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Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE GABEL, KRISTOFFER: "See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk.
Biograf. Lex. art "Gabel" (Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); Danmarks Riges
Historie (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. v." '1905' amended from
'1005'.
ARTICLE GALLS: "The same authority (loc. cit. p. 550) mentions a
willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with food
and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so
that altogether some twenty-four insects, ..." 'altogether' amended
from 'alltogether'.
ARTICLE GANNET: "... and orderly takes its place in the rear of the
string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds
itself above its prey." 'its' amended from 'is'.
ARTICLE GARDNER, PERCY: "... an account of excavations in Greece
and Asia Minor; Manual of Greek Antiquities (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd
ed. 1898); ..." 'Asia' amended from 'Aisa'.
ARTICLE GARNET, HENRY: "... by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the
pseudonym Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, Antilogia
versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes, ..." 'Eudaemon' amended from
'Endaemon'.
ARTICLE GARTH, SIR SAMUEL: "He wrote little besides his best-known
work The Dispensary and Claremont, a moral epistle in verse."
'epistle' amended from 'espistle'.
ARTICLE GAS ENGINE: "The Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also
built large engines, several of which are in operation at the
various works of the Carnegie Steel Co." 'Pittsburgh' amended from
'Pittsburg'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XI, SLICE IV
G to Gaskell, Elizabeth
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
G GALLUPPI, PASQUALE
GABBRO GALLUS, CORNELIUS
GABEL, KRISTOFFER GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
GABELLE GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS
GABERDINE GALOIS, EVARISTE
GABES GALSTON
GABII GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH
GABINIUS, AULUS GALT, JOHN
GABION GALT
GABLE GALTON, SIR FRANCIS
GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS GALUPPI, BALDASSARE
GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP GALVANI, LUIGI
GABLETS GALVANIZED IRON
GABLONZ GALVANOMETER
GABORIAU, EMILE GALVESTON
GABRIEL GALWAY (county of Ireland)
GABRIEL HOUNDS GALWAY (town of Ireland)
GABRIELI, GIOVANNI GAMA, VASCO DA
GABUN GAMALIEL
GACE BRULE GAMBETTA, LEON
GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER GAMBIA (river of West Africa)
GAD GAMBIA (country of West Africa)
GADAG GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER,
GADARA GAMBIER
GADDI GAMBOGE
GADE, NIELS WILHELM GAMBRINUS
GADOLINIUM GAME
GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER GAME LAWS
GADSDEN, JAMES GAMES, CLASSICAL
GADWALL GAMING AND WAGERING
GAEKWAR GAMUT
GAETA GANDAK
GAETANI GANDAMAK
GAETULIA GANDERSHEIM
GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON GANDHARVA
GAGE, THOMAS GANDIA
GAGE GANDO
GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST GANESA
GAHANBAR GANGES
GAIGNIERES, FRANCOIS ROGER DE GANGOTRI
GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE GANGPUR
GAILLAC GANGRENE
GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI GANILH, CHARLES
GAINESVILLE (Florida, U.S.A.) GANJAM
GAINESVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.) GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS
GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS GANNET
GAINSBOROUGH GANODONTA
GAIRDNER, JAMES GANS, EDUARD
GAIRLOCH GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST
GAISERIC GANTE
GAISFORD, THOMAS GANYMEDE
GAIUS GAO
GAIUS CAESAR GAOL
GALAGO GAON
GALANGAL GAP
GALAPAGOS ISLANDS GAPAN
GALASHIELS GARARISH
GALATIA GARASHANIN, ILIYA
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH
GALATINA GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN
GALATZ GARAY, JANOS
GALAXY GARBLE
GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman general) GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA
GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman emperor) GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL
GALBANUM GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO
GALCHAS GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO
GALE, THEOPHILUS GARCIA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO
GALE, THOMAS GARD
GALE GARDA, LAKE OF
GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU
GALEN, CLAUDIUS GARDELEGEN
GALENA (Illinois, U.S.A.) GARDEN
GALENA (Kansas, U.S.A.) GARDENIA
GALENA (ore of lead) GARDINER, JAMES
GALEOPITHECUS GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON
GALERIUS GARDINER, STEPHEN
GALESBURG GARDINER
GALGACUS GARDNER, PERCY
GALIANI, FERDINANDO GARDNER
GALICIA (crownland of Austria) GARE-FOWL
GALICIA (province of Spain) GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM
GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO GAR-FISH
GALILEE (province of Palestine) GARGANEY
GALILEE (architectural term) GARGANO, MONTE
GALILEE, SEA OF GARGOYLE
GALILEO GALILEI GARHWAL
GALION GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE
GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH GARIN LE LOHERAIN
GALL GARLAND, JOHN
GALLABAT GARLIC
GALLAIT, LOUIS GARNET, HENRY
GALLAND, ANTOINE GARNET
GALLARATE GARNETT, RICHARD
GALLARS, NICOLAS DES GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH
GALLAS, MATTHIAS GARNIER, GERMAIN
GALLAS GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES
GALLATIN, ALBERT GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS
GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS GARNIER, ROBERT
GALLE GARNIER-PAGES, ETIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS
GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE GARNISH
GALLERY GARO HILLS
GALLEY GARONNE
GALLIA CISALPINA GARRET
GALLIC ACID GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DE ALMEIDA
GALLICANISM GARRETTING
GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON GARRICK, DAVID
GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS EGNATIUS GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD
GALLIFFET, GASTON AUGUSTE GARRISON
GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS GARROTE
GALLIPOLI (Italy) GARRUCHA
GALLIPOLI (Turkey) GARSTON
GALLIPOLIS GARTH, SIR SAMUEL
GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE GARTOK
GALLIUM GARY
GALLON GAS
GALLOWAY, JOSEPH GASCOIGNE, GEORGE
GALLOWAY, THOMAS GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM
GALLOWAY GASCONY
GALLOWS GAS ENGINE
GALLS GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN
G The form of this letter which is familiar to us is an invention of
the Romans, who had previously converted the third symbol of the
alphabet into a representative of a _k_-sound (see C). Throughout the
whole of Roman history C remained as the symbol for G in the
abbreviations C and Cn. for the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According
to Plutarch (_Roman Questions_, 54, 59) the symbol for G was invented by
Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 293 B.C. This probably means that he was
the first person to spell his cognomen RVGA instead of RVCA. G came to
occupy the seventh place in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been
taken by Z, because between 450 B.C. and 350 B.C. the z-sounds of Latin
passed into r, names like _Papisius_ and _Fusius_ in that period
becoming Papirius and Furius (see Z), so that the letter z had become
superfluous. According to the late writer Martianus Capella z was
removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312
B.C. To Claudius the insertion of G into the alphabet is also sometimes
ascribed.
In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the lower lip
of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line [symbol], but
[symbol] and [symbol] are found also in republican times. In the
earliest Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the form
is [symbol] written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom lip
of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a diacritical
mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is represented by K. The
use of the new form was not firmly established till after the middle of
the 3rd century B.C.
In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop (as in _gig_)
in classical times. Later, before _e_, _g_ passed into a sound like the
English _y_, so that words begin indifferently with _g_ or _j_; hence
from the Lat. _generum_ (accusative) and _Ianuarium_ we have in Ital.
_genero_ and _Gennajo_, Fr. _gendre_ and _janvier_. In the ancient
Umbrian dialect _g_ had made this change between vowels before the
Christian era, the inhabitant of _Iguvium_ (the modern Gubbio) being in
the later form of his native speech _Iuvins_, Lat. _Iguvinus_. In most
cases in Mid. Eng. also _g_ passed into a _y_ sound; hence the old
prefix _ge_ of the past participle appears only as _y_ in _yclept_ and
the like. But _ng_ and _gg_ took a different course, the _g_ becoming an
affricate d_z_ (_dzh_), as in _singe_, _ridge_, _sedge_, which in
English before 1500 were _senge_, _rigge_, _segge_, and in Scotch are
still pronounced _sing_, _rig_, _seg_. The affricate in words like
_gaol_ is of French origin (_geole_), from a Late Lat. _gabiola_, out of
_caveola_, a diminutive of the Lat. _cavea_.
