or six and one-half miles above
Sans Sault rapids, Carcajou river empties its waters into the Mackenzie
from the west.
Nearly five miles lower down again, a river called Mountain river flows
in from the west. It is from one hundred to one hundred and fifty yards
wide, and shallow.
SANS SAULT RAPID.
Less than a mile farther down Sans Sault rapid is reached. This is all
on one side of the river, which is here a mile and a quarter wide. As
Mr. Ogilvie went up the west side, and the rapid was on the other,
extending but little more than a third of the way across, he did not see
anything of it. He heard the roar plainly enough, but saw nothing except
a swift current. It is caused by a ledge of rocks extending partially
across the river. Captain Bell of the “Wrigley,” reported deep water in
the channel at the end of the ledge, and the steamer has no serious
trouble in ascending. In very low water it is said that this rock is
scarcely covered.
About a mile above the Ramparts there is a similar rapid when the water
is low, but when Mr. Ogilvie passed there was no sign of it.
Thirty-seven miles below Sans Sault rapid and twenty-one miles above
Fort Good Hope, Beaver river joins on the west, but as Mr. Ogilvie
continued only on the east side he saw only its mouth, which appeared to
be about one hundred yards wide. An Indian with him said that it took
its name from the number of beavers formerly found on it. This stream
rises in the mountains, but does not seem to be of any importance.
Somewhat less than two miles from Beaver river, and only a short
distance above the Ramparts, a river flows into the Mackenzie on its
west side. Mr. Ogilvie saw it only across the river, but it appeared to
be about two hundred yards wide at its mouth. All he could learn about
it at Fort Good Hope was that it came from far up in the mountains.
THE RAMPARTS OF THE MACKENZIE.
Mr. Ogilvie remarks in his report that in the more southwesterly part of
the country the Ramparts would be called a “Cañon.” Here, for a distance
of seven miles, the river runs between perpendicular and occasionally
overhanging walls of rock. At the upper end they rise fifty or sixty
feet above the water, but their height increases towards the lower end,
at which point they are not less than one hundred and fifty feet above
water. At the upper end the cañon is not more than half a mile wide, but
its walls gradually expand three miles down, and the width gradually
expands to nearly a mile at the lower end. Sir Alexander Mackenzie when
passing through sounded at its upper end, and found three hundred feet
of water, which accounts for the fact that, although the cañon is so
narrow, the current is not perceptibly increased.
According to Mr. McConnell’s description:—“The Ramparts form one of the
most interesting features of the Mackenzie. For some distance above, the
river is expanded beyond its usual size, but here suddenly contracts to
about five hundred yards in width, and bending to the east runs for
three or four miles between vertical walls of limestone and shale. At
the upper end of the gorge the bounding cliffs are a hundred and
twenty-five feet in height, but increase towards the lower end to about
two hundred and fifty feet. The current is steady and runs at the rate
of four or five miles an hour. In high water there is no sign of a
rapid, but in low water a considerable fall occurs near the head, and it
is only with difficulty that York boats are taken up. The Ramparts are
frequently the scene of great ice jams in the spring and the dammed-back
water is stated to have risen on one occasion over a hundred feet, and
on its recession left a boat stranded on the heights above.”
FORT GOOD HOPE.
Fort Good Hope is situated a couple of miles or so below the lower end
of the Ramparts. According to Mr. Preble (See p. 22), Fort Good Hope
probably existed in effect as a Northwest post early in the nineteenth
century, but accounts differ as to the precise location, both Sans Sault
rapid and the foot of the Ramparts being given as the earliest site. A
temporary post was built in the summer of 1805 at “Bluefish river,”
about sixty miles below the mouth of Bear lake river. (Masson, Les
Bourgeois, II, p. 104, 1890). It was established as a Hudson’s Bay
Company’s post on the west bank of the Mackenzie, about one hundred
miles below the Ramparts, about 1823, after the union of the rival
companies, being spoken of by Franklin in 1825, as “but recently
established.” It was removed about 1835 to Manitou island, below the
Ramparts, where its site may still be seen on the eastern shore of the
island nearly opposite the present establishment. It was destroyed in
June, 1836, by a flood caused by an ice jam in the Ramparts, and was
rebuilt on its present site in 1837.
THE GRAND VIEW.
The “Grand View” is a name given to an expanded portion of the Mackenzie
below Fort Good Hope, about twenty miles in length. Mr. McConnell
writes:—“The river here is almost straight, but curves gently to the
north, and is from two to three miles wide. Its great width gives it
more the appearance of a lake than a river, and in no other part of the
Mackenzie is the magnitude of the mighty volume of water which this
river carries to the sea, impressed so forcibly on the mind. The banks
are low and the sinuous shore-lines show a succession of wooded points
stretching out until concealed by the haze of the atmosphere. The
bordering plains slope gently down almost to the water’s edge, and are
covered with a scattered growth of willow, spruce and tamarack, with
here and there patches of aspens on the drier ridges.”
A little over two miles below Fort Good Hope, Hare Indian river flows
into the Mackenzie on its east side. It is about two hundred yards wide
at its mouth, and is said to preserve this width for a long distance.
The Indians report that this stream rises in a range of hills on the
northwest side of Great Bear lake, but about its navigability Mr.
Ogilvie could learn nothing.
Twenty-two miles lower down Loon river enters from the east. This river
is from eighty to one hundred yards wide. An old man whom Mr. Ogilvie
met at Fort Good Hope had explored this stream for some distance and
gave him the following notes:—For eight miles there is good navigation,
then a rapid half a mile long occurs, at the head of which is a lake
about three miles long and one broad, in which the Indians catch many
fish. This is called “Rorrie lake” and, some distance above it, is
another some two miles in diameter, and called “Round lake” from its
shape. Above this again is a succession of lakes for many days’ travel.
