shall enjoy the work. I do not mean that the pupil should be spared
hard work and drudgery, or be always expecting to find honey on
Hymettus; but do we not all know that the labour of making our way
over rotten glaciers and up stony moraines is forgotten when we stand
on the crest, and that all the way we go, we think of the joy set
before us, when we shall attain to some lofty peak, whence we can see
the outstretched heavens and the sunlit earth? For this we must throw
ourselves in each language upon literature--the forms of grammar will
be the ladder whereby we mount.
And then we shall return to our own native poets and thinkers, with
minds enriched by foreign travel, and Milton will be the interpreter
of the poetry of the world--of ancient and modern times, Spenser of
the mediæval romances, Chaucer of the world of nature, Wordsworth and
Coleridge of spiritual philosophy, and we shall feel that we must be
worthy of so great an inheritance, and not trample under our feet the
pearls, the precious jewels of speech.
Do I seem unpractical? It is just these ideas that are practical, which
we must get our children to see and to feel, and then the burden of
earnest, thoughtful labour will seem light, and our English tongue will
not be degraded by slovenly pronunciation or the use of vulgar and
inappropriate words.
SPELLING REFORM.
By DOROTHEA BEALE.
Let me earnestly beg of teachers not to put aside the question of
spelling reform as of little moment, but to do their utmost to bring it
about.
Can it be to educators of little moment that learning to read, instead
of introducing children to an orderly system, reveals chaos, and
interferes with the tendency upon which all science is founded to
expect law and order. As Professor Max Müller writes «Every thing that
children have to learn in reading and spelling is irrational; one rule
contradicts the other, and each statement has to be accepted simply on
authority, and with a complete disregard of those rational instincts,
which lie dormant in the child, and ought to be awakened by every kind
of healthy exercise».
I find it difficult to express my strong sense of the immense
importance of this reform on grounds educational, economic,
patriotic. Not only does our cacography oppose an enormous obstacle
to intellectual progress during the most important years of mental
development, and thus squander brain power on useless work, it is also
a waste of money which is expended by the upper classes in forcing
on the children of the poorer a waste of time and--a sort of useless
prison-labour.
D^{r} Gladstone calculates that the average board-school child spends
more than 2000 hours in acquiring the arts of reading and spelling,
and that the waste of money is over £ 1000000. This was 20 years ago;
with increased grants, the loss of money must be far more now. He also
calculates the waste of capital in printing unnecessary letters at
nearly 20 per cent. This is only one of the many arguments for reform,
which he puts most clearly and forcibly.
Most of the richer children have an indefinite amount of leisure in
childhood, and they forget how long it took to learn to read, but
children in elementary schools groan under a pedantic tyranny, which
imposes wearisome and useless labours upon those who might otherwise in
their short school time gain such facility in reading, that it would be
a pleasure ever after, and the time which is now wasted on spelling,
would be available for much beside: Germans have time to acquire
foreign tongues, but Englishmen and Frenchmen have not time to acquire
them in addition to their own spelling; either language from its simple
structure might become a world-wide tongue, and there would be no need
of Volapuk.
I quote from Professor Max Müller’s article.
«According to a Liverpool Schoolmaster of great experience it takes
from 6 to 7 years to learn the arts of reading and spelling with
a fair amount of intelligence. I. e. about 2.000 hours. A Glasgow
schoolmaster writes, «I have taught poor children to read the Sermon
on the Mount after a course of exercises extending over no more than 6
hours», and a father writes, «My boy who is a few months more than 4
will read any phonetic book ... and how long do you think it took me
to impart to him this power? Why something less than 8 hours, and that
was in snatches of five minutes at a time; his next brother a boy of 6
has had a phonetic education, what is the consequence? Reading in the
first stage was so delightful that he taught himself to read. My eldest
boy 11 years old, at a first-rate school has carried off the prize for
orthography». Mr. Ellis, who did so much for education writes, «With
the phonetic system the Primer is mastered within 3 months at most;
careful experiments have established 1) that pupils may be taught to
read books in phonetic print in from 10 to 40 hours, and that when they
have attained fluency in reading ordinary print, the pronunciation is
much improved, the interest in study kept alive, and a logical training
of enduring value given ... and they acquire the art of ordinary
spelling more readily than those instructed on the old method.»»
Let those who think I exaggerate, look into Miss Soames’s introduction
to Phonetics, and they will marvel how a foreigner can ever learn
to read and write English--she gives the 34 ways in which we write
the indefinite ‘a’ sound in aloud--the 26 for representing ‘or’;
the 18 for giving ‘sh’ the 20 representing ‘n’, 18 for ‘k’, and so
on--Pagliardini enumerates the 44 ways in which ‘oo’ is written and 36
for the sound ‘ee’; those who have tried to teach foreigners know how
hopeless it all seems.
Pagliardini tells of a work published 1861 on French spelling, which
gives 163 ingenious rules and occupies 285 pages. It is asserted that
2 lessons a week for 3 years will suffice. How much better writes
Pagliardini would these precious hours be spent in studying noble
thoughts in books, the history of nations, the mathematical sciences,
or the laws by which God governs the universe, or if confined to
words, then how much more interesting and intellectual would be their
decomposition into their elements, showing their affinity with words in
other languages. What a fund of poetry might be found in the metaphors
of which words are the abbreviated forms. All this, now unopened to his
view for lack of time, would be revealed.
This may be paralleled by the spelling book of the Meiklejohn series.
‘Spelling with sidelights from history.’ It contains 150 pages, gives
many rules, and concludes with one thousand of the most difficult words
selected from examination papers.
M. Pitman has done good service in printing and circulating for a
very small sum various tracts, and I hope my readers will get some,
specially the paper by Prof. Max Müller. Alas, reforms are slow when
the opinion of many unthinking persons has to be formed, before they
can be carried. It needed a pope to reform the calendar.
The _Westminster Review_ for Sept. 1897 has an article on spelling
reform, urging its great importance, if English is to be a world-wide
language. The impossibility of getting a new alphabet adopted at least
for a long time is urged as a reason for pressing minor reforms, the
chief being the omission of all useless letters. Thus we should leve
out awl thos perplexing vowels in lev recev decev belev; and thes
changes mit posibly be carid with sum slit efort at wuns, if sum
popular orthor wood requir his book too be printed foneticaly.
Some defend our spelling for philological reasons, but it is
unanimously condemned by philologists; I name those best known in
England--Professor Max Müller pronounces it a national misfortune, and
has written an article against it--Professor Sayce and Skeat, Ellis and
Sweet, D^{r} Murray, editor of the Etymological Dictionary, condemn it,
and amongst linguists, Pagliardini, and scientists, D^{r} Gladstone.
But the chief reason, that we should press forward this movement
is, that only thus does it seem possible to avert the catastrophe
foreshadowed in an article on the Queen’s English in the _Review
of Reviews_ for June 1897. Dialectic varieties are arising in the
English-speaking Colonies, which, if unchecked by phonetic symbols
corresponding with speech, will develop into different languages. The
longer we delay, the greater will be the difficulty of agreeing on a
common notation--at present the differences of opinion between us and
our colonies, and even between us and our American cousins are slight,
but those who have heard the English of the States spoken by the
children of German immigrants, will recognise the danger.
Miss Soames before her death published reading books in phonetic type,
and spent much time and money in promoting the teaching of English
reading on this system, and in introducing to the notice of English
people the alphabet of the Association Phonétique Internationale, 11,
Rue de Fontenay, Bourg la Reine (Seine).
Such an alphabet would be better than one suitable for English only,
but if Pitman’s is the only one generally available, it is better to
use that for elementary schools, and remember the maxim ‘le mieux est
l’ennemi du bien’--For teaching the right pronunciation of foreign
languages, _le Maître Phonétique_ is very valuable.
Melville Bell’s Visible Speech is a physiological alphabet of
marvellous ingenuity--but perhaps too elaborate for general use, and
the conclusions at which he arrives are not always endorsed by the
chief authorities. All students of phonetics will learn much from
reading it.--English visible speech, in 12 lessons 50 cents, Volta
bureau Washington, gives the essentials of the system--the large work
costs 4 dollars.
Great efforts are being made in France to introduce an international
phonetic alphabet.
If all could agree on one alphabet, it would be possible for a
foreigner to read at sight any foreign language. It is true there would
be certain niceties of pronunciation to be taught Viva Voce, but the
pronunciation would be very nearly correct at once.
I subjoin a few specimens of writing and the alphabet from ‘lə mɛːtr
fɔnetik’ (_Le Maître Phonétique_).
The French alphabet is very simple. The consonants are as in English
except
{ ɲ for the palatal n as in signe.
{ ʃ for ch as in champ--Ex. shut.
{ ʒ for ʒʰ as in je--Ex. pleasure.
The vowels are
{ ɑ pâte { ɛ tête { i ni { o côte { u tout
{ a patte { e dé { j yeux { ɔ tort { y tu
{ œ seul { w oui { ̃ nasalises
{ ø peu { ɥ huile { ː lengthens
{ ə de { {
The complete international alphabet which is subjoined requires more
signs but this suffices in French.
French.--
kɑ̃t yn fwa ɔ̃ li kuramɑ̃
quand une fois on lit couramment
l ekrityːr fɔnetik i syfi d kɛlkəz œːr
l’écriture phonétique il suffit de quelques heures
pur aprɑ̃ːdr a liːr l ekrityːr ɔrdinɛːr.
pour apprendre à lire l’écriture ordinaire.
In English we want θ ð for th in thick & then, ɕ for ch in hue, ŋ for
the guttural nasal, ʌ for but, a vowel not quite the same as seul, æ
for at--
English.--nau ðə pɔint ai wɔnt tu get æt iz hweðəɹ ðe seːm deskripʃən
kæn bi givn.
(now the point I want to get at is whether the same description can be
given.)
German.--vɛn viːr uns in unserm lɑndə rɑif dɑfyːr hɑltn di ɑlgəmɑinə
høːərə bilduŋ ɑusʃlisːliɕ auf di mɔdɛrnə kultuːr tsu gryndn.