The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay down rules
for the pronunciation of English _g_; thus there are in the language
five words _Gill_, three of which have the _g_ hard, while two have it
soft: viz. (1) _gill_ of a fish, (2) _gill_, a ravine, both of which are
Norse, and (3) _Gill_, the surname, which is mostly Gaelic = White; and
(4) _gill_ a liquid measure, from O. Fr. _gelle_, Late Lat. _gella_ in
the same sense, and (5) _Gill_, a girl's name, shortened from _Gillian_,
_Juliana_ (see Skeat's _Etymological Dictionary_). No one of these words
is of native origin; otherwise the initial _g_ would have changed to
_y_, as in Eng. _yell_ from the O. Eng. _gellan_, _giellan_.
(P. Gi.)
GABBRO, in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks, holocrystalline
and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting essentially of a basic
plagioclase felspar and one or more ferromagnesian minerals (such as
augite, hornblende, hypersthene and olivine). The name was given
originally in north Italy to certain coarsely crystalline dark green
rocks, some of which are true gabbros, while others are serpentines. The
gabbros are the plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the
dolerites, basalts and diabases (also of some varieties of andesite)
with which they agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute
structure. Of their minerals felspar Is usually the most abundant, and
is principally labradorite and bytownite, though anorthite occurs in
some, while oligoclase and orthoclase have been found in others. The
felspar is sometimes very clear and fresh, its crystals being for the
most part short and broad, with rather irregular or rounded outlines.
Albite twinning is very frequent, but in these rocks it is often
accompanied by pericline twinning by which the broad or narrow albite
plates are cut transversely by many thin, bright and dark bars as seen
in polarized light. Equally characteristic of the gabbros is the
alteration of the felspars to cloudy, semi-opaque masses of saussurite.
These are compact, tough, devoid of cleavage, and have a waxy lustre and
usually a greenish-white colour. When this substance can be resolved by
the microscope it proves to consist usually of zoisite or epidote, with
garnet and albite, but mixed with it are also chlorite, amphibole,
serpentine, prehnite, sericite and other minerals. The augite is usually
brown, but greenish, violet and colourless varieties may occur.
Hypersthene, when present, is often strikingly pleochroic in colours
varying from pink to bright green. It weathers readily to
platy-pseudomorphs of bastite which are soft and yield low polarization
colours. The olivine is colourless in itself, but in most cases is
altered to green or yellow serpentine, often with bands of dark
magnetite granules along its cleavages and cracks. Hornblende when
primary is often brown, and may surround augite or be perthitically
intergrown with it; original green hornblende probably occurs also,
though it is more frequently secondary. Dark-brown biotite, although by
no means an important constituent of these rocks, occurs in many of
them. Quartz is rare, but is occasionally seen intergrown with felspar
as micropegmatite. Among the accessory minerals may be mentioned
apatite, magnetite, ilmenite, picotite and garnet.
A peculiar feature, repeated so constantly in many of the minerals of
these rocks as to be almost typical of them, is the occurrence of small
black or dark brown enclosures often regularly arranged parallel to
certain crystallographic planes. Reflection of light from the surfaces
of these minute enclosures produces a shimmering or _Schiller_. In
augite or hypersthene the effect is that the surface of the mineral has
a bronzy sub-metallic appearance, and polished plates seen at a definite
angle yield a bright coppery-red reflection, but polished sections of
the felspars may exhibit a brilliant play of colours, as is well seen in
the Labrador spar, which is used as an ornamental or semi-precious
stone. In olivine the black enclosures are not thin laminae, but
branching growths resembling pieces of moss. The phenomenon is known as
"schillerization"; its origin has been much discussed, some holding that
it is secondary, while others regard these enclosures as original.
In many gabbros there is a tendency to a centric arrangement of the
minerals, the first crystallized forming nuclei around which the others
grow. Thus magnetite, apatite and picotite, with olivine, may be
enclosed in augite, hornblende, and hypersthene, sometimes with a later
growth of biotite, while the felspars occupy the interspaces between the
clusters of ferromagnesian minerals. In some cases there are borders
around olivine consisting of fibrous hornblende or tremolite and rhombic
pyroxene (kelyphitic or ocellar structures); spinels and garnet may
occur in this zone, and as it is developed most frequently where olivine
is in contact with felspar it may be due to a chemical resorption at a
late stage in the solidification of the rock. In some gabbros and
norites reaction rims of fibrous hornblende are found around both
hypersthene and diallage where these are in contact with felspar.
Typical orbicular structure such as characterizes some granites and
diorites is rare in the gabbros, though it has been observed in a few
instances in Norway, California, &c.
In a very large number of the rocks of this group the plagioclase
felspar has crystallized in large measure before the pyroxene, and is
enveloped by it in ophitic manner exactly as occurs in the diabases.
When these rocks become fine-grained they pass gradually into ophitic
diabase and dolerite; only very rarely does olivine enclose felspar
in this way. A fluxion structure or flow banding also can be observed
in some of the rocks of this series, and is characterized by the
occurrence of parallel sinuous bands of dark colour, rich in
ferromagnesian minerals, and of lighter shades in which felspars
predominate.
These basic holocrystalline rocks form a large and numerous class
which can be subdivided into many groups according to their mineral
composition; if we take it that typical gabbro consists of plagioclase
and augites or diallage, norite of plagioclase and hypersthene, and
troctolite of plagioclase and olivine, we must add to these
olivine-gabbro and olivine-norite in which that mineral occurs in
addition to those enumerated above. Hornblende-gabbros are distinctly
rare, except when the hornblende has been developed from pyroxene by
pressure and shearing, but many rocks may be described as hornblende-
or biotite-bearing gabbro and norite, when they contain these
ingredients in addition to the normal minerals plagioclase, augite and
hypersthene. We may recognize also quartz-gabbro and quartz-norite
(containing primary quartz or micropegmatite) and orthoclase-gabbro
(with a little orthoclase). The name eucrite has been given to gabbros
in which the felspar is mainly anorthite; many of them also contain
hypersthene or enstatite and olivine, while allivalites are
anorthite-olivine rocks in which the two minerals occur in nearly
equal proportions; harrisites have preponderating olivine, anorthite
felspar and a little pyroxene. In areas of gabbro there are often
masses consisting nearly entirely of a single mineral, for example,
felspar rocks (anorthosites), augite or hornblende rocks (pyroxenites
and hornblendites) and olivine rocks (dunites or peridotites).
Segregations of iron ores, such as ilmenite, usually with pyroxene or
olivine, occur in association with some gabbro and anorthosite masses.
Some gabbros are exceedingly coarse-grained and consist of individual
crystals several inches in length; such a type often form dikes or
veins in serpentine or gabbro, and may be called gabbro-pegmatite.
Very fine-grained gabbros, on the other hand, have been distinguished
as beerbachites. Still more common is the occurrence of sheared,
foliated or schistose forms of gabbro. In these the minerals have a
parallel arrangement, the felspars are often broken down by pressure
into a mosaic of irregular grains, while greenish fibrous or bladed
amphibole takes the place of pyroxene and olivine. The diallage may be
present as rounded or oval crystals around which the crushed felspar
has flowed (augen-gabbro); or the whole rock may have a well-foliated
structure (hornblende-schists and amphibolites). Very often a mass of
normal gabbro with typical igneous character passes at its margins or
along localized zones into foliated rocks of this kind, and every
transition can be found between the different types. Some authors
believe that the development of saussurite from felspar is also
dependent on pressure rather than on weathering, and an analogous
change may affect the olivine, replacing it by talc, chlorite,
actinolite and garnet. Rocks showing changes of the latter type have
been described from Switzerland under the name allalinites.