[Illustration: An Eskimo Boy at Arctic Red river.]
One hundred and thirty miles below Loon river a stream one hundred yards
wide enters from the northeast. This is a river which the old man at
Fort Good Hope described to Mr. Ogilvie as one up which a Hudson’s Bay
Company’s officer went many years ago to its source, which he found to
be not far from the head waters of Anderson river, which flows into
Arctic ocean. It would appear from the old man’s statement that several
trips up it have been made since, but this information was vague, and
Mr. Ogilvie afterwards met no one who could give him a reliable account
of this river.
Sixty miles lower down, Red river enters the Mackenzie on its west side
just at the foot of the Narrows. It is about two hundred yards wide at
its mouth and appears to be shallow. As far as Mr. Ogilvie could learn
from persons acquainted with the river, it comes from a flat, swampy
country.
WHERE THE RIVER BRANCHES.
Where the upper end of the branch of the Mackenzie channel on which Fort
McPherson is situated connects with Mackenzie proper, according to Mr.
Ogilvie:—“The channel is three-fourths of a mile wide, but it is only
one of four, there being four large islands there. The whole width of
the river cannot be less than three or four miles.
“Looking northward down the westerly channel the view is bounded by the
sky and widens in the distance so that one can fancy he is looking out
to sea. This can hardly be so; but, from the altitude of the bank where
I stood, added to my own height, the horizon must have been six miles
away, and a bank in the channel of equal height to that on which I stood
would have been visible twice that distance. Now, if the supposed bank
was timbered, as was that on which I stood, it would be visible ten or
twelve miles farther, but none was in sight.
“From the entrance of the small channel of Peel river to the head of the
upper island in the Mackenzie is nine miles. From the west shore to the
southerly point of this island is a mile and a quarter; from the island
to the east shore the distance is nearly as great, showing the river to
be more than two miles wide at this point. However, it gradually
narrows, and five miles above this is a little over a mile wide, which
it averages up to the narrows, about sixty miles from Fort McPherson, or
twenty-eight from where we entered it.
“A north wind raises quite a swell here and the salty odour of the sea
air is quite perceptible above the delta.”
AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES.
Alexander Mackenzie and the explorers who immediately followed him down
the great river of the north, being fur traders, devoted no space in
their published journals to a discussion of the agricultural
possibilities of the country, and as their time was necessarily
restricted they took no time on their journeys to examine any part of
the territory, contenting themselves with noting the main features
affecting the navigation of the main stream, the mouths, the
tributaries, the occurrence of game, Indian camps, etc.
Following close upon the establishment of permanent trading posts and
missions, came the pioneer attempts at agriculture in Mackenzie valley,
and we find members of the first exploring parties sent to the country
for scientific research commenting upon the crude experiments of the
pioneer agriculturalists.
Doctor John Richardson, who accompanied Franklin’s expedition in 1826
(See p. 13), in his volume “The Polar Regions”, in a general description
of the resources of the country at that date, wrote:—“Wheat has not
been raised within the Arctic circle in America, nor indeed within six
degrees of latitude of it. It requires a summer heat of one hundred and
twenty days, but it is said to be cultivated up to the 62nd or 64th
parallel on the west side of Scandinavian peninsula. Barley ripens well
at Fort Norman on the 65th parallel, in the valley of the Mackenzie,
after the lapse of ninety-two days from the time of its being sown. All
attempts to cultivate it at old Fort Good Hope, two degrees farther
north, have failed. Sixty-six degrees of latitude may therefore be
considered as the extreme limit of the barley in Norway. Oats do not
succeed so far north as barley here.
“At Fort Good Hope, on the Mackenzie (the new fort), in latitude 66¼
degrees north, a few turnips and radishes, and some other culinary
vegetables, are raised in a sheltered corner, which receives the
reflection of the sun’s rays from the walls of the house, but none of
the cerealia will grow, and potatoes do not repay the labour.”
DOMESTIC CATTLE INTRODUCED.
Doctor Richardson again referred to the same subject, after his return
from his trip with Doctor Rae in 1848 in search of Sir John Franklin’s
missing party, and we find in his book published after his return to
England, “The Arctic Searching Expedition” (Vol. 1., p. 153), the
following:—“We reached Fort Resolution at 10 a.m. and having received
some supplies of fish, and two or three deals for repairing the boats,
we resumed our voyage, after a halt at the Fort for an hour. Domestic
cattle have been introduced at this place, and at the posts generally
throughout the country, even up to Peel river and Fort Good Hope and
within the Arctic circle. At this season the moschetoes (mosquitos)
prevent them from feeding, except when urged by extreme hunger, and
fires are made for their accommodation near the forts, to which they
crowd, and lying to leeward amidst the smoke, ruminate at their ease.”
At page 165, regarding Fort Simpson (61° 51′ 25′′ north 121° 51′ 15′′
west) Richardson in the same book writes:—“Barley is usually sown here
from May 20 to 25, and is expected to be ripe on August 20—ninety-two
days. In some seasons it has ripened on August 15. Oats do not thrive
quite so well, and wheat does not come to maturity. Potatoes yield well
and no disease has yet affected them, though early frost sometimes hurts
the crop. Barley in favorable seasons gives a good return at Fort
Norman, which is farther down the river; and potatoes and various garden
vegetables grow there. The 60th parallel of latitude may, therefore, be
considered as about the northern limit of cerealia in this meridian; for
though in good seasons and in warm sheltered spots a little barley might
possibly be reared at Fort Good Hope, the attempts hitherto made there
have failed.
[Illustration: Oat field at Fort Simpson.]
“A number of milch cows are kept at Fort Simpson, and one or two fat
oxen are killed annually. Hay for the winter provender of the stock is
made about one hundred miles up the river, where there are good meadows
or marshes, and whence it is rafted down in boats in September.”