(Wenn wir uns in unserm Lande reif dafür halten die algemeine höhere
Bildung auschliesslich auf die moderne Cultur zu gründen.)
COMPLETE ALPHABET
+---------------+-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
| | La- |Gut- | Vé- |Palatales|Palatales|
| |ryn- | tu- |laires|d’arrière| d’avant |
| |gales|rales| | | |
+---------------+-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
| = {Plosives | ʔ | | q G | k g | c ɟ |
| C { +-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
| O {Nasales | | | | ŋ̊ ŋ̌ | ɲ̊ ɲ̌ |
| N { +-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
| S {Latérales | | | | ɫ̥ ɫ̬ | ʎ̥ ʎ̬ |
| O { +-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
| N {Roulées | |Q̥ Q̬| R̥ R̬| | |
| N { +-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
| E { | | | | | |
| S {Fricatives | h | H h̬| ʁ̥ ᴚ̬|(ʍ w) x g| (ɥ̊ ɥ̌) |
| = { | | | | | ɕj |
+---------------+-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
| = { | | | | |
| V {Fermées | | | |u ɯ ü ï y i |
| O { +-----+-----+------+ |
| Y {Mi-fermées | | | | o v ö ë ø e |
| E { +-----+-----+------+ |
| L {Mi-ouvertes| | | | ɔ ʌ ɔ̈ ä œ ɛ |
| L { +-----+-----+------+ |
| E {Ouvertes | | | | ɑ a |
| S { | | | | |
| = { | | | | |
+---------------+-----+-----+------+-------------------+
+---------------+----------------+----------+
| | Linguales | Labiales |
| | | |
| | | |
+---------------+----------------+----------+
| = {Plosives | t d | p b |
| C { +----------------+----------+
| O {Nasales | n̥ n̬ | m̥ m̬ |
| N { +----------------+----------+
| S {Latérales | ɭ̥ ɭ̬ | |
| O { +----------------+----------+
| N {Roulées | r̥ r̬ | |
| N { +----------------+----------+
| E { | |f v F ʋ |
| S {Fricatives |ɹ̥ ɹ̬, θ ð, ʃ ʒ,| |
| = { | s z |ʍ w ɥ̊ ɥ̌ |
+---------------+----------------+----------+
| = { | | |
| V {Fermées | | (u ü y)|
| O { | | |
| Y {Mi-fermées | | (o ö ø)|
| E { | | |
| L {Mi-ouvertes| | (ɔ ɔ̈ œ)|
| L { | | |
| E {Ouvertes | | |
| S { | | |
| = { | | |
+---------------+----------------+----------+
HISTORY AS AN EDUCATIONAL SUBJECT.
By DOROTHEA BEALE.
[Definition.]
The second subdivision of Part I. is of great educational value.
“History,” writes Dr. Harris, “reveals the higher self of man as
organised in institutions. For the first time man comes to know his
substantial self, when he comes to study history. His little self
beholds his colossal self.” The Man “writ large” of Plato.
[Enlarges sympathies.]
“History,” writes Dr. Martineau, “enlarges the sympathies, opening
fresh continents of character to mental survey, throwing human tones
upon the ear in language unheard before; it acts upon the judgments of
conscience like foreign travel upon those of perception; it imparts
a breadth of view unattainable within a narrow circle. The smaller
the scale of the personal lot, the more precious and needful are the
friendships of history.
“The ground plot of a man’s own destiny may be closely shut in, but
if he can find his way through vanished cities, hear the pleading of
justice, visit the battlefields where the infant life of nations has
been baptised in blood; if he can steal into the prisons, where lonely
martyrs have waited their deaths; if he can walk in the garden or
the porch, where the lovers of wisdom discourse; if the experiences
of his own country consecrate the very soil--he consciously belongs
to a grander life. Hence the advantage which human studies possess
over every form of science, the sympathy with man over the knowledge
of nature. They are an enlargement of moral experience, and call into
continual exercise the sense of right and wrong.
“In watching the drama of history, the soul may be purified by ‘pity
and fear’. ‘Here we find examples for judgment, examples of patient
suffering, that touch the springs of pity; of selfishness and cruelty
that gnaw the heart with honest indignation, of heroic faithfulness
that flings across the soul a breeze of resolution, of saintly love
that diffuses the very atmosphere of heaven.’”[17]
[17] _Hours of Thought._ Martineau.
[Supplements the teachings of science.]
In history as in science we learn facts that we may trace laws, and
history corrects by a larger outlook the erroneous judgments deduced
from a limited experience. History too seems specially useful as a
complement to the teaching of science. In physics we find inexorable
law. Admiration and fear may be excited, but we look on the inevitable;
we pass no moral judgment. History and biography show us the Divine
government adapting itself, so to speak, to the necessities of man,
an education of men and of man, we study a mystery which attracts
and baffles us; we are able to predict our world’s path in space and
time, unable in reference to those larger regions beyond our “little
systems”--regions, however, in which we must believe the same laws,
physical and moral, to be working.
[Gives an outlook beyond time.]
History corrects the judgment of the world; in its pages we look only
at dead men, and we call him happy, not who has been successful, but
him who has left the world better because he has lived, and so history
reverses the pernicious teaching which puts before the young success
as the main object of life, and shows us the difference between noble
and pitiful ambitions. The heroes of history are those who endured
hardness and lived and died for others, a Heracles, a Theseus, a St.
Louis, a Gustavus, a Washington. The villains are those who lived for
self, in ease and splendour, and self-indulgence. We find in these, and
still more in those in whom the lights and shades are less strongly
marked, encouragements and warnings for our own life, and help in
interpreting the lives of those around us. How tawdry looks the field
of the cloth of gold in the light of a later century! How silly seem
those courtiers who carried their “manors on their backs”! “He is worth
so much” has a different meaning for the dead and for the living; the
dead _have_ not, they _are_. Each noble life has left the world richer
in spiritual energy, in the power of self-sacrifice, in great ideals,
in true riches; there is a treasury of saints, not of a transferable
righteousness, but of a transforming, a transfiguring. We can see that
no noble life has been lived in vain. “In the sight of the unwise they
seem to perish, yet is their hope full of immortality;” the corn which
falls into the ground and dies bears much fruit.
[Reveals progress through the ages.]
Lastly if we include in this study not only the history of men and
of societies, but of the intellectual and moral life of man as a
whole, not his descent but his ascent, history forms a subject of
surpassing interest and energising hope. We find there enacted upon
the largest theatre the daily recurring drama of the contest of light
with darkness. We learn how man’s eyes have been gradually opened
to the wonders of the visible universe, and his soul lifted into the
regions of the invisible, his intellectual conceptions enlarged,
his higher being developed, and his desires purified; history which
discourages, as we look at a narrow tract, strengthens our faith in a
Divine order of progress, as we take in the larger regions of time; the
waves seem often to recede, while the tide advances, the stars seem to
retrograde, but it is because our little world oscillates in space;
and so our faith is strengthened, and our hope increased, and we learn
not patriotism merely, but we catch something of that enthusiasm of
humanity, which shone with unclouded brightness in the Son of Man.
[Cultivates the judgment.]
Another use of history, rightly taught, is to train in habits of
justice and truthfulness, though it is too often written to serve party
ends. It is not easy to be just. The hearts of the young are naturally
drawn out to those who suffer. If the Eikon Basilike was not true, we
are inclined to say it must have been true, as we look upon Vandyke’s
picture, see the calm face of the martyr, or read the verses:--
He nothing common did nor mean
Upon that memorable scene,
But bowed his kingly head
Down as upon a bed.
[Stirs right enthusiasm for heroic men.]
We must, however, not let our sympathy with suffering blind us to
the fact that Charles failed in his duty as a king--that had he been
successful in what he attempted, England must have suffered from the
evils under which France subsequently groaned. We must point out that
it was his incurable deceit which brought him at last to the scaffold.
But neither, on the other hand, must we ignore the fact that Cromwell
trampled on the rights of men, that his was a lawless Government too.
We would not, however, have that sham impartiality which paints all
men of one colour and height, which is incapable of conceiving a hero,
and contemplates crime with calmness, remarking there are always two
sides to a quarrel. Need I say that throughout, the teacher must stir
noble enthusiasms, a worthy emulation, admiration for true manliness,
for virtue, rouse sympathy for the oppressed, zeal for right--show that
the history of each nation is that nation’s Bible--the Book which tells
of the Heavenly Father’s care for it, as manifested in the incidents
of its life? If addressing higher classes, the teacher will point
out, as opportunity offers, that each had a work to do in the world,
Hebrew, Greek, Roman, as Miss Wedgwood has shown so well in the _Moral
Ideal_.[18]
[18] _Moral Ideal_, by Julia Wedgwood. Trübner.
[Shows the disintegrating power of unrighteousness.]
The young must learn, too, that the great principle is found
everywhere, that what we sow we must reap in the moral as well as the
physical world--that the selfish neglect of the poor brought about
the Black Death and gaol fevers, that the selfishness, rapacity and
immoral greed fostered by England’s unjust claims on France, brought
its own punishment; this was seen when the Hundred Years’ War ended
in the internecine strife of the fifteenth century, and led to the
extermination of a selfish aristocracy. So too the degradation of the
higher classes, say in the eighteenth century in France, which led
them to regard the lower classes as scarcely human, brought about the
fearful retaliation of the Revolution. Or again the wealth of Spain,
filling the nation with pride and haughtiness, was actually her ruin;
by persistently destroying or expelling, by war or persecution, all
the nobler spirits, the nation was degraded in a few centuries. Of
course these latter lessons will be more suited to a higher class, but
something of it may be taught early.
Questions of right and wrong will ever be arising. What ought to have
been done under such circumstances? Is rebellion ever justifiable? and
when? What forms of government are best? is there an absolute best?