Rocks of the gabbro group, though perhaps not so common nor occurring
in so great masses as granites, are exceedingly widespread. In Great
Britain, for example, there are areas of gabbro in Shetland,
Aberdeenshire, and other parts of the Highlands, Ayrshire, the Lizard
(Cornwall), Carrock Fell (Cumberland) and St David's (Wales). Most of
these occur along with troctolites, norites, serpentine and
peridotite. In Skye an interesting group of fresh olivine-gabbros is
found in the Cuillin Hills; here also peridotites occur and there are
sills and dikes of olivine-dolerite, while a great series of basaltic
lavas and ash beds marks the site of volcanic outbursts in early
Tertiary time. In this case it is clearly seen that the gabbros are
the deep-seated and slowly crystallized representatives of the basalts
which were poured out at the surfaces, and the dolerites which
consolidated in fissures. The older gabbros of Britain, such as those
of the Lizard, Aberdeenshire and Ayrshire, are often more or less
foliated and show a tendency to pass into hornblende-schists and
amphibolites. In Germany gabbros are well known in the Harz Mountains,
Saxony, the Odenwald and the Black Forest. Many outcrops of similar
rocks have been traced in the northern zones of the Alps, often with
serpentine and hornblende-schist. They occupy considerable tracts of
country in Norway and Sweden, as for instance in the vicinity of
Bergen. The Pyrenees, Ligurian Alps, Dauphine and Tuscany are other
European localities for gabbro. In Canada great portions of the
eastern portion of the Dominion are formed of gabbros, norite,
anorthosite and allied rock types. In the United States gabbros and
norites occur near Baltimore and near Peekskill on the Hudson river.
As a rule each of these occurrences contains a diversity of
petrographical types, which appear also in certain of the others; but
there is often a well-marked individuality about the rocks of the
various districts in which gabbros are found.
From an economic standpoint gabbros are not of great importance. They
are used locally for building and for road-metal, but are too dark in
colour, too tough and difficult to dress, to be popular as building
stones, and, though occasionally polished, are not to be compared for
beauty with the serpentines and the granites. Segregations of iron
ores are found in connexion with many of them (Norway and Sweden) and
are sometimes mined as sources of the metal.
Chemically the gabbros are typical rocks of the basic subdivision and
show the characters of that group in the clearest way. They have low
silica, much iron and magnesia, and the abundance of lime
distinguishes them in a marked fashion from both the granites and the
peridotites. A few analyses of well-known gabbros are cited here.
+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| | SiO2 | TiO2 | Ab2O3 | FeO | Fe2O3| MgO | CaO | Na2O | K2O | H2O |
+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
| I. | 49.63 | 1.75 | 16.18 |12.03 | 1.92 | 5.38 | 9.33 | 1.89 | 0.81 | 0.55 |
| II. | 49.90 | .. | 16.04 | .. | 7.81 |10.08 |14.48 | 1.69 | 0.55 | 1.46 |
|III. | 45.73 | .. | 22.10 | 3.51 | 0.71 |11.16 | 9.26 | 2.54 | 0.34 | 4.38 |
| IV. | 46.24 | .. | 29.85 | 2.12 | 1.30 | 2.41 |16.24 | 1.98 | 0.18 | .. |
+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
I. Gabbro, Radanthal, Harzburg; II. Gabbro, Penig, Saxony; III.
Troctolite, Coverack, Cornwall; IV. Anorthosite, mouth of the Seine
river, Bad Vermilion lake, Ontario, Canada. (J. S. F.)
GABEL, KRISTOFFER (1617-1673), Danish statesman, was born at Gluckstadt,
on the 6th of January 1617. His father, Wulbern, originally a landscape
painter and subsequently recorder of Gluckstadt, was killed at the siege
of that fortress by the Imperialists in 1628. Kristoffer is first heard
of in 1639, as overseer and accountant at the court of Duke Frederick.
When the duke ascended the Danish throne as Frederick III., Gabel
followed him to Copenhagen as his private secretary and man of business.
Gabel, who veiled under a mysterious reticence considerable financial
ability and uncommon shrewdness, had great influence over the irresolute
king. During the brief interval between King Charles X.'s first and
second attack upon Denmark, Gabel was employed in several secret
missions to Sweden; and he took a part in the intrigues which resulted
in the autocratic revolution of 1660 (see DENMARK: _History_). His
services on this occasion have certainly been exaggerated; but if not
the originator of the revolution, he was certainly the chief
intermediary between Frederick III. and the conjoined Estates in the
mysterious conspiracy which established absolutism in Denmark. His
activity on this occasion won the king's lifelong gratitude. He was
enriched, ennobled, and in 1664 made governor of Copenhagen. From this
year must be dated his open and official influence and power, and from
1660 to 1670 he was the most considerable personage at court, and very
largely employed in financial and diplomatic affairs. When Frederick
III. died, in February 1670, Gabel's power was at an end. The new ruler,
Christian V., hated him, and accusations against him poured in from
every quarter. When, on the 18th of April 1670, he was dismissed, nobody
sympathized with the man who had grown wealthy at a time when other
people found it hard to live. He died on the 13th of October 1673.
See Carl Frederik Bricka, _Dansk. Biograf. Lex._ art "Gabel"
(Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); _Danmarks Riges Historie_ (Copenhagen,
1897-1905), vol. v.
GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER (1807-1874), German linguist and
ethnologist, born at Altenburg on the 13th of October 1807, was the only
son of Hans Karl Leopold von der Gabelentz, chancellor and
privy-councillor of the duchy of Altenburg. From 1821 to 1825 he
attended the gymnasium of his native town, where he had Matthiae (the
eminent Greek scholar) for teacher, and Hermann Brockhaus and Julius
Lobe for schoolfellows. Here, in addition to ordinary school-work, he
carried on the private study of Arabic and Chinese; and the latter
language continued especially to engage his attention during his
undergraduate course, from 1825 to 1828, at the universities of Leipzig
and Gottingen. In 1830 he entered the public service of the duchy of
Altenburg, where he attained to the rank of privy-councillor in 1843.
Four years later he was chosen to fill the post of _Landmarschall_ in
the grand-duchy of Weimar, and in 1848 he attended the Frankfort
parliament, and represented the Saxon duchies on the commission for
drafting an imperial constitution for Germany. In November of the same
year he became president of the Altenburg ministry, but he resigned
office in the following August. From 1851 to 1868 he was president of
the second chamber of the duchy of Altenburg; but in the latter year he
withdrew entirely from public life, that he might give undivided
attention to his learned researches. He died on his estate of Lemnitz,
in Saxe-Weimar, on the 3rd of September 1874.
In the course of his life he is said to have learned no fewer than
eighty languages, thirty of which he spoke with fluency and elegance.
But he was less remarkable for his power of acquisition than for the
higher talent which enabled him to turn his knowledge to the genuine
advancement of linguistic science. Immediately after quitting the
university, he followed up his Chinese researches by a study of the
Finno-Ugrian languages, which resulted in the publication of his
_Elements de la grammaire mandchoue_ in 1832. In 1837 he became one of
the promoters, and a joint-editor, of the _Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des
Morgenlandes_, and through this medium he gave to the world his _Versuch
einer mordwinischen Grammatik_ and other valuable contributions. His
_Grundzuge der syrjanischen Grammatik_ appeared in 1841. In conjunction
with his old school friend, Julius Lobe, he brought out a complete
edition, with translation, glossary and grammar, of Ulfilas's Gothic
version of the Bible (1843-1846); and from 1847 he began to contribute
to the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_ the
fruits of his researches into the languages of the Swahilis, the
Samoyedes, the Hazaras, the Aimaks, the Formosans and other
widely-separated tribes. The _Beitrage zur Sprachenkunde_ (1852) contain
Dyak, Dakota, and Kiriri grammars; to these were added in 1857 a
_Grammatik u. Worterbuch der Kassiasprache_, and in 1860 a treatise in
universal grammar (_Uber das Passivum_). In 1864 he edited the Manchu
translations of the Chinese Sse-shu, Shu-king and Shi-king, along with a
dictionary; and in 1873 he completed the work which constitutes his most
important contribution to philology, _Die melanesischen Sprachen nach
ihrem grammatischen Bau und ihrer Verwandschaft unter sich und mit den
malaiisch-polynesischen Sprachen untersucht_ (1860-1873). It treats of
the language of the Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands, New
Caledonia, &c., and shows their radical affinity with the Polynesian
class. He also contributed most of the linguistic articles in Pierer's
_Conversations-Lexicon_.