LAPLAND REINDEER.
The occurrence of immense numbers of caribou in the Canadian Northland
(see chapters XVIII and XXII), and the fact that this animal in its
appearance and habits is practically identical with the Lapland
reindeer, which has been successfully introduced into Labrador and
Alaska, have led to the belief that the last mentioned animal might be
introduced with splendid results into the country, and the Department of
the Interior has inaugurated an experiment to ascertain if the plan is
feasible. In September, 1911, three carloads of reindeer were despatched
to Fort Smith, where they are being taken care of. As these animals
serve as beasts of burden, as well as provide meat, milk and leather,
this experiment might have an important effect upon the future
development of all these northern areas.
GRAIN GROWING AT FORT LIARD.
At page 170 in the same volume, referring to Fort Liard, Richardson
states:—“Though this post is more elevated than Fort Simpson, by at
least one hundred and fifty feet, and is only ten degrees of latitude to
the southward, its climate is said to be very superior, and its
vegetable production of better growth and quality. Barley and oats yield
good crops, and in favorable seasons wheat ripens well. This place,
then, or the 60th parallel, may be considered as a northern limit of the
economical culture of wheat.”
Whatever the discouragements of the pioneer agriculturalists in
Mackenzie valley may have been, there was sufficient encouragement to
induce the missionaries and employees of the fur companies stationed in
the country to persevere.
Mr. A. Isbister, a native of the West, who had lived for three years in
Mackenzie river district, but left that country when under twenty years
of age, examined before the British parliamentary committee of 1857,
stated that he had himself raised barley, oats and potatoes as far north
as Fort Norman on Mackenzie river, upwards of a thousand miles from the
United States boundary and near the Arctic circle. On the Liard, large
crops could be raised, as the soil is better on that river, and wheat
had been occasionally raised there. It was possible that settlement
might extend to Great Bear lake. There would be sufficient territory in
the north to make “a very large state indeed.” Asked if he thought that
the whole country on Mackenzie river was all adapted to the wants of
civilized man, Mr. Isbister remarked:—“The climate is very severe
there, but the soil, so far as I have an opportunity of judging, is
tolerably well adapted for cultivation. You can raise barley and
potatoes very well indeed, without any risk whatsoever.”
BARLEY ALWAYS RIPENED THERE.
In the Dominion Government Pacific Railway report of 1878 it is stated
(p. 333):—“Mr. Hardisty, late Chief Factor in charge of Fort Simpson in
latitude 61·8°, informed Professor Macoun that barley always ripened
there; that wheat was sure four times out of five. Melons if started
under glass ripened well, frost seldom doing them much harm.” In the
1880 report Reverend D. M. Gordon is quoted (p. 102) as authority for
the statement that “wheat is grown as far north as Fort Simpson.” In the
report of 1878 (p. 333) it is also stated:—“Chief trader Macdougall, in
1875, said all kinds of grain and garden stuff always come to maturity
at Fort Liard (latitude 60·25°).”
In 1882 Doctor Bompas, the heroic Church of England Bishop of Mackenzie
river, in the course of a report to the Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel, wrote:—“The English schoolmaster at Simpson has made
successful experiments of farming in that northern region, and through
his energetic labours a good crop of barley was raised in the mission
fields; also some wheat and potatoes, beans, pease, beet roots and other
vegetables.”
The evidence taken before the select committee of the Senate of Canada
in 1888 as to agricultural possibilities in Mackenzie valley, excited
general interest.
MANY NATURAL PRAIRIES.
The Right Reverend Isidore Clut, O.M.I., missionary Bishop of Arindele,
whose diocese included Mackenzie basin, and whose name is still held
with reverence throughout this country, examined before the Committee
stated that in several places in the basin of the Mackenzie there were a
great number of natural prairies, those with round hay and those with
flat hay. The round hay, in certain places, grew from three to five feet
in height. The flat hay was also very fine but a little shorter. It grew
everywhere in the low and wet places.
At the Roman Catholic mission at Providence, the residence of the
bishop, one year he had one thousand four hundred and forty barrels of
potatoes—(one barrel, ten gallons)—from sixty kegs of seed, but this
was a very favourable year. They had been greatly favoured by the heat
and by rain at opportune times. On two or three occasions they had had a
thousand and twelve hundred barrels of the same roots.
At the Providence mission there was an excellent clay, which was very
good for cultivation. Throughout the country in general the bishop found
all sorts of land, black soil, loam, clay, sand, marl, etc. Generally
they harvested their potatoes at Providence from September 20 to 30.
Turnips, carrots, beets, etc., they harvested a little later. Wheat on
the banks of Peace river and Liard river was ripe towards the end of
August; at Athabaska and at Providence from September 15 to 25. Barley
was ripe a little sooner throughout. Rye does not ripen any sooner than
wheat, but witness had not made many experiments, for the reason that
they like wheat better than rye. Oats they harvested at the same time as
wheat, but they had sowed them only once. Potatoes they harvested at
Athabaska and at Providence, from September 20 to 30. Turnips, carrots,
beets, radishes, etc., they harvest later. Indian corn generally cannot
get ripened below Athabaska or on the Mackenzie. Strawberries commenced
to ripen towards July 15; gooseberries ripened towards the end of
August, and at the commencement of September. Raspberries and currants
come after the strawberries. There were also in places many blueberries,
cranberries, and other small fruits, such as poires sauvages
(Saskatoon), etc. Barley ripened at Fort Norman, at the mouth of Great
Bear lake river. Consequently it grew at Fort Wrigley, Fort Simpson, and
at Fort Providence. In Liard river and Peace river countries it
succeeded also very well. Brother Kearney and the Hudson’s Bay Company
had grown potatoes at Fort Good Hope (Arctic circle). At the mission at
Providence, and at all the Roman Catholic missions on Mackenzie river,
Liard river, Peace river and Slave river, etc., potatoes and other
vegetables were
CULTIVATED VERY SUCCESSFULLY.