We shall see how short-sighted is crime when we come to the murder of
Cæsar, of Henry III., Henry IV., William the Silent. The teacher will
not omit to look at the historical clock, when asking whether acts were
right or wrong. We must do justice to devotion, while pointing out
errors and crimes; we must be warned by seeing that wrong deeds are
often done by those who mean well; we must learn that though error and
ignorance is evil, and we must fight against both, yet that good often
comes of the honest working out even of mistaken opinions; that through
illusions we gain the vision of truth.
[Teaches by experience.]
The many experiments of the past show us too that evils which exist in
a community cannot be cured by merely changing a form of government,
or getting rid of this man or that man by violence; to do this is only
to sow dragon’s teeth. A nation is made up of individuals, and only
by individual virtue can salvation come; so people now seek to bring
about the well-being of nations by education rather than by revolution,
because freedom without sense to use it is an evil, and a nation that
is truly free will deserve and obtain free institutions. As Mazzini
says:--
[Teaches the solidarity of man]
“We must convince men that they are all sons of one sole God, and bound
to fulfil and execute one sole law here on earth; that each of them is
bound to live not for himself, but for others; rights can only exist as
a consequence of duties fulfilled, and we must begin with fulfilling
duties in order to achieve rights. We can obtain our rights only by
deserving them through our own spirit of love and sacrifice. If we seek
our rights in the name of duties, we shall obtain them. If we seek
them in the name of egotism, or any theory of happiness and well-being
propounded by the teachers of materialism, we shall never achieve other
than a momentary triumph, to be followed by utter confusion.”
One may point out the gradual progress which, with occasional
recessions, has, we trust, been made. One may stir in the young
patriotism, and an enthusiasm of humanity, and make them feel a desire
to do what they can to amend the evils of their own time.
[and the duty of each to the community.]
Lessons of political economy seem to me more important for girls than
the legislative contests of constitutional history. They cannot enter
into these with the keen interest of boys, who may themselves one day
be lawgivers. All should be taught that a selfish, wasteful citizen
is a disgrace, a sort of moral caterpillar--learn that selfishness,
sensuality, falsehood, under whatever disguises, are detestable, whilst
a self-devoted life is a heritage for ever. We should especially
recognise the faults of our own nation in past times, and in the
present too; we should desire the elevation of the degraded classes,
and each should feel that his life and example has at least some power,
that each of us is responsible to men as well as to God, that it is by
noble enthusiasms, by self-devotion, by giving up one to another that
human society is possible.
History, like geography, can be approached two ways:--
[Methods of approaching the subject.]
1. We may take the map of the world, indicate its leading features and
its political divisions.
2. We may take a small tract, realise by description the form and
beauty, the flora and fauna, the temperature, the snowy peaks, the
rushing rivers, the silent stars, think it all out, until we feel
at home in the land, work up through details of topography to clear
conceptions.
In teaching history, I think we ought to take some kind of time-map,
mark out in it a few of the most prominent recorded facts, tell
something of the heroes, after whose names tracts of time have been
called, trace out a few of the leading empires, give landmarks.
[With juniors.]
Then we may, after showing the position of a certain period in the
world-chart, work it up in detail. The way in which each period should
be treated will depend much on the age of the class. With young ones,
the teaching will be more narrative and biography; the memory and
imagination will be chiefly called into play. Some outline or short
history should be read by the child, the most prominent events, etc.,
should be entered in a special historical map. The chronological, as
well as the geographical atlas, should always be at hand. The teacher
should go quickly round the class, asking each child a few questions,
just to ascertain whether the work has been properly prepared, then she
should fill up herself such parts as will come home to the class. For
young classes, though some passages from good histories may be read,
the teacher must be prepared to give a great deal _viva voce_. Little
children do not take in so well what is written for older people, the
words are not adapted to them, nor the mode of expression. Besides, the
teacher’s eye is occupied, she does not see whether she is holding the
attention of her class. True, her words may not be quite well chosen,
but she will be able to make the narrative more life-like to those
whose minds she knows. But she must on no account try to learn it up.
If she would relate well, she must conjure up the scene before her own
mind, carefully paint in the details, and then describe her own vision,
watching the children to see if they, too, take it in.
But all must not be _told_; as far as may be, children should be led
to anticipate. Thus in a narrative of a campaign, generally so dry and
unprofitable, the children should be led to consider what were the
aims, what would be the best way of carrying out operations, what posts
would be occupied, which leader chosen, how the money would be raised,
etc. They will take great delight in finding out these things, and not
easily forget what they have discovered; it will accustom them to read
in an intelligent way, so they will be able to predict to some extent
what people are likely to do.
[With senior classes.]
The elder classes should read some large history, if possible some
original authority, and thus learn to read for themselves, to examine
the statements set before them, and to sift evidence. The characters
of Richard II. and Richard III., of Mary Queen of Scots and Elizabeth,
of the Stuarts and Cromwell, of Laud and Bacon, will form good
exercises in the discussion of probabilities, and teach caution and
moderation in the judgments of daily life. For elder classes, too, we
may make great use, not only of Shakspere, but of the best historical
novels. For the teaching of higher classes I may point to the following
papers and add also a chapter on time-maps.
TEACHING MODERN HISTORY TO SENIOR CLASSES.
By ALICE ANDREWS.
Girls,
Knowledge is now no more a fountain seal’d;
Drink deep, until the habits of the slave,
The sins of emptiness, gossip and spite
And slander, die.
_The Princess._
[Introductory.]
In teaching history our aim should be not to miss the “spirit” of
the period we are taking. We have to inquire what forces are at work
moulding the character of the nation, and to estimate the results they
produce. We have to find the place our period holds in building up the
national history. Each period has a heritage from the past, each hands
on its legacy for the future--of warning from failure or from a success
which is more disastrous than failure--of encouragement from victories,
not necessarily of the battlefield, and which perhaps were won at the
cost of noble lives willingly, even joyfully, offered.
There have been periods of ignoble wars, such as the Hundred Years’
War, when Englishmen were brutalised by murder and rapine, ruining a
people too deeply sunk in misery to defend themselves. And retribution
overtook the nation as it overtakes the individual. Our own Wars of the
Roses were the fruit of the unjust wars in France. There have been
periods of ignoble peace, when “peace with dishonour” might have been
England’s motto, when foreign troops were subsidised to protect the
shores that Englishmen were too craven-hearted to defend themselves,
when enthusiasm was ridiculed as “mock patriotism,” and political
reformers were nicknamed “boy patriots”. Corruption was reduced to a
system, and Walpole believed that every man had his price. The Church
was paralysed by spiritual deadness.
Individual men stand out as warnings or examples. Richard II. appears
first as full of noble impulses, a born leader of men, but his crime
determines his life. To rid himself of the man who _knows_ his crime,
he banishes Norfolk for life; the other, who suspects it, he banishes
for a term of years, and this is reduced at the intercession of old
Gaunt. Either the punishment was, or was not, just. If just, it ought
not to have been reduced on petition; if unjust, it ought never to have
been inflicted. Henceforward Richard rapidly deteriorates: he seizes
Gaunt’s lands in spite of his promise to the absent Bolingbroke, in
spite of the warning of his uncle York:--
Take Hereford’s rights away and take from Time
His charters and his customary rights...
You pluck a thousand dangers on your head,
You lose a thousand well-disposed hearts,
And prick my tender conscience to those thoughts
Which honour and allegiance cannot think.
Richard has himself set the example of disregard of others’ rights, and
makes it possible for Bolingbroke to return in the name of justice and
raise the country against the king.
[Previous knowledge.]
The teacher of history in the older classes ought to be able to assume
a correct knowledge of the most important facts and dates at least in
English history. These are very easily learnt in childhood and most
difficult to acquire by older girls. Those who have been trained on
the historical chart are acquainted with the main characteristic of
each century, and the principal events in it, and have no difficulty
in grouping fresh knowledge round central well-known facts, just as
the geographical student can fill in with increasing completeness
a map from memory. Comparatively few are trained in any knowledge
of foreign history, and I have known not a few grown-up girls find
the greatest difficulty in mastering the leading names and events
in French and other European history. In this respect other nations
are beyond us. Foreign girls, both French and German, are trained to
connect the history of their own country with the general course of
events, and know the facts of European history as a whole. The absence
of this knowledge in English girls makes the study of foreign policy
unnecessarily difficult to them.
[Continuity of history.]
In outline history, paint with a thick brush. “One can’t see the wood
for the trees in it” might too often be the criticism of the pupil
on a lesson. The conscientious teacher tries to omit nothing, the
consequence in the pupil’s mind is blind confusion. The principle of
selection rules here if anywhere. We must aim at avoiding the defect
which Lord Acton denounces as “the want of an energetic understanding
of the sequence and real significance of events, which ... is ruin to
a student of history. It is playing at study (he continues) to see
nothing but the unmeaning and unsuggestive surface as we generally
do.” We want instead to trace in broad outline the continuity of
history--for instance, look at the Wars of the Roses in this light.
How do they stand in relation to constitutional development? While the
nobles were at war, the commons were gaining victories, bloodless it
is true, but more lasting than any gained on battlefields. It was a
time of immense constitutional development. And yet these victories
were practically worthless for the moment. What advantage was it to the
victim of the “overmighty subject” that the Statute Book provided for
his rights and liberties? The “Paston Letters” give a vivid picture of
the impotence of the ordinary subject to get the law enforced. What
the country needed was strong government, not political privileges.
“Constitutional development had outrun administrative order,” had
outrun, that is to say, the general point of development reached by the
nation at large, and the Tudors came in, so to speak, on the programme
of strong government. The Tudor rule represented the two great
principles of orderly administration and even-handed government. It
needed a dictatorship to accomplish the task. The task was completed at
the Armada, and the country took back the trust at the accession of the
Stuarts. That the Stuarts failed to recognise this, was the cause of
the long constitutional struggle that culminated in the Civil War. Once
more constitutional development proceeds, but now the nation is keeping
pace with it.
[Topical or sectional arrangement.]