GABELLE (French, from the Med. Lat. _gabulum_, _gablum_, a tax, for the
origin of which see GAVELKIND), a term which, in France, was originally
applied to taxes on all commodities, but was gradually limited to the
tax on salt. In process of time it became one of the most hated and most
grossly unequal taxes in the country, but, though condemned by all
supporters of reform, it was not abolished until 1790. First imposed in
1286, in the reign of Philip IV., as a temporary expedient, it was made
a permanent tax by Charles V. Repressive as a state monopoly, it was
made doubly so from the fact that the government obliged every
individual above the age of eight years to purchase weekly a minimum
amount of salt at a fixed price. When first instituted, it was levied
uniformly on all the provinces in France, but for the greater part of
its history the price varied in different provinces. There were five
distinct groups of provinces, classified as follows: (a) the _Pays de
grandes gabelles_, in which the tax was heaviest; (b) the _Pays de
petites gabelles_, which paid a tax of about half the rate of the
former; (c) the _Pays de salines_, in which the tax was levied on the
salt extracted from the salt marshes; (d) the _Pays redimes_, which had
purchased redemption in 1549; and (e) the _Pays exempts_, which had
stipulated for exemption on entering into union with the kingdom of
France. _Greniers a sel_ (dating from 1342) were established in each
province, and to these all salt had to be taken by the producer on
penalty of confiscation. The _grenier_ fixed the price which it paid for
the salt and then sold it to retail dealers at a higher rate.
See J.J. Clamageran, _Histoire de l'impot en France_ (1876); A.
Gasquet, _Precis des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_
(1885); Necker, _Compte rendu_ (1781).
GABERDINE, or GABARDINE, any long, loose over-garment, reaching to the
feet and girt round the waist. It was, when made of coarse material,
commonly worn in the middle ages by pilgrims, beggars and almsmen. The
Jews, conservatively attached to the loose and flowing garments of the
East, continued to wear the long upper garment to which the name
"gaberdine" could be applied, long after it had ceased to be a common
form as worn by non-Jews, and to this day in some parts of Europe, e.g.
in Poland, it is still worn, while the tendency to wear the frock-coat
very long and loose is a marked characteristic of the race. The fact
that in the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to engage in handicrafts
also, no doubt, tended to stereotype a form of dress unfitted for manual
labour. The idea of the "gaberdine" being enforced by law upon the Jews
as a distinctive garment is probably due to Shakespeare's use in the
_Merchant of Venice_, I. iii. 113. The mark that the Jews were obliged
to wear generally on the outer garment was the badge. This was first
enforced by the fourth Lateran Council of 1215. The "badge" (Lat.
_rota_; Fr. _rouelle_, wheel) took generally the shape of a circle of
cloth worn on the breast. It varied in colour at different times. In
France it was of yellow, later of red and white; in England it took the
form of two bands or stripes, first of white, then of yellow. In Edward
I.'s reign it was made in the shape of the Tables of the Law (see the
_Jewish Encyclopedia_, s.v. "Costume" and "Badge"). The derivation of
the word is obscure. It apparently occurs first in O. Fr. in the forms
_gauverdine_, _galvardine_, and thence into Ital. as _gavardina_, and
Span. _gabardina_, a form which has influenced the English word. The
_New English Dictionary_ suggests a connexion with the O.H. Ger.
_wallevart_, pilgrimage. Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) refers it to Span.
_gaban_, coat, cloak; _cabana_, hut, cabin.
GABES, a town of Tunisia, at the head of the gulf of the same name, and
70 m. by sea S.W. of Sfax. It occupies the site of the Tacape of the
Romans and consists of an open port and European quarter and several
small Arab towns built in an oasis of date palms. This oasis is
copiously watered by a stream called the Wad Gabes. The European quarter
is situated on the right bank of the Wad near its mouth, and adjacent
are the Arab towns of Jara and Menzel. The houses of the native towns
are built largely of dressed stones and broken columns from the ruins of
Tacape. Gabes is the military headquarters for southern Tunisia. The
population of the oasis is about 20,000, including some 1500 Europeans.
There is a considerable export trade in dates.
Gabes lies at the head of the shat country of Tunisia and is intimately
connected with the scheme of Commandant Roudaire to create a Saharan sea
by making a channel from the Mediterranean to these shats (large salt
lakes below the level of the sea). Roudaire proposed to cut a canal
through the belt of high ground between Gabes and the shats, and fixed
on Wad Melah, a spot 10 m. N. of Gabes, for the sea end of the channel
(see SAHARA). The company formed to execute his project became simply an
agricultural concern and by the sinking of artesian wells created an
oasis of olive and palm trees.
The Gulf of Gabes, the _Syrtis Minor_ of the ancients, is a
semi-circular shallow indentation of the Mediterranean, about 50 m.
across from the Kerkenna Islands, opposite Sfax on its northern shore,
to Jerba Island, which lies at its southern end. The waters of the gulf
abound in fish and sponge.
GABII, an ancient city of Latium, between 12 and 13 m. E. of Rome, on
the Via Praenestina, which was in early times known as the Via Gabina.
The part played by it in the story of the expulsion of the Tarquins is
well known; but its importance in the earliest history of Rome rests
upon other evidence--the continuance of certain ancient usages which
imply a period of hostility between the two cities, such as the adoption
of the _cinctus Gabinus_ by the consul when war was to be declared. We
hear of a treaty of alliance with Rome in the time of Tarquinius
Superbus, the original text of which, written on a bullock's skin, was
said by Dionysius of Halicarnassus to be still extant in his day. Its
subsequent history is obscure, and we only hear of it again in the 1st
century B.C. as a small and insignificant place, though its desolation
is no doubt exaggerated by the poets. From inscriptions we learn that
from the time of Augustus or Tiberius onwards it enjoyed a municipal
organization. Its baths were well known, and Hadrian, who was
responsible for much of the renewed prosperity of the small towns of
Latium, appears to have been a very liberal patron, building a
senate-house (_Curia Aelia Augusta_) and an aqueduct. After the 3rd
century Gabii practically disappears from history, though its bishops
continue to be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of
the 9th. The primitive city occupied the eastern bank of the lake, the
citadel being now marked by the ruins of the medieval fortress of
Castiglione, while the Roman town extended farther to the south. The
most conspicuous relic of the latter is a ruined temple, generally
attributed to Juno, which had six columns in the front and six on each
side. The plan is interesting, but the style of architecture was
apparently mixed. To the east of the temple lay the Forum, where
excavations were made by Gavin Hamilton in 1792. All the objects found
were placed in the Villa Borghese, but many of them were carried off to
Paris by Napoleon, and still remain in the Louvre. The statues and busts
are especially numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus,
Diana, Nemesis, &c., they comprise Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus,
Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and Sabina, M.
Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Geta, Gordianus Pius and others. The
inscriptions relate mainly to local and municipal matters.
See E.Q. Visconti, _Monumenti Gabini della Villa Pinciana_ (Rome,
1797, and Milan, 1835); T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at
Rome_, i. 180 seq.; G. Pinza in _Bull. Com._ (1903), 321 seq.