Wheat grew, according to the Bishop’s evidence, at Providence mission,
and at Fort Simpson, but it rarely arrived at perfect maturity. It
ripened much better on the borders of Liard river and Peace river. At
the mission of the Nativity (Chipewyan at Lake Athabaska) they had often
grown fine wheat. At the mission of the Nativity (Athabaska), at Fort
Resolution (Great Slave lake), at Fort Smith, at the mission of Fort
Providence, they sowed from the time the land began to thaw, that is to
say, from May 15 until June 8 or 10. Throughout the length of Liard and
Peace rivers, sowing began a little earlier. At the end of August they
had already harvested barley and wheat.
Plants which were deep in the ground, such as potatoes, took a good deal
of time to spring up because of the ground being frozen below, but those
which were near the surface of the ground commenced to grow very soon,
and the nearer one approached the north, for example at the Arctic
circle, the more rapidly did the vegetation begin, because of the
greater length of the days, or the days being without nights. In 1886
the bishop observed the matter at Good Hope. Towards June 7 or 8,
vegetation commenced, and in five or six days the leaves of the trees
had reached their natural size. It was because it commenced to be warm
then, and very warm, and that continued, save when sometimes north winds
set in, which would bring back the snow and cold and sometimes injure
the crops.
It was difficult, Bishop Clut remarked, to say the extent of country fit
for pasturage, and the cultivation of cereals or other plants, for the
reason that cultivation had not been tried, except by the missionaries,
and a little by the Hudson’s Bay Company.
During his examination before the committee, Bishop Clut was
asked:—“How far north has the potato been grown to your knowledge?”
He replied:—“We raise potatoes even as far north as the Arctic circle,
at Fort Good Hope, but they are very small. We have no bread there, and
an Irish brother has
RAISED POTATOES EVERY SUMMER.
Once I passed a winter there and they had very little potatoes. Out of
five bushels planted they got only six bushels. Two years ago I passed
the winter there, and out of ten kegs planted they got twenty-five.” The
bishop added that there were then at nearly all of the missions gardens
in which were raised potatoes, carrots, beets, onions, cabbages, turnips
and lettuce. Even at Fort Good Hope they raised turnips and carrots.
Wild roses grew in abundance as far north as Good Hope.
Horses, at that date, had not been taken farther than Great Slave lake,
but cattle had been taken as far north as Fort Good Hope. They were
found at the principal establishments of the missionaries, and at the
forts of the Hudson’s Bay Company.
Bishop Clut stated that he was certain that if Mackenzie country became
settled and cultivated on a large scale, the occasional white frosts of
the summer months would be much less frequent. That was the result which
they had already observed at their principal mission posts; the more
they cleared to any extent the less were the fields susceptible to
frost. The months of September and October were generally dry, and the
blue sky made them charming. In general they had a clear sky without a
cloud and that is what makes the climate so healthy in the basin of the
Mackenzie. People could live there to a greater age than in any other
part of the globe.
“CHINOOKS” AT THE ARCTIC CIRCLE.
At Arctic circle the southwest “Chinook” wind often made its effect
felt, even in winter. The Rev. Father Séguin and Brother Kearney, who
had been at Good Hope for twenty-eight years had observed its effect.
The bishop had observed it also himself during the winters of 1885 and
1886. This wind modified the temperature a good deal. The missionaries
had not remarked that the intensity of the frost had any effect on the
native trees of the country. The bishop had not kept account himself of
the degrees of heat in summer, but he was able to say that it was
excessively hot; and the farther one went towards the north the warmer
he would find it becoming; and that heat lasted the twenty-four hours of
the day, without sensibly diminishing in its intensity from 10 p.m. to 3
a.m.
Ex-Judge Malcolm MacLeod, Q.C., of Aylmer, Que., a northwesterner by
birth, on examination before the committee produced a number of letters
received by his father while he held the appointment of senior officer
of the Hudson’s Bay Company in the northern district. Among these
letters was one which showed that the original explorers of the country
between the Mackenzie and the Yukon described it as “a land of milk and
honey.”
Judge McLeod added:—“We know for certain that at Fort Liard, wheat is a
reliable crop for four years out of five, at any rate.”
Hon. William Christie, ex-member of the Northwest Council, was at one
time inspecting chief factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company service. This
witness was examined before the committee and explained that as
inspecting factor of the Hudson’s Bay service he was in charge of all
the districts from Red river to Fort Simpson—from Fort Garry
northward—Red river district, Swan river district, English river
district, Athabaska river district, and Mackenzie river district. All of
these were
UNDER HIS SUPERVISION.
He had travelled over the whole of them and descended Mackenzie river as
far as Fort Simpson. He did not think that any authoritative attempt had
ever been made up to that time to collect statistics, etc., as to
resources of this region. The business of the Hudson’s Bay Company was
confined to the fur trade, and if there were any scientific
investigations in the old days these were conducted under the authority
of the British government. The Hudson’s Bay Company’s posts on Mackenzie
river were established at convenient points for the fur trade all the
way down the river. Fort Simpson was at the head of the whole Mackenzie
river district.
[Illustration: Potatoes at Fort Simpson.]
There was no settlement around any of the company’s forts. The white men
in the forts were largely from England and Scotland—gentlemen’s
sons—and some were married to Indian girls and French half-breeds.
Traders, other than those of the company, were at that date going in for
furs, up as far as Great Slave lake. The Hudson’s Bay Company opposed
them the best way they could, but had sold the country to the Canadian
government. The Church of England, as well as the Roman Catholic Church,
had missions throughout the region, and had had them for many years.