The subject of sectional as opposed to chronological teaching seems
to belong here, for upon it depends the very essence of clearness in
teaching. If pupils have before them the time-map, or chronological
chart, already referred to, the teacher can with greater freedom treat
the subjects sectionally, for before the eye of the pupil are grouped
all the parallel events in each square representing some definite space
of time. To teach chronologically may seem more accurate perhaps,
but really too often produces hopeless confusion in the mind of the
pupil--the thread is lost in taking up many different subjects, _e.g._,
in Elizabeth’s reign, I would take as separate sections her relations
with Scotland, necessitating a review of Scotch affairs generally,
and the series of plots for releasing Queen Mary; Elizabeth’s policy
with regard to (_a_) the Anglican Church; (_b_) Roman Catholics;
(_c_) Protestant Nonconformists; her Irish policy; her foreign policy
illustrated by her “courtships”; the domestic history of the reign
and so on. The different sections touch sometimes, but it only adds
to the interest to illustrate the new section from one already known.
So in the Seven Years’ War, I would not follow the course of events
for each separate year on the Continent and in America and in India,
but I would take the whole course of the war in Europe, explaining
why it was not only justifiable but a stroke of genius in Pitt, to do
what he had himself denounced in the “Hanover-troop minister,” and by
utilising foreign troops for England’s war on the Continent, set her
free to follow her true interests in the colonies, and I would trace as
separate sections the laying of the foundations of her world-empire in
India and in Canada.
[Syllabus of lessons.]
This method of teaching presupposes that a scheme has been drawn out
for the course. If possible the scheme should be given to the class in
the form of a syllabus of the lessons. If printing is too expensive,
it is worth while to cyclostyle copies oneself. The value the class
attaches to them is sufficient reward for the trouble, and they become
a model to the girls on which to arrange their own study of history in
post-school days. Examples of such a syllabus for English history and
French history lessons will be found at the end of the paper.
[Illustrations: (_a_) Historical atlas.]
The historical map ought to be the inseparable accompaniment of the
history lesson, and in this respect there is nearly everything to be
wished for. Good wall maps with bold colouring in which the outlines
of different territories can be seen from a distance, and in which the
names are clearly printed in English, have yet to be found. To use a
modern map in doing French outlines or other continental history is
most misleading, and yet too often this is all the teacher has at hand.
There is Sprüner of course, but even if the school can afford these
expensive maps, they are not very satisfactory for the ordinary class;
the colouring is not distinct, and the map is so overcrowded with
names that it is difficult to find at a glance the places one wants.
They are rather for private and minute study than for class work.
The publisher’s explanation is that there is not a sufficient demand
to make it worth while to bring out historical maps, an incidental
illustration of how little attention is given in English schools to
continental history, while a class map of the Roman Empire can be found
everywhere. At present the teacher is forced to make her own maps. If
she is happy enough to have old pupils with a talent for map-drawing,
she can gradually make a collection of maps enlarged from those in good
histories; the maps in Kitchin’s _History of France_ are invaluable
for this purpose, but Kitchin provides nothing for the periods of the
Italian expeditions, and these have to be adapted from Sprüner.
Gardiner’s _Student’s Atlas_ provides what is necessary for the pupil
in the English history class; there is a small cheap German atlas for
general history (Putzger, 2 marks), but it is not very satisfactory
for the ordinary English schoolgirl, the difference in the names
is puzzling. What is wanted is a student’s atlas for continental,
especially French history, at a reasonable price.
But even given the atlas, it remains for the teacher to find an
unfailing receipt by which to ensure its use.
[(_b_) Blackboard]
Not the least part of the value of a syllabus in the hands of a pupil,
is the saving of time it makes in the lesson, otherwise the blackboard
must be used for unfamiliar names and words. The merest glance through
a pupil’s rough notes of French history will be a sufficient proof of
this.
[(_c_) First-hand acquaintance with authorities.]
Besides the text-book, which every pupil should possess, no teacher
of older girls will be satisfied unless they read at least passages
from the authorities on the period. The difficulty is to provide a
sufficient number of copies for a large class, or any copies at all,
beyond those possessed by the teacher or the school: this difficulty,
however, may be met. There are always girls who are glad to have good
books suggested for Christmas or birthday presents, and who begin a
really nice library of their own in this way. But a class-library can
be formed without much trouble. The nucleus of a class-library being
made by the necessary books for one year’s work, the girls can be
asked to leave a similar legacy for their successors. A list of books
wanted, with their prices, can be prepared, and it will be found that
several will combine to give really expensive books, and in this way
the class can command the use of sets of Stubbs, Froude, Gardiner,
Ranke, Lecky, etc., besides smaller books like the Great Statesmen
Series.
Since it is impossible for girls with their limited time to read
the whole of the big histories, the teacher will find it a valuable
practice to dictate the numbers of the pages (in one or more volumes)
bearing upon her lesson, which the girls should read. They are thus
trained to use authorities, and this is being recognised more and
more as of the first importance. There was a time when girls depended
entirely upon their notes, and the misspelling of names of historians
showed that their knowledge of great writers was second-hand. But
when they get a first-hand acquaintance with historians like Froude,
Gardiner, Seeley, Ranke, Lecky, they are insensibly being trained to be
satisfied with nothing but the best.
[(_d_) Contemporary writings: chronicles.]
The period should be studied by the teacher, and to a certain extent by
the pupil, in contemporary writers. Chronicles are delightful reading.
Who that has once learnt to know Saint Louis of France in the pages
of his faithful seneschal, can fail to breathe the very atmosphere of
the time? De Joinville shows him what a later preacher called him,
“the most loyal spirit of his age”. Again no weighty dissertations
on the small account in which human life was held in the Middle Ages
would be so convincing as the incidental contemptuous remarks of
the courtier-chronicler Froissart. The exquisite courtesy to a De
Ribeaumont was quite compatible with the halters for the six citizens
of Calais. And to take one more illustration quite late on in the
centuries--what a gulf separates ante-Reform times from our own! How
expressive of the haughty landed aristocrat are these words of the
Duchess of Buckingham after condescending to listen to the Wesleyan
preaching: “I thank your ladyship for the information concerning the
Methodist preachers. Their doctrines are most repulsive and strongly
tinctured with impertinence and disrespect towards their superiors,
in perpetually endeavouring to level all ranks and to do away with
all distinctions. It is monstrous to be told that you have a heart as
sinful as the common wretches that crawl the earth. This is highly
offensive, and I cannot but wonder that your ladyship should relish any
sentiments so much at variance with high birth and good breeding.”
Full lists of contemporary writers will be found in Traill’s volumes on
_Social England_, which as “a record of the progress of the people in
Religion, Laws, Learning, Arts, Industry, Commerce, Science, Literature
and Manners, from the earliest times to the present day,” meets perhaps
the greatest want of the ordinary teacher, to whom no one general
history of social progress was before accessible.
[(_e_) Historical pictures.]
As illustrations there are also historical portraits, contemporary
pictures of historic scenes, and pictures of costumes. Most schools
now subscribe to the “Art for Schools Association,” and can make a
very good portrait gallery of their own. The splendid collection
of historical costumes designed by Mr. Lewis Wingfield for the
Healtheries can still be seen, I believe, and a few of them have been
reproduced by him in a book with descriptive letterpress. Exhibitions,
like the Tudor and Stuart, are most valuable to the realisation
of history, and visits to historical buildings are within the
possibilities of most, and add great zest to many a holiday both for
teachers and girls. It is impossible to forget the circumstances of the
Dauphin’s coronation at Rheims, after staying where Joan of Arc stayed
and standing in the cathedral, where she witnessed the fulfilment of
her mission.
[(_f_) Historical poems, Shakspere’s plays, historical novels.]
Passages from historical poems or from a Shakspere play often add to
the interest of a lesson; as the challenge-scene from Richard II.,
the trial-scene from Henry VIII., Milton’s sonnet on the massacre in
Piedmont, Spenser’s Gloriana and the false Duessa for Elizabeth and
Mary Queen of Scots. And in quite modern history Mrs. Hamilton King’s
_Disciples_, Swinburne’s _Songs before Sunrise_, Mrs. Browning’s _Peace
of Villafranca_, all give expression to the passionate longing for
freedom of Italy.
Perhaps nothing makes history more real than a good historical novel.
Bulwer-Lytton’s _Last of the Barons_ makes the figure of Warwick as
lifelike as that of any minister of our own day. Edward IV., Clarence,
Richard III. have each their individuality, and so has that shadowy
prince who was killed at Tewkesbury, while Isabella Neville stands out
for ever distinct from her gentle, timid sister Anne.
_John Inglesant_ gives the very spirit of the Charles I.
period--cavaliers and ladies coquetting with the classics in the
learned Oxford halls, the devotion, even to the death, of the
Jesuit-trained John Inglesant, and the midnight apparition of the
murdered Strafford to the king, for whom he had laid down his life.
It is quite worth while to put up a list of historical novels bearing
on their period, for older as well as for younger classes.
[Home-work: (_a_) _Viva-voces_.]
How are we to test the work done by the pupils? Lord Acton quotes
from Sir W. Hamilton: “I must regard the main duty of a professor to
consist, not simply in communicating information, but in doing this in
such a manner and with such an accompaniment of subsidiary means, that
the information he conveys may be the occasion of awakening his pupils
to a vigorous and varied exertion of their faculties”.
By means of _viva-voce_ questions and paper work, the class should be
tested between each lecture. The object of the teacher is to find out
with as little expenditure of time as possible, that the work set has
been thoroughly done. I know no better means of doing this than by
what are called written _viva-voces_. The teacher prepares two sets of
questions called respectively A and B. The alternate girls write the
answers to the A and B questions in small exercise books which they
keep for the purpose. They rule two margins, the left-hand for the
number of the question, the right-hand margin is used by the corrector.