(T. As.)
GABINIUS, AULUS, Roman statesman and general, and supporter of Pompey, a
prominent figure in the later days of the Roman republic. In 67 B.C.,
when tribune of the people, he brought forward the famous law (_Lex
Gabinia_) conferring upon Pompey the command in the war against the
Mediterranean pirates, with extensive powers which gave him absolute
control over that sea and the coasts for 50 m. inland. By two other
measures of Gabinius loans of money to foreign ambassadors in Rome were
made non-actionable (as a check on the corruption of the senate) and the
senate was ordered to give audience to foreign envoys on certain fixed
days (1st of Feb.-1st of March). In 61 Gabinius, then praetor,
endeavoured to win the public favour by providing games on a scale of
unusual splendour, and in 58 managed to secure the consulship, not
without suspicion of bribery. During his term of office he aided Publius
Clodius in bringing about the exile of Cicero. In 57 Gabinius went as
proconsul to Syria. On his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus in the
high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, introduced important
changes in the government of Judaea, and rebuilt several towns. During
his absence in Egypt, whither he had been sent by Pompey, without the
consent of the senate, to restore Ptolemy Auletes to his kingdom, Syria
had been devastated by robbers, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had
again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus of the
high-priesthood. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order, and in 54
handed over the province to his successor, M. Licinius Crassus. The
knights, who as farmers of the taxes had suffered heavy losses during
the disturbances in Syria, were greatly embittered against Gabinius,
and, when he appeared in the senate to give an account of his
governorship, he was brought to trial on three counts, all involving a
capital offence. On the charge of _majestas_ (high treason) incurred by
having left his province for Egypt without the consent of the senate and
in defiance of the Sibylline books, he was acquitted; it is said that
the judges were bribed, and even Cicero, who had recently attacked
Gabinius with the utmost virulence, was persuaded by Pompey to say as
little as he could in his evidence to damage his former enemy. On the
second charge, that of _repetundae_ (extortion during the administration
of his province), with especial reference to the 10,000 talents paid by
Ptolemy for his restoration, he was found guilty, in spite of evidence
offered on his behalf by Pompey and witnesses from Alexandria and the
eloquence of Cicero, who had been induced to plead his cause. Nothing
but Cicero's wish to do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to
take up what must have been a distasteful task; indeed, it is hinted
that the half-heartedness of the defence materially contributed to
Gabinius's condemnation. The third charge, that of _ambitus_
(illegalities committed during his canvass for the consulship), was
consequently dropped; Gabinius went into exile, and his property was
confiscated. After the outbreak of the civil war, he was recalled by
Caesar in 49, and entered his service, but took no active part against
his old patron Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalus, he was
commissioned to transport some recently levied troops to Illyricum. On
his way thither by land, he was attacked by the Dalmatians and with
difficulty made his way to Salonae (Dalmatia). Here he bravely defended
himself against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus Octavius,
but in a few months died of illness (48 or the beginning of 47).
See Dio Cassius xxxvi. 23-36, xxxviii. 13. 30, xxxix. 55-63; Plutarch,
_Pompey_, 25. 48; Josephus, _Antiq._ xiv. 4-6; Appian, _Illyrica_, 12,
_Bell. Civ._ ii. 24. 59; Cicero, _ad Att._ vi. 2, _ad Q. Fratrem_, ii.
13, _Post reditum in senatu_, 4-8, _Pro lege Manilia_, 17, 18, 19;
exhaustive article by Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
Encyclopadie_; and monograph by G. Stocchi, _Aulo Gabinio e i suoi
processi_ (1892).
GABION (a French word derived through Ital. _gabbione_, _gabbia_, from
Lat. _cavea_, a cage), a cylindrical basket without top or bottom, used
in revetting fortifications and for numerous other purposes of military
engineering. The gabion is filled with earth when in position. The
ordinary brushwood gabion in the British service has a diameter of 2 ft.
and a height of 2 ft. 9 in. There are several forms of gabion in use,
the best known being the Willesden paper band gabion and the Jones iron
or steel band gabion.
GABLE, in architecture, the upper portion of a wall from the level of
the eaves or gutter to the ridge of the roof. The word is a southern
English form of the Scottish _gavel_, or of an O. Fr. word _gable_ or
_jable_, both ultimately derived from O. Norwegian _gafl_. In other
Teutonic languages, similar words, such as Ger. _Gabel_ and Dutch
_gaffel_, mean "fork," cf. Lat. _gabalus_, gallows, which is Teutonic in
origin; "gable" is represented by such forms as Ger. _Giebel_ and Dutch
_gevel_. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the primary meaning
of all these words is probably "top" or "head," cf. Gr. [Greek:
kephale], and refers to the forking timbers at the end of a roof. The
gable corresponds to the pediment in classic buildings where the roof
was of low pitch. If the roof is carried across on the top of the wall
so that the purlins project beyond its face, they are masked or hidden
by a "barge board," but as a rule the roof butts up against the back of
the wall which is raised so as to form a parapet. In the middle ages the
gable end was invariably parallel to the roof and was crowned by coping
stones properly weathered on both sides to throw off the rain. In the
16th century in England variety was given to the outline of the gable by
a series of alternating semi-circular and ogee curves. In Holland,
Belgium and Scotland a succession of steps was employed, which in the
latter country are known as crow gables or corbie steps. In Germany and
the Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries the step gables assume
very elaborate forms of an extremely rococo character, and they are
sometimes of immense size, with windows in two or three storeys. Designs
of a similar rococo character are found in England, but only in
crestings such as those which surmount the towers of Wollaton and the
gatehouse of Hardwick Hall.
_Gabled Towers_, in architecture, are those towers which are finished
with gables instead of parapets, as at Sompting, Sussex. Many of the
German Romanesque towers are gabled.
GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS (1786-1853), German Hegelian philosopher, son of
J.P. Gabler (below), was born on the 30th of July 1786, at Altdorf in
Bavaria. In 1804 he accompanied his father to Jena, where he completed
his studies in philosophy and law, and became an enthusiastic disciple
of Hegel. After holding various educational appointments, he was in 1821
appointed rector of the Bayreuth gymnasium, and in 1830 general
superintendent of schools. In 1835 he succeeded Hegel in the Berlin
chair. He died at Teplitz on the 13th of September 1853. His works
include _Lehrbuch d. philos. Propadeutik_ (1st vol., Erlangen, 1827), a
popular exposition of the Hegelian system; _De verae philosophiae erga
religionem Christianam pietate_ (Berlin, 1836), and _Die Hegel'sche
Philosophie_ (ib., 1843), a defence of the Hegelian philosophy against
Trendelenburg.
GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP (1753-1826), German Protestant theologian of the
school of J.J. Griesbach and J.G. Eichhorn, was born at
Frankfort-on-Main on the 4th of June 1753. In 1772 he entered the
university of Jena as a theological student. In 1776 he was on the point
of abandoning theological pursuits, when the arrival of Griesbach
inspired him with new ardour. After having been successively _Repetent_
in Gottingen and teacher in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia)
and Altdorf (Bavaria), he was, in 1785, appointed second professor of
theology in the university of Altdorf, whence he was translated to a
chair in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812. Here he
died on the 17th of February 1826. At Altdorf Gabler published
(1791-1793) a new edition, with introduction and notes, of Eichhorn's
_Urgeschichte_; this was followed, two years afterwards, by a supplement
entitled _Neuer Versuch uber die mosaische Schopfungsgeschichte_. He was
also the author of many essays which were characterized by much critical
acumen, and which had considerable influence on the course of German
thought on theological and Biblical questions. From 1798 to 1800 he was
editor of the _Neuestes theologisches Journal_, first conjointly with
H.K.A. Hanlein (1762-1829), C.F. von Ammon (1766-1850) and H.E.G.