Mr. Christie informed the committee that he did not think there would be
any difficulty in navigating with suitable steamers the Mackenzie from
its headwaters to Arctic ocean, because the year before his examination
they had had the experience of a successful voyage of the Hudson’s Bay
Company’s steamer from Fort Simpson down Mackenzie river nearly to its
mouth, below Peel river. They could have gone through to Arctic sea if
they had wished to do so, but having no pilot, and not knowing which of
the channels they should take, they did not like to venture. It would
have been a disastrous thing to the company if that steamer had met with
any accident which would have prevented it from returning to Slave river
that season.
REACHED THE MACKENZIE FROM THE NORTH.
As to outside communication via the north, Mr. Christie considered
navigation by Hudson bay more certain than by Behring strait. During the
search for Sir John Franklin’s lost expedition, however, Commander
Pullen, of H.M.S. _Plover_, sailed from Honolulu for Behring strait and
Mackenzie river. He went as far north as he possibly could get with the
_Plover_. Then with Lieut. Hooper and some sailors he took to the boats
and coasted along to the outlet of Mackenzie river. The party ascended
that river with their boats to Fort Simpson the same fall—tracked their
boats. The _Plover_ returned to Honolulu that same season.
Donald McIvor, farmer, of Kildonan East, Manitoba, who had been sixteen
years in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s service, and had been stationed in
Mackenzie river district for over six years, communicated in writing to
the committee a very interesting series of answers in response to a
schedule of questions submitted by the committee. Witness explained that
he considered he had fair knowledge of the district watered by
Mackenzie, Athabaska and Slave rivers.
The soil is black loam chiefly, sometimes a little sandy. Witness
considered three-fourths of the country fit for pasturage or coarse
grains. Barley and potatoes had been grown successfully as far north as
Fort Norman. He saw some wheat, very fine, at Methye portage, grown by
an Indian, but did not know of its being tried further north then. He
never saw any Indian corn during his stay in the district. At Fort
Athabaska, barley sown the middle of May was ready the first or second
week in August. Farther north, at Fort Norman, barley sown the middle of
May could be reaped the middle or the last week in August. In cases
where wheat was grown it ripened about the last week in August, potatoes
the first of September. The ground was usually fit for seeding about
three weeks after the first spring flowers showed. The summer rains
began about the latter end of May. At the time witness was in the
country nothing was done to any extent in agriculture. Stock raising was
carried on at most of the forts, and succeeded admirably.
TEN YEARS AT FORT LIARD.
Written answers to a set schedule of questions prepared by the committee
were submitted by Mr. William James McLean, chief trader of the Hudson’s
Bay Company, Lower Fort Garry, Manitoba.
Witness explained that his personal knowledge of the country under
investigation covered trips over the following routes:—From the
watershed of Mackenzie river basin at the height of land whence
Clearwater river takes its rise, down the aforesaid river to its
confluence with Athabaska river, thence down Athabaska river to Lake
Athabaska and from there to Great Slave lake down Slave river, and out
Lake Athabaska, and on through that lake down Mackenzie river to Fort
Simpson, thence up Liard river to Fort Liard, where he was stationed for
ten years, from 1863 to 1873. He stated that he planted potatoes and
barley at Fort Liard generally about May 10, and reaped barley about
August 20. Potatoes were fit for use about that time, but were generally
taken out of the ground about September 20. Turnips were planted and dug
about the same date as the potatoes. Wild flowers first appeared in the
spring about May 25 at Fort Liard, and June 10 at Fort Simpson. Wild
strawberries were ripe about the first week in July, gooseberries about
the first of August. Other small fruit came in from the middle of July
to August 10. The wild vetch or pea grew at Fort Liard, but not to any
great extent. Good barley grew at McMurray, Chipewyan, and at Forts
Resolution, Simpson and Liard.
WILD BERRIES PLENTIFUL.
Among some information as to the fertility of Mackenzie basin
communicated in writing to the committee by Mr. Frank Oliver of Edmonton
was the following:—Berries of various kinds were the only considerable
natural food product of Mackenzie river country. They were plentiful in
their season throughout the whole of the wooded region which extended to
within one hundred miles of the Arctic coast. The blueberry was the most
plentiful and was found throughout the whole region. It resembled the
huckleberry of the east. The blackberry and mossberry come next in
quantity in the far north. The former was not the blackberry of Ontario,
and the latter somewhat resembled the strawberry. From Liard river south
to the Saskatchewan, the raspberry, strawberry, Saskatoon berry,
gooseberry, high and low bush cranberry, chokeberry, and black and red
currants flourished as well, besides numerous minor varieties of
berries. In some years berries were much more plentiful than in others.
In plentiful years they formed an important item of the Indians’ food.
There was every reason to believe that the varieties found there which
were cultivated profitably in other countries could be as satisfactorily
cultivated there, at least from the 61st parallel southward, between the
main streams of the Mackenzie and Rocky mountains.
Mr. Oliver explained that the information communicated was chiefly
acquired from Murdock McLeod, of Edmonton, who spent the years 1862-63
and part of 1864 in the Hudson’s Bay Company service at Fort Anderson,
since abandoned, east of the Mackenzie and about eighty miles up
Anderson river from Arctic coast. In the summer of 1863 he accompanied
an expedition undertaken on behalf of the Smithsonian Institute, along
the Arctic coast from the mouth of Mackenzie to that of Coppermine
river. In 1865 he was at Fort Liard. Mr. McLeod stated that in the
summer of 1865, while in the Hudson’s Bay employ, at Fort Liard,
latitude 59¾°, he sowed about three acres of wheat on May 26; this was
in the stook on August 1. It was good grain, though somewhat smutty, and
had not been frosted; barley sowed at the same time did equally well,
also potatoes. During several summers’ residence at Fort Liard, Mr.