Ten minutes can test an hour’s lesson. The books are changed so that
the Bs correct the work of the As, and have to attend to the answers
of the questions they did not do. The teacher repeats aloud the answer
to each question. Each corrector signs her name and puts the mark
obtained. The teacher, when she looks through the books afterwards,
can thus bring home any careless correction to the right person, and
anything like favouritism in correcting is prevented. This _viva-voce_
work ensures accurate knowledge of facts, and I have known girls find
it sufficiently useful, to continue the same system among themselves
after they have gone up to the university.
[(_b_) Essay-writing.]
The most valuable exercise for the pupil is the writing of essays.
These may begin on a subject already dealt with in class (care being
taken that the essay is not a reproduction of notes of the lesson),
but the pupil will soon be trained to read and think out for herself
subjects which she has not previously heard discussed. She will learn
experimentally what Lord Acton calls, “those shining precepts which
are the registered property of every school, that is to say, learn as
much by writing as by reading; be not content with the best books,
seek sidelights from the others; have no favourites; keep men and
things apart; guard against the prestige of great names; see that your
judgments are your own and do not shrink from disagreement; no trusting
without testing; be more severe to ideas than to actions; do not
overlook the strength of the bad cause or the weakness of the good”.
The giving back of the essays ought to be a very valuable lesson. Happy
passages should be read aloud, weak passages criticised, each paper
estimated as a whole, and the pupil ought to leave the class, feeling
that if the work were to be done again, she at least understands the
general drift of the subject and could treat it more adequately than
before.
I venture to illustrate my meaning, the subject set being a discussion
of the policy of Francis I. in his relations with Charles V. The essay
should show that Francis I., like his predecessors in the Italian
expeditions, Charles VIII. and Louis XII., failed to realise in what
direction lay the true interests of France, with regard to the new
problem of balance of power. By entering into personal rivalry with
Charles and striving for territorial conquest in Italy, Francis lost
the opportunity which should have belonged to France, of controlling
the European situation. If he had only been content with securing
gateways into Italy and making alliances with the northern Italians
and German Protestant princes against Imperial encroachments, he would
have gained the casting vote in European affairs and have held the key
to the problem, which it was not permitted to France, till the time of
Richelieu, to solve.
[Post-school work.]
A word or two as to the way in which the teacher can help her old
pupils to read history. There are a fortunate few who pass on to the
universities. An increasing number can attend University Extension
lectures and become members of a local Students’ Association. But it
is those who are not within reach of any local organisation, who are
glad of a little help. To these, when they first leave school, an old
girls’ Reading Society is generally welcome. The regular reading it
requires is a training in methodical arrangement of time, and schemes
of reading, with plenty of choice, are a help to those who have
hitherto had all their intellectual work arranged for them. Teachers
have sometimes found it possible to take up parties to the Summer
Extension meetings. Parents are willing to let their daughters go
with responsible guardians, and the preparatory reading is a great
interest, besides the stimulus that the lectures themselves give to
subsequent work at home.
[Conclusion.]
The educational value of historical study does not belong to this
paper, but I end by quoting three passages, which are full of
encouragement to the teacher of history. They are referred to by Lord
Acton in his famous lecture at Cambridge.
“The study of modern history is, next to theology itself and only next
in so far as theology rests on a divine revelation, the most thoroughly
religious training that the mind can receive.” (Bishop Stubbs.)
“History is full of indirect but very effective moral teaching. It is
not only, as Bolingbroke called it, philosophy teaching by examples,
but it is morality teaching by examples. It is essentially the study
which best helps the student to conceive large thoughts. It is
impossible to overvalue the moral teaching of history.” (Sir J. Fitch.)
“The object (in history teaching) is to lead the student to ... take
interest in history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain of causes
and effects, still unwinding itself before our eyes and full of
momentous consequences to himself and his descendants, an unremitting
conflict between good and evil powers, of which every act done by any
one of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents, a
conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot escape from taking
part, in which whoever does not help the right side is helping the
wrong.” (Mill. Inaugural Address.)
SPECIMEN SYLLABUS OF ENGLISH HISTORY.
Foreign Policy of Elizabeth.
_Introductory._--Keynote of the period; dynastic alliances. Power
of House of Hapsburg built up on political marriages, even England
threatened with absorption by the Hapsburgs, as a consequence of Mary
Tudor’s marriage to Philip, and though Mary’s death made “a great
rent in the Hapsburg net, in which England was enmeshed” (Seeley),
yet Philip long struggled to re-establish the Hapsburg dominion in
England, and this, according to the fashion of the time, by marriage.
“Courtships of Queen Elizabeth” begin January, 1559; Philip offers
his hand to Elizabeth: “The more I reflect on this business, the more
clearly I see that all will turn on the husband which this woman will
choose” (De Feria). Other suitors in Hapsburg interest, Philibert
of Savoy, Archdukes Ferdinand and Charles--Elizabeth encourages
Hapsburg suitors--could thus keep English Catholics in hand in spite
of innovations, and get better terms from France in Treaty of Cateau
Cambrésis, April, 1559, France believing her supported by Spain.
But England’s safety from Hapsburgs largely due to her danger from
Valois. The Valois had secured Scotland, and claimed England through
marriage of Mary and Francis. For Philip to overthrow Elizabeth would
mean to clear the way for Mary of Scots: it was not till he could
come as Mary’s heir, that he openly made war on England.
Period I. The Scotch Period, 1558-1567.
(i.) 1558-1564, IN WHICH A BASIS IS LAID FOR THE UNION OF ENGLAND AND
SCOTLAND.
England and Scotland both under queens; both had to choose between
a power based upon the wishes of the nation, and a power supported
by foreign help. Elizabeth chose a national position: “took a
course visibly full of danger, a course in which success was only
possible by courage and heroic endurance, but in which success,
if it came, might be splendid, and might raise the nation itself
to greatness”. Mary, on the contrary, brought her subjects under
a foreign yoke. Since Mary of Guise’s regency was a High Catholic
rule, the Reformation in Scotland took the form of a _national_
movement, and the national party turned towards England for help.
“The first achievement of Elizabethan policy lay in this, that she
called out a great Reformation party in England and Scotland at once,
and thus laid the foundation of the union of England and Scotland.”
Elizabeth’s self-justification in helping subjects against their
sovereign: that she was maintaining national independence against
a foreign power. Arran becomes Elizabeth’s suitor in Protestant
interest. January, 1560--Treaty of Berwick--importance. Elizabeth
“put herself at the head of the national religious movement in
Scotland”; “in consideration of the attempt to annex Scotland to the
French crown, she promised to aid the Scotch to drive out the foreign
invaders”. Success of Elizabeth’s policy; French troops recalled.
July--Treaty of Edinburgh ends the government of Scotland by the
French; December--death of Francis II. severs the union of French
and Scotch crowns. 1561--Return of Mary to Scotland; she refuses
to ratify the Treaty of Edinburgh, and sets to work to build up an
Anglo-Scotch party in the interest of the Counter-Reformation.
(ii.) 1565-1567, IN WHICH THE DANGER IS OF THE UNION OF ENGLAND AND
SCOTLAND UNDER MARY AGAINST ELIZABETH.
1565--Marriage of Mary and Darnley--importance: Mary puts herself
definitely at the head of the Catholic party in England. 1567--Murder
of Darnley; marriage with Bothwell; Lochleven; battle of Langside;
collapse of Counter-Reformation in Great Britain; prospect in James
of a solution for England of both problems of succession and religion.
Period II. The French Period, 1567-1585.
Danger lest France or Spain, or both, make war on England to release
Mary and secure the Catholic succession, but hands of both tied at
home, and Elizabeth’s efforts directed to keeping them so. To that
end, sends help to Huguenots in Wars of Religion, and to the revolted
Netherlands.
France alarmed by victory of Lepanto (1571), makes advances to
England. Courtship of Anjou, 1570-72, and of Alençon, 1572-84.
“Matters were indeed in a critical position for England; the Ridolfi
plot was brewing, the English Catholic nobles in a ferment, and the
Pope, Philip, the League and the Guises ready to turn their whole
power to the destruction of Elizabeth.” 1572--Treaty of Blois,
pledging Charles IX. and Elizabeth to give informal aid to the
revolted Netherlands. The St. Bartholomew; marriage negotiations
interrupted. 1574--Don John, Governor of the Netherlands, grasps the
necessity of the overthrow of Elizabeth as a preliminary to reducing
the Netherlands, and aims at himself marrying the Queen of Scots and
securing England. “The true remedy for the evil condition of the
Netherlands ... is that England should be in the power of a person
devoted and well affectioned to your Majesty’s service.” 1575--The
Netherlands offer sovereignty of Holland and Zealand to Elizabeth;
she declines. 1578--Flemish appeal to Alençon to lead them; he
accepts in reliance on England; Elizabeth’s policy is that Alençon
shall be under English, not French, patronage, and she poses before
Europe as his affianced bride. 1579 and 1581--He visits England for
supplies. 1582--Alençon invested with sovereignty of the Netherlands;
Elizabeth’s connection emphasised by presence of Leicester and Sir
P. Sidney. 1584--Alençon expelled from Netherlands; his death.
“Elizabeth had begun her long marriage juggle in 1559 in hourly
danger of being overwhelmed and crushed by her own Catholic subjects
in union with one or other of her great continental neighbours. She
ended it in 1583, triumphant all along the line, with both her rivals
crippled and distracted, whilst she really held the balance of peace
and war of Europe in her hands.”
Period III. The Spanish Period, 1585-1603.
(i.) TO 1596, WHEN ENGLAND, FRANCE AND THE NETHERLANDS FIGHT SPAIN
EITHER SEPARATELY OR IN A CONCERT WHICH IS SECRET.