Paulus, and afterwards unassisted; from 1801 to 1804 of the _Journal fur
theologische Litteratur_; and from 1805 to 1811 of the _Journal fur
auserlesene theologische Litteratur_.
Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831); and a
memoir appeared in 1827 by W. Schroter.
GABLETS (diminutive of "gable"), in architecture, triangular
terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English and
Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally terminated in
pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally plain, and very sharp
in pitch. In the Decorated period they are often enriched with panelling
and crockets. They are sometimes finished with small crosses, but of
oftener with finials.
GABLONZ (Czech, _Jablonec_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 94 m. N.E. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,086, mostly German. It is the chief seat
of the glass pearl and imitation jewelry manufacture, and has also an
important textile industry, and produces large quantities of hardware,
papier mache and other paper goods.
GABORIAU, EMILE (1833-1873), French novelist, was born at Saujon
(Charente Inferieure) on the 9th of November 1833. He became secretary
to Paul Feval, and, after publishing some novels and miscellaneous
writings, found his real gift in _L'Affaire Lerouge_ (1866), a detective
novel which was published in the _Pays_ and at once made his reputation.
The story was produced on the stage in 1872. A long series of novels
dealing with the annals of the police court followed, and proved very
popular. Among them are: _Le Crime d'Orcival_ (1867), _Monsieur Lecoq_
(1869), _La Vie infernale_ (1870), _Les Esclaves de Paris_ (1869),
_L'Argent des autres_ (1874). Gaboriau died in Paris on the 28th of
September 1873.
GABRIEL (Heb. [Hebrew: Gavriel], man of God), in the Bible, the heavenly
messenger (see Angel) sent to Daniel to explain the vision of the ram
and the he-goat, and to communicate the prediction of the Seventy Weeks
(Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21). He was also employed to announce the birth of
John the Baptist to Zacharias, and that of the Messiah to the Virgin
Mary (Luke i. 19, 26). Because he stood in the divine presence (see Luke
i. 19; Rev. viii. 2; and cf. Tobit xii. 15), both Jewish and Christian
writers generally speak of him as an archangel. In the _Book of Enoch_
"the four great archangels" are Michael, Uriel, Suriel or Raphael, and
Gabriel, who is set over "all the powers" and shares the work of
intercession. His name frequently occurs in the Jewish literature of the
later post-Biblical period. Thus, according to the Targum
Pseudo-Jonathan, he was the man who showed the way to Joseph (Gen.
xxxvii. 15); and in Deut. xxxiv. 6 it is affirmed that he, along with
Michael, Uriel, Jophiel, Jephephiah and the Metatron, buried the body of
Moses. In the Targum on 2 Chron. xxxii. 21 he is named as the angel who
destroyed the host of Sennacherib; and in similar writings of a still
later period he is spoken of as the spirit who presides over fire,
thunder, the ripening of the fruits of the earth and similar processes.
In the Koran great prominence is given to his function as the medium of
divine revelation, and, according to the Mahommedan interpreters, he it
is who is referred to by the appellations "Holy Spirit" and "Spirit of
Truth." He is specially commemorated in the calendars of the Greek,
Coptic and Armenian churches.
GABRIEL HOUNDS, a spectral pack supposed in the North of England to
foretell death by their yelping at night. The legend is that they are
the souls of unbaptized children wandering through the air till the day
of judgment. They are also sometimes called Gabriel or Gabble Ratchet. A
very prosaic explanation of this nocturnal noise is given by J.C.
Atkinson in his _Cleveland Glossary_ (1868). "This," he writes, "is the
name for a yelping sound heard at night, more or less resembling the cry
of hounds or yelping of dogs, probably due to large flocks of wild geese
which chance to be flying by night."
See further Joseph Lucas, _Studies in Nidderdale_ (1882), pp. 156-157.
GABRIELI, GIOVANNI (1557-1612?), Italian musical composer, was born at
Venice in 1557, and was a pupil of his uncle Andrea, a distinguished
musician of the contrapuntal school and organist of St Mark's. He
succeeded Claudio Merulo as first organist of the same church in 1585,
and died at Venice either in 1612 or 1613. He was remarkable for his
compositions for several choirs, writing frequently for 12 or 16 voices,
and is important as an early experimenter in chromatic harmony. It was
probably for this reason that he made a special point of combining
voices with instruments, being thus one of the founders of choral and
orchestral composition. Among his pupils was Heinrich Schutz; and the
church of St Mark, from the time of the Gabrielis onwards down to that
of Lotti, became one of the most important musical schools in Europe.
See also Winterfeld, _Johann Gabrieli und seine Zeit_ (1834).
GABUN, a district on the west coast of Africa, one of the colonies
forming French Congo (q.v.). It derives its designation from the
settlements on the Gabun river or Rio de Gabao. The Gabun, in reality an
estuary of the sea, lies immediately north of the equator. At the
entrance, between Cape Joinville or Santa Clara on the N. and Cape
Pangara or Sandy Point on the S., it has a width of about 10 m. It
maintains a breadth of some 7 m. for a distance of 40 m. inland, when it
contracts into what is known as the Rio Olambo, which is not more than 2
or 3 m. from bank to bank. Several rivers, of which the Komo is the
chief, discharge their waters into the estuary. The Gabun was discovered
by Portuguese navigators towards the close of the 15th century, and was
named from its fanciful resemblance to a _gabao_ or cabin. On the small
island of Konike, which lies about the centre of the estuary, scanty
remains of a Portuguese fort have been discovered. The three principal
tribes in the Gabun are the Mpongwe, the Fang and the Bakalai.
GACE BRULE (d. c. 1220), French _trouvere_, was a native of Champagne.
It has generally been asserted that he taught Thibaut of Champagne the
art of verse, an assumption which is based on a statement in the
_Chroniques de Saint-Denis_: "Si fist entre lui [Thibaut] et Gace Brule
les plus belles chancons et les plus delitables et melodieuses qui onque
fussent oies." This has been taken as evidence of collaboration between
the two poets. The passage will bear the interpretation that with those
of Gace the songs of Thibaut were the best hitherto known. Paulin Paris,
in the _Histoire litteraire de la France_ (vol. xxiii.), quotes a number
of facts that fix an earlier date for Gace's songs. Gace is the author
of the earliest known _jeu parti_. The interlocutors are Gace and a
count of Brittany who is identified with Geoffrey of Brittany, son of
Henry II. of England. Gace appears to have been banished from Champagne
and to have found refuge in Brittany. A deed dated 1212 attests a
contract between Gatho Brusle (Gace Brule) and the Templars for a piece
of land in Dreux. It seems most probable that Gace died before 1220, at
the latest in 1225.
See Gedeon Busken Huet, _Chansons de Gace Brule_, edited for the
Societe des anciens textes francais (1902), with an exhaustive
introduction. Dante quotes a song by Gace, _Ire d'amor qui en mon cuer
repaire_, which he attributes erroneously to Thibaut of Navarre (_De
vulgari eloquentia_, p. 151, ed. P. Rajna, Florence, 1895).
GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1885), Belgian man of letters, was born in
Paris on the 12th of March 1800. He entered the administration of the
royal archives in 1826, and was appointed director-general, a post which
he held for fifty-five years. During this long period he reorganized the
service, added to the records by copies taken in other European
collections, travelled for purposes of study, and carried on a wide
correspondence with other keepers of records, and with historical
scholars. He also edited and published many valuable collections of
state papers; a full list of his various publications was printed in the
_Annuaire de l'academie royale de Belgique_ by Ch. Piot in 1888, pp.