McLeod never saw summer frost. He also stated that at Fort Simpson, in
latitude 62½° wheat, barley and potatoes had done well. This was borne
out by the statement of Reverend Mr. Spendlove, missionary at Fort
Simpson, except that in 1887 the barley was frosted.
PROFESSOR MACOUN’S TESTIMONY.
Professor John Macoun (See p. 16), Botanist to the Geological Survey of
Canada, examined before the committee stated that barley ripens at Fort
Simpson, latitude 62°, every year between August 12 and 20. Barley and
potatoes had been grown at Fort Norman at the mouth of Great Bear lake
river, about latitude 65°, and even at Fort Yukon, in the Arctic circle,
barley is a sure crop. These are not particular points noted for their
good soil, but located solely for the fur trade. Five-sixths of the
country is just as good as these points, and will in future produce as
good crops. There is no point east of the Mackenzie suitable for
agriculture.
Professor Macoun said he had been informed by Chief Factor Hardisty,
brother to Senator Hardisty, who had charge of Mackenzie river district
for many years, that wheat was a sure crop at Fort Simpson four times
out of five, but that the country around Fort Liard, on Liard river, was
much superior to Fort Simpson for agricultural purposes. All kinds of
garden produce succeeded well, and melons, after being started in a hot
bed, ripened well.
According to Professor Macoun’s evidence Mackenzie valley and the whole
of the northern prairie country has a soil that is largely composed of
what is called alluvium; and passing northwards farther down Peace river
to the Mackenzie the surface, from all he could gather from what he had
read, is precisely of the same character as the second prairie steppe,
which is the surface of black mould mixed with limestone gravel and
deeper down there is more gravel and sand in the subsoil.
The whole of the country from Edmonton northwesterly to Arctic ocean in
Mackenzie valley, Professor Macoun explained, is underlain by Devonian
or cretaceous rock, and by the disintegration of these rocks good soil
is produced always. From everything he could gather, the whole region
naturally out to the Arctic coast, west of Mackenzie river, has a good
soil. Easterly is a land of barrenness. The line of the Mackenzie is not
exactly the line. Geologists know that there is a portion of the valley
east of the river and up to the base of the Laurentian rocks where the
land seems to be good—as regards the soil. Professor Macoun said he was
decidedly of opinion that domesticated animals would in the future be
raised in Mackenzie basin. Sheep, horses, pigs and cattle could and
would be raised there. It is a law of nature that they cannot fatten
cattle in southern Texas because it is not cold enough to solidify the
fat, as it were, and they have to drive the Texan cattle north and
fatten them. As you go north you find that the cattle
PRODUCE MORE FAT,
and are more easily fattened, because it is a law of nature that in cold
climates fat should be laid up.
Asked as to the native grasses, Professor Macoun remarked:—“As to the
natural grasses of this country, having just completed an examination of
the whole grasses of the Dominion, I am safe in stating that they are
the grasses best suited for pasturage of any known to stock men or
farmers. The grasses referred to are those known as red-top and Kentucky
blue grass, or, scientifically, _Poa Pratensis_ and _Poa Seratna_, _Poa
Tenniflora_ and _Ceasia_. These four species are well known to American
stock men and are considered of the highest value. They are the
commonest of the grasses in our northern forest region and along the
foot hills of Rocky mountains. Three of these species are known in the
eastern provinces. One of them is exclusively western and the greater
part of the common pasturage of Ontario is altogether composed of _Poa
pretensis_ (Kentucky blue grass, or red-top).”
EXPERT INVESTIGATION.
While a committee of the Senate was hearing this evidence as to the
natural resources of Mackenzie country, two experts, scientific
explorers, Messrs. McConnell and Ogilvie (See p. 18) were enquiring into
the subject on the spot on behalf of the Dominion government. The
publication of the official reports of these gentlemen, in due course,
strengthened the impression made upon the public mind by the evidence
taken by the Senate committee, but the practical result was not much,
for there was at that date still plenty of free land to be had in the
so-called “Fertile Belt”, and lack of communication effectually
prevented any deflection of the tide of immigration towards Mackenzie
river.
Mr. R. G. McConnell in 1887 explored Hay river from its mouth at Great
Slave lake as far as Alexandra falls, about thirty miles in a direct
line up. He reports that for some distance up and while passing through
the delta, the river is wide and encloses a line of alluvial islands,
but on getting above these it contracts to about one hundred yards in
width. Its banks are low and grassy, and the country on both sides is
thickly forested. Proceeding up the river the general elevation of the
country increases, and the valley becomes higher and wider, and
bordering flats make their appearance.
Grassy and partly wooded plains skirt its southern shores and extend
southward towards Peace river, and Hay river may be regarded as
practically the northern limit of the prairie country, although small
isolated plains occur much farther north in the vicinity of Slave river.
PICTURESQUE WATER-FALLS.
As to Alexandra falls, so named by Bishop Bompas in honour of the then
Princess of Wales, Mr. McConnell states that they present a clear
unbroken sheet of falling water, and are exceedingly picturesque in
appearance. The gorge through which the river below flows here suddenly
ceases, and the river precipitates itself over the hard limestone band
through which the latter is cut, with a sheer descent of about
eighty-five feet, as measured by a single reading of the aneroid
barometer.
From the base of the falls the river flows along rapidly for about a
mile, and then makes a second leap of about fifty feet, below which are
three miles of rapids. At the lower falls the cliff is broken down near
the centre, and the descent of the water is interrupted by projecting
ledges. Above the falls the river loses its valley almost altogether,
and has failed to produce more than a feeble impression on the hard
limestone beds which floor the surrounding country. Near the foot of the
rapids below the falls “a graceful effect is produced by a couple of
small streams which fling themselves on either hand over the brow of the
cliffs bounding the valley and make one clear leap to the floor
beneath.”
AGRICULTURE AT RESOLUTION.