Counter-Reformation in France represented by the League, the
anti-dynastic party; Pact de Joinville between Philip and the League,
after murder of William of Orange, for extirpation of heresy in
France and the Netherlands; importance of 1585 in English policy;
Alençon gone, Elizabeth must act openly if Netherlands are to be
saved. Only military movement as yet helping Scotch in 1561. With
1585 begins what is meant by the “Elizabethan Age”. Pause to estimate
Elizabeth’s policy. Froude finds no clue but inconsistency--really a
consistent inconsistency. Seeley’s estimate: “There are emergencies
in which a persistent abstinence from action, a kind of resolute
irresolution, is the only sound policy.... Everything at her
accession was in a sort of suspense. Whether the nation was Catholic
or Protestant, by what title she herself reigned, who would be
her own successor, and whom she should marry--all was undefined.”
Elizabeth really understood popular government; she gave her people
twenty-six years of peace, in which they learnt to know themselves
and what they wanted. 1585--Siege of Antwerp; Netherlands in
extremity; offer sovereignty to Elizabeth; she refuses; Philip
tries intimidation by wholesale arrest of British sailors; war
inevitable. Leicester’s expedition; his blunders; fall of Antwerp;
Zutphen; Elizabeth also lets loose her “Knight of the Ocean”;
Drake’s expeditions, 1577, 1585, 1587; execution of Mary Queen of
Scots. “The execution of Mary Stuart in the greatest degree, and
the campaign of Leicester in a secondary degree, together with
the adventurous voyages of Drake, brought on the open war between
Elizabeth and Philip.” 1588--Armada; causes of failure: (_a_)
superiority of English ships and English sailors; (_b_) English
guns heavier and better served; (_c_) unfavourable winds causing
delay and then destruction; (_d_) unfitness of Parma for command.
“But all said and done, the victory was one of men and tactics more
than materials.” “The Armada was not defeated by a storm, but at
Gravelines, on Monday, 29th July; and the enterprise was defeated
when Parma failed to bring up his flotilla.” Results of Armada:
(_a_) gave England a new position in Europe; (_b_) secured her from
danger of future invasion, and consequently (_c_) enabled Elizabeth
to turn her attention to the divisions that weakened the English
Church; (_d_) gave the nation leisure for the struggle between Crown
and Parliament, which only ended with William III. 1589--Elizabeth’s
Counter-Armada; Drake’s advice, “better cheap” than awaiting renewed
attack. Spain’s power broken, the religious question is fought out
on a new battle-ground; succession struggle in France; League helped
by Spain against Henry of Navarre; Arques; Ivry. 1591--English
forces under Essex to help Henry of Navarre. 1595--Henry publishes
declaration of war against Spain.
(ii.) 1596-1598. FRANCE, ENGLAND AND NETHERLANDS UNITED IN A FORMAL
COALITION OF ONE CATHOLIC AND TWO PROTESTANT POWERS AGAINST THE
COUNTER-REFORMATION.
1596--Elizabeth makes a formal alliance offensive and defensive with
Henry IV. and the States against Spain, and sends expedition under
Howard and Essex against Cadiz; the “Trafalgar of the Elizabethan
War” (Laughton). 1597--Essex and Raleigh make the “Island voyage”
against Spain.
(iii.) 1598-1603. COALITION DISSOLVED. PHILIP III. AGAINST ELIZABETH
AND NETHERLANDS.
1598--Henry IV. deserts his allies and makes peace with Spain in
Treaty of Vervins. Philip III. continues war against Elizabeth in
order to use Ireland--in revolt--as basis of operations for the
Counter-Reformation against England. Danger from Ireland increased
by treason of Essex. 1602--Spanish expedition lands in Ireland;
joins Tyrone against Kinsale; defeated by Mountjoy. 1603--Elizabeth
increasingly hostile towards Spain till her death.
Results of Elizabeth’s Policy.
1. She gave England twenty-six years of peace, in spite of the
distracted state of things abroad, and by this means (_a_) the
religious question, (_b_) the succession question, were settled
without civil war.
2. By creating a new mental atmosphere, she gave England a new
national temper, which found expression in a national poetry.
Shakspere’s “jubilant patriotism”:--
“This England never did, nor never shall
Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror....
Come the three corners of the world in arms,
And we shall shock them; nought shall make us rue,
If England to herself do rest but true.”
--_K. John._
“This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle ...
This precious stone set in the silver sea ...
This land of such dear souls, this dear, dear land.”
--_K. Richard II._
And the passionate devotion to Elizabeth as the embodiment of the
national greatness:--
“She shall be loved and feared; her own shall bless her:
In her days every man shall eat in safety
Under his own vine, what he plants, and sing
The merry songs of peace to all his neighbours.”
--_K. Henry VIII._
Elizabeth the Gloriana of Spenser.
3. She saved England from absorption by Spain or France, and from
fear of future invasion.
4. She created the monarchy of Great Britain by laying the basis of
union between England and Scotland.
5. She made England insular, but counterbalanced the disadvantages of
insularity by encouraging maritime expansion.
SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON RICHELIEU.
=1610.= _Louis XIII._|Difficulties of Regent Mary de Medici. “The day
|of Kings is past, that of Grandees and Princes
|has arrived.” Her Spanish policy. Concini.
=1614.=|States-General, last of old Régime. Louis
|assumes government. Fall of Concini. Rise of De
|Luynes. Queen Mother becomes centre of
|disaffection. Guise. Bouillon. Mayenne. Epernon.
|Huguenots.
=1622.=|Peace of Montpellier. Huguenots have only
|Rochelle and Montauban.
=1624.=|Entrance into power of Richelieu.
=RICHELIEU.=|Born a leader of men. Genius of conception,
|force of will. Ideal, absolutism. Obstacle,
|feudal nobility; destroys their political
|vitality by increasing power of monarchy. 1.
|Substitutes Intendants for great Governors of
|Provinces. 2. Destroys feudal strongholds. 3.
|Brings nobles under the law; duelling,
|Montmorency; peculation, Marshal de Marillac;
|conspiracy, Cinq Mars. 4. States-General never
|meet. 5. Parlements restricted to judicial
|duties. 6. Heavy taxation. Cultivates three
|powerful alliances: 1. Men of letters; 2. Favour
|of commons; 3. Love of national glory.
=Foreign |Policy.= To substitute influence of France in
|Europe for Austro-Spanish power. Founder of an
|“occidental” policy. Two things necessary: 1.
|Balance of power; 2. Mutual religious
|toleration. Difficulties at home: 1. Spanish
|sympathies of Anne of Austria; 2. Huguenot
|struggles for independence.
=Periods |of Richelieu’s Rule.=
I.|=The Valtelline Period, 1624-26.= Richelieu
|enters European politics. Importance of
|Valtelline as connecting link between Austro-
|Spanish dominions. Seized in defiance of Treaty.
|Interference of Richelieu. Huguenot revolt. T.
|Montpellier pacifying them while he concludes
|Valtelline question in T. Monzon.
II.|=Period of La Rochelle, 1626-28.= Richelieu
|crushes all opposition at home to clear his way
|for decisive interference abroad. “La
|conspiration des Dames.” Vendome in Brittany.
|1627. Buckingham’s expedition to Rhé. 1629. Fall
|of La Rochelle and Montauban.
III.|=Period of absolute supremacy at home, 1629-35.=
|Re-enters European politics, but only as a
|secondary power, in Thirty Years’ War. France
|acts again in Italy. Succession in Mantua and
|Montferrat. Valtelline question reopened, and
|again settled in favour of France. Day of Dupes,
|11th Nov., 1630. T. of Cherasco, 1631. Intrigues
|of Gaston of Orleans with enemy. Richelieu acts
|with Gustavus Adolphus, the “Protestant
|Crusader”. Interests of France move to Lorraine
|border. Death of Gustavus indirect advantage to
|France. Richelieu’s terms with Bernard of
|Weimar. 1635. France declares war against Spain.
IV.|=Period of France’s supremacy in Europe,
|1635-43.= 1636. Recovery of Corbie from Spanish.
|1638. B. Rheinfeld. Fall of Brisach. 1639. Death
|of Bernard of Weimar. “Turning point of the
|contest,” from a useful ally was becoming a
|dangerous rival. Richelieu secures Alsace.
|Conspiracy of Cinq Mars.
=1642.=|Death of Richelieu. Rise of Mazarin.
LIST OF BOOKS.
The following lists have been drawn up with the help of several
teachers of history, and are intended for the practical work of the
school. They aim at giving the chief authorities for each period,
besides other books dealing with special subjects. Where possible,
the publisher and price have been given. Those who want more
exhaustive lists and desire original authorities can find them in the
syllabuses of the University Extension Lectures.
The historical stories have been chosen from lists furnished by
pupils.
TEXT-BOOKS.
Gardiner. _Student’s History._ Longmans. 4/- a volume.
Vol. i., to 1509; vol. ii., 1509-1689; vol. iii., 1689-1885.
J. F. Bright. _History of England._ Longmans.
Vol. i., “Mediæval Monarchy,” 449-1485 (4/6); vol. ii., “Personal
Monarchy,” 1485-1688 (5/-); vol. iii., “Constitutional Monarchy,”
1689-1837 (7/6).
Ransome. _An Advanced History of England._ Rivingtons. 7/6.
Acland and Ransome. _Analysis of English History._ Longmans. 6/-.
D. Beale. _Text-book of English and General History._ Bell & Daldy.
2/6.
Taswell-Langmead. _Constitutional History._ Stevens & Hayes. 15/-.
D. Beale. _Student’s Chronological Maps_ (Charts). Bell & Daldy. 3/6.
Gardiner. _Student’s Historical Atlas._ Longmans. 5/-.
F. W. Putzger. _Historischer Schul-Atlas._ Bielefeld and Leipzig.
Verlag von Velhagen und Klasing. 2 marks.
Period 1066-1272--
Stubbs. _Constitutional History._ Frowde. Clarendon Press. 12/- each
volume.
Vol. i., to 1215; vol. ii., 1215-1399.
J. R. Green. _History of the English People_, vol. i. Macmillan. 16/-.
-- _The Making of England._ Macmillan. 16/-.
-- _The Conquest of England._ Macmillan. 18/-.
Freeman. _History of the Norman Conquest._ Macmillan. 36/-.