220-236. It includes 246 entries. He was the author of several
historical writings, of which the best known are _Don Carlos et Philippe
II_ (1867), _Etudes et notices historiques concernant l'histoire des
Pays-Bas_ (1863), _Histoire de la Belgique au commencement du XVIII^e
siecle_ (1880), _Histoire politique et diplomatique de P.P. Rubens_
(1877), all published at Brussels. His chief editorial works are the
_Actes des etats generaux des Pays-Bas 1576-1585_ (Brussels, 1861-1866),
_Collection de documents inedits concernant l'histoire de la Belgique_
(Brussels, 1833-1835), and the _Relations des ambassadeurs Venitiens sur
Charles V et Philippe II_ (Brussels, 1855). Gachard died in Brussels on
the 24th of December 1885.
GAD, in the Bible. 1. A prophet or rather a "seer" (cp. 1 Sam. ix. 9),
who was a companion of David from his early days. He is first mentioned
in 1 Sam. xxii. 5 as having warned David to take refuge in Judah, and
appears again in 2 Sam. xxiv. 11 seq. to make known Yahweh's displeasure
at the numbering of the people. Together with Nathan he is represented
in post-exilic tradition as assisting to organize the musical service of
the temple (2 Chron. xxix. 25), and like Nathan and Samuel he is said to
have written an account of David's deeds (1 Chron. xxix. 29); a history
of David in accordance with later tradition and upon the lines of later
prophetic ideas is far from improbable.
2. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; a tribe of Israel (Gen. xxx.
11). The name is that of the god of "luck" or fortune, mentioned in Isa.
lxv. 11 (R.V. mg.), and in several names of places, e.g. Baal-Gad (Josh.
xi. 17, xii. 7), and possibly also in Dibon-Gad, Migdol-Gad and
Nahal-Gad.[1] There is another etymology in Gen. xlix. 19, where the
name is played on: "Gad, a plundering troop (_gedud_) shall plunder him
(_yegudennu_), but he shall plunder at their heels." There are no
traditions of the personal history of Gad. One of the earliest
references to the name is the statement on the inscription of Mesha,
king of Moab (about 850 B.C.), that the "men of Gad" had occupied
Ataroth (E. of Dead Sea) from of old, and that the king of Israel had
fortified the city. This is in the district ascribed to Reuben, with
which tribe the fortunes of Gad were very closely connected. In Numbers
xxxii. 34 sqq., the cities of Gad appear to lie chiefly to the south of
Heshbon; in Joshua xiii. 24-28 they lie almost wholly to the north;
while other texts present discrepancies which are not easily reconciled
with either passage. Possibly some cities were common to both Reuben and
Gad, and perhaps others more than once changed hands. That Gad, at one
time at least, held territory as far south as Pisgah and Nebo would
follow from Deut. xxxiii. 21, if the rendering of the Targums be
accepted, "and he looked out the first part for himself, because there
was the portion of the buried law-giver." It is certain, however, that,
at a late period, this tribe was localized chiefly in Gilead, in the
district which now goes by the name of Jebel Jil'ad. The traditions
encircling this district point, it would seem, to the tribe having been
of Aramaean origin (see the story of Jacob); at all events its position
was extremely exposed, and its population at the best must have been a
mixed one. Its richness and fertility made it a prey to the marauding
nomads of the desert; but the allusion in the Blessing of Jacob gives
the tribe a character for bravery, and David's men of Gad (1 Chron. xii.
8) were famous in tradition. Although rarely mentioned by name (the
geographical term Gilead is usual), the history of Gad enters into the
lives of Jephthah and Saul, and in the wars of Ammon and Moab it must
have played some part. It followed Jeroboam in the great revolt against
the house of David, and its later fortunes until 734 B.C. (1 Chron. v.
26) would be those of the northern kingdom.
See, for a critical discussion of the data, H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._
cols. 1579 sqq.; also GILEAD; MANASSEH; REUBEN.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] See G.B. Gray, _Heb. Proper Names_, pp. 134 seq., 145.
GADAG, or GARAG, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of
Bombay, 43 m. E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 30,652. It is an important
railway junction on the Southern Mahratta system, with a growing trade
in raw cotton, and also in the weaving of cotton and silk. There are
factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a spinning mill. The town
contains remains of a number of temples, some of which exhibit fine
carving, while inscriptions in them indicate the existence of Gadag as
early as the 10th century.
GADARA, an ancient town of the Syrian Decapolis, the capital of Peraea,
and the political centre of the small district of Gadaris. It was a
Greek city, probably entirely non-Syrian in origin. The earliest
recorded event in its history is its capture by Antiochus III. of Syria
in 218 B.C.; how long it may have existed before this date is unknown.
About twenty years later it was besieged for ten months by Alexander
Jannaeus. It was restored by Pompey, and in 30 B.C. was presented by
Augustus to Herod the Great; on Herod's death it was reunited to Syria.
The coins of the place bear Greek legends, and such inscriptions as have
been found on its site are Greek. Its governing and wealthy classes were
probably Greek, the common people being Hellenized and Judaized
Aramaeans. The community was Hellenistically organized, and though
dependent on Syria and acknowledging the supremacy of Rome it was
governed by a democratic senate and managed its own internal affairs. In
the Jewish war it surrendered to Vespasian, but in the Byzantine period
it again flourished and was the seat of a bishop. It was renowned for
its hot sulphur baths; the springs still exist and show the remains of
bath-houses. The temperature of the springs is 110 deg. F. This town was
the birthplace of Meleager the anthologist. There is a confusion in the
narrative of the healing of the demoniac between the very similar names
_Gadara_, _Gerasa_ and _Gergesa_; but the probabilities, both textual
and geographical, are in favour of the reading of Mark (_Gerasenes_, ch.
v. 1, revised version); and that the miracle has nothing to do with
Gadara, but took place at _Kersa_, on the eastern shore of the Sea of
Galilee.
Gadara is now represented by _Umm Kais_, a group of ruins about 6 m.
S.E. of the Sea of Galilee, and 1194 ft. above the sea-level. There are
very fine tombs with carved sarcophagi in the neighbourhood. There are
the remains of two theatres and (probably) a temple, and many heaps of
carved stones, representing ancient buildings of various kinds. The
walls are, or were, traceable for a circuit of 2 m., and there are also
the remains of a street of columns. The natives are rapidly destroying
the ruins by quarrying building material out of them. (R. A. S. M.)
GADDI. Four painters of the early Florentine school--father, son and two
grandsons--bore this name.
1. GADDO GADDI was, according to Vasari, an intimate friend of Cimabue,
and afterwards of Giotto. The dates of birth and death have been given
as 1239 and about 1312; these are probably too early; he may have been
born towards 1260, and may have died in or about 1333. He was a painter
and mosaicist, is said to have executed the great mosaic inside the
portal of the cathedral of Florence, representing the coronation of the
Virgin, and may with more certainty be credited with the mosaics inside
the portico of the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, relating to the
legend of the foundation of that church; their date is probably 1308. In
the original cathedral of St Peter in Rome he also executed the mosaics
of the choir, and those of the front representing on a colossal scale
God the Father, with many other figures; likewise an altarpiece in the
church of S. Maria Novella, Florence; these works no longer exist. It is
ordinarily held that no picture (as distinct from mosaics) by Gaddo
Gaddi is now extant. Messrs Crowe & Cavalcaselle, however, consider that
the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore bear so strong a resemblance in style
to four of the frescoes in the upper church of Assisi, representing
incidents in the life of St Francis (frescoes 2, 3, 4 and especially 5,
which shows Francis stripping himself, and protected by the bishop),
that those frescoes likewise may, with considerable confidence, be
ascribed to Gaddi. Some other extant mosaics are attributed to him, but
without full authentication. This artist laid the foundation of a very
large fortune, which continued increasing, and placed his progeny in a
highly distinguished worldly position.