Mr. McConnell reported the western arm of Great Slave lake “bordered all
around by a flat wooded country, which has been proved to be adapted to
cultivation of barley, and of potatoes and other vegetables. The soil is
usually a loam, but in the ridges is often sandy, and in low places
passes into a clay. The alluvial lands along Slave river and the grassy
plains on Little Buffalo river are the best sections of the district,
and deserve the first attention. At Fort Resolution a few acres of land
are farmed every year with good results by the Hudson’s Bay Company. Mr.
Flett, who has charge of this post, informed me that barley is usually
sown on May 15, and requires about one hundred and ten days to reach
maturity. Potatoes are planted about the same date, and are dug about
September 15; wheat, according to the same authority, has been tried
three times with only one failure. At Hay river, sixty miles west of
Fort Resolution, some potatoes are annually grown by the Indians, and
even at Fort Rae, which is situated on a bleak island in the northern
arm of the lake in latitude 62° 39′, some gardening has been attempted
by the energetic Roman Catholic missionaries who are stationed there.
The soil at this place is very stony, and much difficulty was
experienced in removing the boulders, and in bringing the ground into a
proper state for cultivation. When this was once effected several kinds
of vegetables were grown without trouble. Potatoes planted on May 25 are
dug in the middle of September, and yield twenty fold, and the list of
garden vegetables raised here includes turnips, onions, cabbages,
carrots, radishes, beets and peas. Wheat and barley have not been tried
on a large scale, but a few grains were sown at the end of May one
season, and became mature, the latter on August 26, and the former four
days later. A less favourable spot for farming purposes, than this rocky
island, could scarcely be obtained, and the successful raising here
affords a promise that the more fertile lands to the west and south will
one day be utilized.”
Mr. McConnell in his report on the exploration of Slave river states
that the soil there “is often sandy, but good crops of potatoes and
other garden vegetables are grown at Fort Smith, and also by the Indians
on the east side of the river.”
WHEAT AT FORT PROVIDENCE.
Mr. McConnell referred specially in his report, also, to the
agricultural operations at Fort Providence (where he wintered), Fort
Simpson and Fort Good Hope. He wrote:—“Fort Providence is surrounded by
flat arable lands of good quality, and capable of producing excellent
crops. Agriculture is engaged in here both by the Hudson’s Bay Company
and the Roman Catholic Mission, and large quantities of farm produce are
annually raised. Wheat has been sown at the Hudson’s Bay Company’s farm
for nine years, and, according to Mr. Reid, has never been a complete
failure, although on some occasions it has been slightly touched by
summer frosts. It is usually sown about May 20, and requires about three
months to ripen. As much as twenty-nine bushels have been obtained from
one bushel sown. Barley is a sure crop. It is sown at the same time as
the wheat, and is ripe almost a week earlier. Potatoes are planted
between May 16 and 25, and are taken up about September 20. Turnips,
cabbage, beets and numerous other garden vegetables are grown with
scarcely greater difficulty than in latitudes ten degrees farther south.
The soil is a stiff clay, with in some places surface beds of sand, and
is seldom thawed out to a greater depth than six feet. The muskegs which
cover a considerable proportion of the country back from the river are
permanently frozen at less than two feet from the surface. It must be
borne in mind, however, in this connection, that the histories of other
districts have shown that when the country is cleared and the moss burnt
off, the penetrative powers of the summer thaw is at once greatly
increased, and lands have become productive, which at first appeared
hopelessly barren. A number of cattle are kept at Fort Providence, but
require to be fed about seven months in the year. Hay of excellent
quality is obtained in abundance from neighbouring marshes.”
THE FARM AT FORT SIMPSON.
“Like the other posts Fort Simpson has its farm, and according to some
statistics which I received from Mr. Laviolette, the various crops
raised, with the exception of wheat, which does not ripen, and the dates
for planting and reaping are much the same as those previously stated
for Fort Providence. Potatoes are usually planted between May 15 and 20,
but this season (1888) were not put in, owing to the unusually late
spring, until May 28, and require about four months to mature. In the
ordinary year forty bushels of seed will yield from six to seven hundred
bushels, but the crops are sometimes injured by summer frosts. Barley,
which is the only cereal grown, is sown about May 20, and is usually
ripe by September 20. No difficulty is experienced in raising such
garden vegetables as cabbages, turnips, beets, etc., and Mr. Camsell
seemed sanguine that even melons and tomatoes would ripen if properly
tried. The soil here is a stiff clay loam. . . .”
[Illustration: Mission Garden at Fort Providence.]
“Fort Good Hope is situated a short distance below the Ramparts and is
the lowest fort on the Mackenzie. It was originally built over one
hundred miles lower down, and has been moved several times before the
present site was finally selected. It is situated only a few miles south
of the Arctic circle, but this does not prevent some gardening from
being attempted. Potatoes, turnips and other garden vegetables are
raised in some quantity, and even barley has occasionally been ripened,
although the ground is permanently frozen three or four feet from the
surface. Cattle and poultry are kept at the fort, but the former have to
be fed over seven months in the year. . . .”
CAN FURNISH LOCAL FOOD SUPPLY.
In summing up the result of his explorations, Mr. McConnell stated in
his report:—“At all the posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company, along the
Mackenzie and its tributaries, with the exception of Fort McPherson,
small plots of land are annually cultivated and large quantities of
potatoes, turnips, beets and other vegetables are grown for use in the
district, while at Fort Liard and Fort Providence, the two most
southerly posts in the district, both wheat and barley have been tried
with success. There is, however, little reason to hope that Mackenzie
river district as a whole, or even the southern part of it, except in
limited areas, will ever be able to support a purely agricultural
community, or that its products will ever be able to compete in the open
markets of the world with the produce of more favoured regions. Its
agricultural development will depend on a local market being obtained.