Lingard. _History of England_, vols. i. and ii. Duffy. Set of 10
vols. £1 10/-.
Kate Norgate. _England under the Angevin Kings._ 2 vols. Macmillan.
£1 12/-.
Mrs. J. R. Green. _Henry II._ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan.
2/6.
O. H. Richardson. _National Movement under Henry III._ Macmillan. 6/6.
Stubbs. _Early Plantagenets_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.
Cox. _Crusades_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.
Traill. _Social England_, vol. i. Cassell. 15/-.
Thorold Rogers. _History of Agriculture and Prices_, vols. i. and ii.
Clarendon Press. £2 2/-.
Hunt. _English Church in the Middle Ages._ Longmans. 2/6.
Stubbs. Introductions to (_a_) _Gesta Henrici II._: _Benet of
Peterbro_;
(_b_) _Roger of Hoveden_ (for foreign policy) (Rolls Series).
{ _St. Thomas of Canterbury._ David Nutt. 1/-.
W. H. Hutton. { _Misrule of Henry III._ David Nutt. 1/-.
{ _Simon de Montfort._ David Nutt. 1/-.
In English History from Contemporary Writers Series.
De Joinville. _Saint Louis._ Chronicle (translated by James Hutton).
Sampson Low. 2/6.
Period 1272-1399--
Stubbs. _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. Clarendon Press. 12/-.
Green. _History of the English People_, vol. i. Macmillan. 16/-.
Lingard. _History of England_, vols. ii. and iii. Duffy. 10 vols. £1
10/-.
Author of “The Greatest of the Plantagenets.” _Life and Reign of
Edward I._ Seeley Jackson. 6/-.
Tout. _Edward I._ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.
Longman. _Life and Times of Edward III._ Longmans. 2 vols. 28/-.
Traill. _Social England_, vol. ii. Cassell. 15/-.
Burton. _History of Scotland._ Blackwood. 8 vols. £3 3/-.
Oman. _Art of War_ (Hundred Years’ War). Fisher Unwin. 17/6.
Wakeman. _History of the Church of England._ Rivingtons. 6/-.
Stubbs. _Early Plantagenets_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.
Poole. _Wycliffe and Early Movements for Reform._ Longmans. 2/6.
Freeman. _Historical Essays._ 1st series, Essay on Edward I.
Macmillan. 10/6.
Jusserand. _English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages._ Fisher Unwin.
7/6.
Ashley. _Economic History._ Longmans. Part i., 5/-; part ii., 10/6.
Shakspere. _Play of Richard II._
Froissart. _Chronicles._
Chaucer. _Canterbury Tales._
Langland. _Piers Plowman._
Period 1399-1485--
Stubbs. _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. Clarendon Press. 12/-.
Green. _History of the English People_, vols. i. and ii. Macmillan.
16/- each vol.
Lingard. _History of England_, vols. iii. and iv. Duffy & Sons. 10
vols. £1 10/-.
Ramsay. _Lancaster and York._ Clarendon Press. £1 16/-.
Wylie. _England under Henry IV._ Longmans. 4 vols. 10/6, 15/-, 15/-,
£1 1/-.
Church. _Henry V._ (Men of Action Series). Macmillan. 2/6.
Gairdner. _Richard III._ Longmans (out of print). 10/-.
Oman. _Warwick_ (Men of Action Series). Macmillan. 2/6.
Stubbs. _Lectures on the Study of Medieval and Modern History._
Clarendon Press. 8/6.
Seebohm. _Oxford Reformers._ Longmans. 14/-.
Traill. _Social England_, vol. ii. Cassell. 15/-.
Gairdner. _Lancaster and York_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.
James Gairdner. _Paston Letters._ Constable. 16/-.
Fortescue. _Governance of England_ (edited Plummer). Clarendon Press.
12/6.
Shakspere. _Plays_: _Henry IV._, _Henry V._, _Henry VI._
Tudor Period, 1485-1603--
York Powell and Tout. Text-book, _History of England_ (Henry VIII. to
William III.). Longmans. 2/6.
Lingard. _History of England_, vols. iv., v., vi. Duffy & Sons. 10
vols. £1 10/-.
Green. _History of the English People_, vol. ii. Macmillan. 16/-.
Froude. _History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Armada._
Longmans. 12 vols. 3/6 each.
Hallam. _History of England_ (Constitutional). Murray. 7/6.
Busch. _England under the Tudors._ Innes & Co. 16/-.
Gairdner. _Henry VII._ (English Statesmen Series). Macmillan. 2/6.
Bacon. _Henry VII._ (edited Lumby). Cambridge University Press. 2/-.
Brewer. _Reign of Henry VIII._ Murray. 2 vols. 15/- each.
Beesley. _Queen Elizabeth._ Macmillan. 2/6.
Creighton. _Elizabeth._ Boussod. £2 8/-.
-- _Age of Elizabeth_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.
-- _Wolsey_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.
Ranke. _History of England_, vol. ... endon Press. 6 vols. £3 3/-.
Traill. _Social England_, vols. ii. and iii. Cassell. 15/- each
volume.
Stubbs. _Lectures on Medieval and Modern History._ Clarendon Press.
8/6.
Macaulay. _Essays_ (Burleigh). Longmans. 2/6.
Seeley. _Growth of British Policy._ Cambridge University Press. 2
vols. 12/-.
Seebohm. _Oxford Reformers._ Longmans. 14/-.
Wakeman. _History of the Church of England._ Rivingtons. 6/-.
Burnet. _History of the Reformation._ Clarendon Press. 7 vols. £1
10/-.
Aubrey Moore. _History of the Reformation._ Kegan Paul. 16/-.
Froude. _English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century._ Longmans. 6/-.
Hume. _Courtships of Queen Elizabeth._ Fisher Unwin. 12/-.
-- _The Year after the Armada._ Fisher Unwin. 12/-.
-- _Walter Raleigh._ Fisher Unwin. 5/-.
-- _Philip II._ (Foreign Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.
Cunningham. _English Industry and Commerce._ Pitt Press. Vol. i.,
13/4; vol. ii., 15/-.
H. Hall. _Society in the Elizabethan Age._ Sonnenschein. 10/6.
Berville. _The Story of the Chevalier Bayard_ (Chronicle). Friswell.
2/6.
Stuarts and Commonwealth, 1603-1660--
Cordery and Philpotts. _King and Commonwealth_ (text-book). Seeley.
5/-.
Gardiner. _History of England_, 1603-1642. Longmans. 10 vols. 6/-
each.
-- _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649. Longmans. 4 vols. 6/-
each.
Lingard. _History of England_, vols. vii. and viii. Duffy & Sons. 10
vols. £1 10/-.
Green. _History of the English People_, vol. iii. Macmillan. 16/-.
Ranke. _History of England_, vols. i., ii., iii. Clarendon Press. 6
vols. £3 3/-.
Hallam. _Constitutional History._ Murray. 7/6.
Guizot. _History of the English Revolution._ Bohn. 3/6.
-- _Life of Oliver Cromwell._ Bentley. 6/-.
Frederic Harrison. _Cromwell_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan.
2/6.
Traill. _Social England_, vol. iv. Cassell. 17/-.
Sanford. _Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion._ John
Parker. 16/-.
Forster. _Sir John Eliot._ Longmans (out of print).
-- _Grand Remonstrance._ Murray. 12/-.
Church. _Bacon_ (English Men of Letters). Macmillan. 1/-.
Carlyle. _Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches._ Chapman & Hall. 2/6.
W. H. Hutton. _William Laud_ (Leaders of Religion Series). Methuen.
3/6.
Ottley. _Lancelot Andrewes_ (Leaders of Religion Series). Methuen.
3/6.
Lady Verney. _Memoirs of the Verney Family._ Longmans. 2 vols., 42/-;
vol. iii., 21/-.
The Later Stuarts, 1660-1714--
Hale. _Fall of the Stuarts_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.
Morris. _Age of Anne._ Longmans. 2/6.
Lingard. _History of England_, vols. ix., x. (ends 1689). Duffy. 10
vols. £1 10/-.
Ranke. _History of England_, vols. iii., iv., v. (use for foreign
policy). Clarendon Press. £3 3/-.
Macaulay. _History of England._ Longmans. 5/-.
Hallam. _Constitutional History._ Murray. 7/6.
Lecky. _History of England in the 18th Century._ Longmans. 7 vols.
6/- each.
Green. _History of the English People_, vols. iii. and iv. Macmillan.
16/- a vol.
Traill. _William III._ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.
Stanhope. _Reign of Queen Anne._ Murray. 16/-.
Wyon. _History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne._
Chapman & Hall (out of print). 2 vols. £1 12/-.
Leslie Stephen. _Swift_ (Men of Letters Series). Macmillan. 1/-.
Swift. _Conduct of the Allies._ Various.
Hassall. _Bolingbroke_ (Statesmen Series). W. H. Allen. 2/6.
Macaulay. _Essays_ (Temple). Longmans. 2/6.
Evelyn. _Diary_ (Chandos Classics). Warne. 1/6.
Traill. _Social England_, vol. iv. Cassell. 17/-.
Burnet. _History of His Own Times._ Clarendon Press. 9/6.
Anson. _Law and Custom of the Constitution._ Clarendon Press. Vol.
i., 12/6; vol. ii., 14/-.
Hodder. _Shaftesbury._ Cassell. 3/6.
Hanoverian Period, 1714-1815--
Skottowe. _Our Hanoverian Kings._ Sampson Low. 3/6.
Lecky. _History of England in the 18th Century._ Longmans. 7 vols.
6/- each.
Stanhope. _History of England_ (to 1783). Murray. 9 vols. 5/- each.
Green. _History of the English People_, vol. iv. Macmillan. 16/-.
Erskine May. _Constitutional History_ (from George III.). Longmans. 3
vols. 18/-.
Hallam. _Constitutional History._ Murray. 7/6.
Ranke. _History of England_, vol. v. Clarendon Press. £3 3/-.