When the time comes, as come it must, when the undoubted mineral
resources of the region are drawn upon, the food required by the mining
population, or the greater part of it at least, can be supplied locally.
The amount of arable land is small compared to the total area, and is
mostly confined to the vicinity of the larger streams. Away from the
rivers, frozen marshes and muskegs and shallow lakes cover the greater
part of the surface. The alluvial lands along Slave river, the upper
part of Mackenzie river, and the country bordering the Liard for some
distance above and below Fort Liard and west of the mountains, are the
best parts of the district.”
CLIMATE OF MACKENZIE REGION.
Mr. McConnell, in his report of his explorations of both 1887 and 1888,
makes the following references to the climate along Mackenzie
river:—“The warm weather which commenced at Fort Simpson on May 1,
continued throughout the month, and under its influence the snow quickly
disappeared, and the spring advanced with astonishing rapidity.
“In the lower part of the river the ice was broken up at Fort Wrigley on
May 18, at Fort Norman on May 19, and at Fort Good Hope on May 21. The
ice on the river above Fort Simpson, between the mouth of the Liard and
Great Slave lake, did not, however, move until after June 1.”
May 31, 1888, Mr. McConnell found _Anemone patens_, the first flower of
the season, in full bloom above Fort Wrigley. When Mr. McConnell left
Fort Norman June 12, 1888, the trees were still leafless, but the
various species of willows and birches had hung out their catkins, and
the early flowering anemones and other flowers brightened the valley
with colour. June 18, when Mr. McConnell left Fort Good Hope, _anemone
patens_ and other early flowering plants were in bloom, but the general
forest still remained leafless.
THE LIARD DISTRICT.
Mr. McConnell’s report gives us occasional comprehensive glimpses of the
territory on either side of the Mackenzie. He says that the surface of
the country bordering the Mackenzie in the latitude of the Liard, on
both the lower and higher levels, is usually more or less undulating,
and is diversified by innumerable shallow lakes of all sizes, while a
large proportion is underlaid by muskegs and marshes, covered with
sphagnum or bog-moss, which remain frozen throughout the year. The
higher lands and ridges separating the lakes and marshes are usually
rather densely forested, chiefly with white spruce (_Picea alba_), the
Banksian pine (_Pinus Banksiana_) and the aspen (_Populus tremuloides_).
As to the basin of the lower Liard itself, Mr. McConnell mentions the
following facts:—On his way down to the Mackenzie in 1887 he arrived at
Fort Liard, fifteen miles below the mouth of the Nelson, on July 29. In
the reach from the Nelson to Fort Liard, the river is generally wide and
filled with sandbars and wooded islands. It is bordered in many places
with wide alluvial flats, covered with tall, straight cotton wood, large
spruce and canoe birch. Its valley is wide and shallow and lined with
gently sloping, spruce-clad banks. On some of the flats the Indians have
built houses, and fenced in small plots for farming purposes, for which
the greater part of this section of the district seems well adapted. Mr.
McConnell passed one small Indian farm about thirteen miles below the
mouth of the Nelson, and another one at the mouth of Fishing creek, a
few miles above Fort Liard, while others were noticed in the lower part
of the river.
FORT LIARD AND ITS ENVIRONMENT.
Fort Liard is situated on a fertile flat, part of which has been
cultivated for years with unfailing success. Wheat and barley are grown
here year after year, while potatoes, cabbages, turnips, and other
vegetables are raised without the least difficulty. At the time of Mr.
McConnell’s visit, August 1, “all the crops were well advanced and in
good condition; the barley was just turning colour, and the potatoes
were almost large enough to eat. There is no reason, either climatic or
otherwise, why the whole country bordering the Liard, from Beaver river
to near its mouth, should not, when needed, support an agricultural
community.” Mr. McConnell climbed one of the mountains near Fort Liard
to a height of three thousand feet and “obtained an extensive view from
the summit, over the plains to the eastward. The country in that
direction rises gradually from the river in easy undulations, and
appears to culminate at a distance of twenty-five or thirty miles in a
low plateau through which Black river has cut a wide gap. A dense
forest, relieved in places by gleaming lakes and light green marshes,
stretches to the horizon.”
Mr. McConnell also states in his report that the valley depression for
some distance below the fort is insignificant in size, and farther down
disappears altogether, and the river undulates through a low, level
plain, elevated only a few feet above its surface. Liard river is over a
mile wide at its mouth.
A MACKENZIE VALLEY PLATEAU.
Ten miles above the Blackwater, Mr. McConnell, in his descent of the
Mackenzie in 1888, made a visit to a small plateau which there borders
the river at a distance of three or four miles. The valley of the
Mackenzie there has a depth of two hundred feet. After leaving it Mr.
McConnell crossed a level plain which stretches eastwards to the foot of
the plateau. This plain proved to be exceedingly wet and swampy, and
most of the way across he was walking knee-deep through yielding moss or
ice-cold water. It is partially wooded with small pine, spruce, aspen
and tamarack, none of which had a diameter exceeding six inches. From
the top of the plateau, the main range of Rocky mountains, which is here
too far from the left bank of the river to be seen from the valley, came
into sight to the west, while in an opposite direction a good view was
obtained of the rocky range which borders the river to the east. The
plain between these ranges, through which the river flows, has a width
of sixty or seventy miles. It shows numerous lines of wooded heights
running parallel with the river, but possesses no conspicuous
elevations.
Mr. McConnell explains that rugged limestone ranges are visible along
the reach below Fort Norman on both sides of the river, but seldom
approach within thirty miles of each other. The plains between, and
lower slopes of the mountains, are continuously clothed with forests of
small spruce and aspen. The depression in which the river flows has a
depth of from one to four hundred feet and a width of from two to three
miles. River flats are seldom present, and the banks of the valley slope
more or less steeply up from the edge of the water.
MR. WILLIAM OGILVIE’S REPORT.