Seeley. _Expansion of England._ Macmillan. 4/6.
Traill. _Social England_, vol. v. Cassell. 17/-.
Morley. _Walpole_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.
Macaulay. _Essays_ (Clive, Hastings). Longmans. 2/6.
Morley. _Chatham_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.
Not yet published.
Rosebery. _Pitt_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.
Montagu Burrows. _British Foreign Policy._ Blackwood. 6/-.
Mahan. _Influence of Sea Power on History._ Sampson Low. 15/-.
Burke. _Thoughts on the Present Discontents._ Clarendon Press. 4/6.
-- _Reflections on the French Revolution._ Clarendon Press. 5/-.
Also cheaper editions.
Carlyle. _French Revolution._ Chapman & Hall. 2 vols. 2/6 a vol.
Also cheaper issues.
Thos. Wright. _Caricature History of the Georges._ Hotten. 6/6.
LIST OF HISTORICAL NOVELS AND TALES AND POEMS
ILLUSTRATING THE PERIOD 1066 to 1815.
Period 1066-1272--
Kingsley. _Hereward the Wake_ (Last Struggle of the English).
Macmillan. 3/6.
Lytton. _Harold._ Routledge. 2/-.
M. M. Blake. _Siege of Norwich Castle_ (Struggle of the English).
Seeley. 5/-.
Henty. _Wulff the Saxon_ (written for boys). Blackie. 6/-.
-- _Winning his Spurs_ (written for boys) (Crusades). S. Low. 2/6.
Macfarlane. _Camp of Refuge_ (Hereward). Constable. 3/6.
Sir W. Scott. _Count Robert of Paris_ (First Crusade). Black. 1/6.
-- _The Betrothed_ (Henry II.). Black. 1/6.
-- _The Talisman_ (Richard and Saladin). Black. 1/6.
-- _Ivanhoe_ (Richard Cœur de Lion). Black. 1/6.
C. M. Yonge. _The Constable’s Tower_ (King John). National Society.
3/-.
-- _The Prince and the Page_ (Edward I.). Macmillan. 3/6.
-- _The Little Duke_ (Richard the Fearless of Normandy). Macmillan.
2/6.
These are children’s books.
G. P. R. James. _Philip Augustus_ (Struggle with King John). Warne.
-/6.
Tennyson. _Harold_: a drama.
-- _Becket_: a drama.
Period 1272-1399--
Jane Porter. _The Scottish Chiefs_ (1296-1314). Routledge. 2/-.
Grace Aguilar. _The Days of Bruce._ Nisbet. 2/-.
Mary Peard. _Prentice Hugh_ (Edward I.). National Society. 3/6.
M. Everett Green. _The Lord of Dynevor_ (Edward I. Wales). Nelson.
2/6.
Sir W. Scott. _Castle Dangerous_ (1306). Black. 1/6.
Henty. _In Freedom’s Cause_ (William Wallace). Blackie. 6/-.
C. M. Yonge. _The Lances of Lynwood_ (Black Prince in Spain).
Macmillan. 2/6.
Henty. _St. George for England_ (Crecy, Poitiers). Blackie. 5/-.
Conan Doyle. _The White Company_ (Black Prince in France). Smith &
Elder. 6/-.
E. Mitchell. _The Golden Horseshoes_ (Chivalry. Edward III.).
Masters. 5/-.
Everett Green. _In the Days of Chivalry_ (Black Prince). Nelson &
Sons. 5/-.
Henty. _A March on London_ (Wat Tyler). Blackie. 5/-.
-- _The Lion of St. Mark_ (Venice). Blackie. 6/-.
Lytton. _Rienzi_ (Last Tribune, 1354). Routledge. 3/6.
Sir W. Scott. _Lord of the Isles_ (Bruce).
Period 1399-1485--
James. _Agincourt_ (1415). Warne. -/6.
Henty. _At Agincourt._ Blackie. 6/-.
Mark Twain. _Joan of Arc_ (serious). Chatto & Windus. 6/-.
Author of “Schönberg Cotta Family”. _Joan the Maid._ Nelson. 4/-.
Andrew Lang. _The Monk of Fife_ (Joan of Arc). Longmans. 3/6.
Mrs. Oliphant. _Joan of Arc._ Putnam. 5/-.
Sir W. Scott. _The Fair Maid of Perth_ (Murder of Rothsay). Black.
1/6.
C. M. Yonge. _The Caged Lion_ (James I. of Scotland). Macmillan. 3/6.
Miss Wilbraham. _For and Against_ (Wars of the Roses) (out of print).
C. M. Yonge. _Grisly Grisell_ (Wars of the Roses). Macmillan. 3/6.
Lady G. Fullerton. _A Stormy Life_ (Margaret of Anjou). Burns &
Oates. 6/-.
C. M. Yonge. _Two Penniless Princesses._ Macmillan. 3/6.
Sir W. Scott. _Anne of Geierstein_ (Margaret of Anjou). Black. 1/6.
Lytton. _Last of the Barons_ (Warwick the King Maker). Routledge. 3/6.
H. Ainsworth. _The Star Chamber_ (Henry VII.). Various.
Author of “The Spanish Brothers”. _Crushed yet Conquering_ (John
Huss). Religious Tract Society. 6/-.
Sir W. Scott. _Quentin Durward_ (Louis XI. and the Scottish Guard).
Black. 1/6.
G. P. R. James. _Mary of Burgundy_ (1477). Warne. -/6.
Period 1485-1603--
Harrison Ainsworth. _The Star Chamber._ Routledge. 2/-.
Everett Green. _Evil May Day_ (1517). Nelson. 2/6.
-- _The Church and the King_ (Dissolution of the Monasteries).
Nelson. 5/-.
A. Manning. _The Household of Sir Thomas More_ (Diary of Margaret
Roper). Hall. 2/6.
Harrison Ainsworth. _Windsor Castle_ (Henry VIII.). Routledge. 2/-.
C. M. Yonge. _The Armourer’s Prentices_ (Divorce). Macmillan. 3/6.
Mark Twain. _The Prince and the Pauper_ (Edward VI.). Chatto. 3/6.
Stanley Weyman. _Francis Cludde_ (Mary Tudor). Cassell. 6/-.
Harrison Ainsworth. _Tower of London_ (Lady J. Grey). Routledge. 2/-.
Kingsley. _Westward Ho!_ (Elizabeth’s Seadogs). Macmillan. 2/6.
Sir W. Scott. _The Monastery_ (Murray’s Regency). Black. 1/6.
-- _The Abbot_ (Loch Leven). Black. 1/6.
-- _Kenilworth_ (Amy Robsart). Black. 1/6.
Whyte Melville. _The Queen’s Maries_ (Mary of Scots). Longmans. 1/6.
Eliza Pollard. _A Gentleman of England_ (Sir P. Sidney). Addison.
5/-.
C. M. Yonge. _Unknown to History_ (Mary of Scots in Captivity).
Macmillan. 3/6.
Everett Green. _Loyal Hearts and True_ (Queen Elizabeth). Nelson. 5/-.
Henty. _Under Drake’s Flag._ Blackie. 6/-.
-- _St. Bartholomew’s Eve._ Blackie. 6/-.
Robert Leighton. _Under the Foeman’s Flag_ (Armada). Melrose. 3/6.
Mrs. Marshall. _Penshurst Castle_ (Sir P. Sidney). Seeley. 5/-.
Hon. E. Lawless. _With Essex in Ireland._ Smith, Elder. 6/-.
-- _Maelcho_ (Irish Rising of 1579). Smith, Elder. 6/-.
Kingsley. _Plays and Puritans_ (Essays). Macmillan. 3/6.
Reed. _Sir Ludar_ (Ireland. Queen Elizabeth). Sampson Low. 2/6.
Charles Reade. _The Cloister and the Hearth_ (for Picture of Middle
Ages. Erasmus). Chatto. 3/6.
Mrs. Charles. _The Schönberg Cotta Family_ (Luther). Nelson. 3/6.
Author of “Mdlle. Mori”. _In the Olden Time_ (Peasant War in Germany,
1525). Longmans. 2/6.
C. M. Yonge. _The Dove in the Eagle’s Nest_ (Maximilian). Macmillan.
3/6.
G. Eliot. _Romola_ (Savonarola). Blackwood. 3/6.
Yeats. _The Honour of Savelli_ (Cæsar Borgia). Sampson Low. 2/6.
Grace Aguilar. _Vale of Cedars_ (Ferdinand and Isabella).
Groombridge. 5/-.
Gordon Stables. _Westward with Columbus._ Blackie. 5/-.
Author of “Dark Year of Dundee”. _The Spanish Brothers_
(Persecutions). Nelson. 4/-.
Henty. _By Pike and Dyke_ (Netherlands). Blackie. 6/-.
-- _By England’s Aid_ (Netherlands). Blackie. 6/-.
Liefde. _The Beggars_ (Netherlands). Hodder. 3/6.
Everett Green. _Shut In_ (Siege of Antwerp, 1585). Nelson. 5/-.
Stanley Weyman. _The House of the Wolf_ (St. Bartholomew). Longmans.
3/6.
C. M. Yonge. _The Chaplet of Pearls_ (St. Bartholomew). Macmillan.
3/6.
Stanley Weyman. _A Gentleman of France_ (Henry III. and the League).
Longmans. 6/-.
James. _Henry of Guise_ (the States of Blois. League Times).
Routledge. 2/-.
Sir W. Scott. _Marmion_ (a tale of Flodden Field).
-- _The Lady of the Lake_ (James V. and Douglas).
-- _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_ (1557).
Tennyson. _Columbus_: a poem.
-- _Queen Mary_: a drama.
-- _The Revenge_: a Ballad of the Fleet.
Period 1603-1660--
Sir Walter Scott. _The Fortunes of Nigel_ (Court of James I.). Black.
1/6.
-- _A Legend of Montrose_ (Montrose and Argyle, 1645). Black. 1/6.