2. TADDEO GADDI (about 1300-1366, or later), son of Gaddo, was born in
Florence, and is usually said to have been one of Giotto's most
industrious assistants for a period of 24 years. This can hardly be
other than an exaggeration; it is probable that he began painting on his
own account towards 1330, when Giotto went to Naples. Taddeo also traded
as a merchant, and had a branch establishment in Venice. He was a
painter, mosaicist and architect. He executed in fresco, in the
Baroncelli (now Giugni) chapel, in the Florentine church of S. Croce,
the "Virgin and Child between Four Prophets," on the funeral monument at
the entrance, and on the walls various incidents in the legend of the
Virgin, from the expulsion of Joachim from the Temple up to the
Nativity. In the subject of the "Presentation of the Virgin in the
Temple" are the two heads traditionally accepted as portraits of Gaddo
Gaddi and Andrea Tafi; they, at any rate, are not likely to be portraits
of those artists from the life. On the ceiling of the same chapel are
the "Eight Virtues." In the museum of Berlin is an altarpiece by Taddeo,
the "Virgin and Child," and some other subjects, dated 1334; in the
Naples gallery, a triptych, dated 1336, of the "Virgin enthroned along
with Four Saints," the "Baptism of Jesus," and his "Deposition from the
Cross"; in the sacristy of S. Pietro a Megognano, near Poggibonsi, an
altarpiece dated 1355, the "Virgin and Child enthroned amid Angels." A
series of paintings, partly from the life of St Francis, which Taddeo
executed for the presses in S. Croce, are now divided between the
Florentine Academy and the Berlin Museum; the compositions are taken
from or founded on Giotto, to whom, indeed, the Berlin authorities have
ascribed their examples. Taddeo also painted some frescoes still extant
in Pisa, besides many in S. Croce and other Florentine buildings, which
have perished. He deservedly ranks as one of the most eminent successors
of Giotto; it may be said that he continued working up the material
furnished by that great painter, with comparatively feeble inspiration
of his own. His figures are vehement in action, long and slender in
form; his execution rapid and somewhat conventional. To Taddeo are
generally ascribed the celebrated frescoes--those of the ceiling and
left or western wall--in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in the church of
S. Maria Novella, Florence; this is, however, open to considerable
doubt, although it may perhaps be conceded that the designs for the
ceiling were furnished by Taddeo. Dubious also are the three pictures
ascribed to him in the National Gallery, London. In mosaic he has left
some work in the baptistery of Florence. As an architect he supplied in
1336 the plans for the present Ponte Vecchio, and those for the original
(not the present) Ponte S. Trinita; in 1337 he was engaged on the church
of Or San Michele; and he carried on after Giotto's death the work of
the unrivalled Campanile.
3. AGNOLO GADDI, born in Florence, was the son of Taddeo; the date of
his birth has been given as 1326, but possibly 1350 is nearer the mark.
He was a painter and mosaicist, trained by his father, and a merchant as
well; in middle age he settled down to commercial life in Venice, and he
added greatly to the family wealth. He died in Florence in October 1396.
His paintings show much early promise, hardly sustained as he advanced
in life. One of the earliest, at S. Jacopo tra' Fossi, Florence,
represents the "Resurrection of Lazarus." Another probably youthful
performance is the series of frescoes of the Pieve di Prato--legends of
the Virgin and of her Sacred Girdle, bestowed upon St Thomas, and
brought to Prato in the 11th century by Michele dei Dagomari; the
"Marriage of Mary" is one of the best of this series, the later
compositions in which have suffered much by renewals. In S. Croce he
painted, in eight frescoes, the legend of the Cross, beginning with the
archangel Michael giving Seth a branch from the tree of knowledge, and
ending with the emperor Heraclius carrying the Cross as he enters
Jerusalem; in this picture is a portrait of the painter himself. Agnolo
composed his subjects better than Taddeo; he had more dignity and
individuality in the figures, and was a clear and bold colourist; the
general effect is laudably decorative, but the drawing is poor, and the
works show best from a distance. Various other productions of this
master exist, and many have perished. Cennino Cennini, the author of the
celebrated treatise on painting, was one of his pupils.
4. GIOVANNI GADDI, brother of Agnolo, was also a painter of promise. He
died young in 1383.
Vasari, and Crowe and Cavelcaselle can be consulted as to the Gaddi.
Other notices appear here and there--such as _La Cappella de'
Rinuccini in S. Croce di Firenze_, by G. Ajazzi (1845). (W. M. R.)
GADE, NIELS WILHELM (1817-1890), Danish composer, was born at
Copenhagen, on the 22nd of February 1817, his father being a musical
instrument maker. He was intended for his father's trade, but his
passion for a musician's career, made evident by the ease and skill with
which he learnt to play upon a number of instruments, was not to be
denied. Though he became proficient on the violin under Wexschall, and
in the elements of theory under Weyse and Berggreen, he was to a great
extent self-taught. His opportunities of hearing and playing in the
great masterpieces were many, since he was a member of the court band.
In 1840 his _Aladdin_ and his overture of _Ossian_ attracted attention,
and in 1841 his _Nachklange aus Ossian_ overture gained the local
musical society's prize, the judges being Spohr and Schneider. This work
also attracted the notice of the king, who gave the composer a stipend
which enabled him to go to Leipzig and Italy. In 1844 Gade conducted the
Gewandhaus concerts in Leipzig during Mendelssohn's absence, and on the
latter's death became chief conductor. In 1848, on the outbreak of the
Holstein War, he returned to Copenhagen, where he was appointed organist
and conductor of the Musik-Verein. In 1852 he married a daughter of the
composer J.P.E. Hartmann. He became court conductor in 1861, and was
pensioned by the government in 1876--the year in which he visited
Birmingham to conduct his _Crusaders_. This work, and the
_Fruhlingsfantasie_, the _Erlkonigs Tochter_, _Fruhlingsbotschaft_ and
_Psyche_ (written for Birmingham in 1882) have enjoyed a wide
popularity. Indeed, they represent the strength and the weakness of
Gade's musical ability quite as well as any of his eight symphonies (the
best of which are the first and fourth, while the fifth has an obbligato
pianoforte part). Gade was distinctly a romanticist, but his music is
highly polished and beautifully finished, lyrical rather than dramatic
and effective. Much of the pianoforte music, _Aquarellen_, _Spring
Flowers_, for instance, enjoyed a considerable vogue, as did the
_Novelletten_ trio; but Gade's opera _Mariotta_ has not been heard
outside the Copenhagen opera house. He died at Copenhagen on the 21st of
December 1890.
GADOLINIUM (symbol Gd., atomic weight 157.3), one of the rare earth
metals (see ERBIUM). The element was discovered in 1880 in the mineral
samarskite by C. Marignac (_Comptes rendus_, 1880, 90, p. 899; _Ann.
chim. phys._, 1880 [5] 20, p. 535). G. Urbain (_Comptes rendus_, 1905,
140, p. 583) separates the metal by crystallizing the double nitrate of
nickel and gadolinium. The salts show absorption bands in the
ultra-violet. The oxide Gd2O3 is colourless (Lecoq de Boisbaudran).
GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), American patriot, was born in
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. His father, Thomas Gadsden, was for
a time the king's collector for the port of Charleston. Christopher went
to school near Bristol, in England, returned to America in 1741, was
afterwards employed in a counting house in Philadelphia, and became a
merchant and planter at Charleston. In 1759 he was captain of an
artillery company in an expedition against the Cherokees. He was a
member of the South Carolina legislature almost continuously from 1760
to 1780, and represented his province in the Stamp Act Congress of 1765
and in the Continental Congress in 1774-1776. In February 1776 he was
placed in command of all the military forces of South Carolina, and in
October of the same year was commissioned a brigadier-general and was
taken into the Continental service; but on account of a dispute arising
out of a conflict between state and Federal authority resigned his
command in 1777. He was lieutenant-governor of his state in 1780, when
Charleston was surrendered to the British. For about three months
following this event he was held as a prisoner on parole within the
limits of Charleston; then, because of his influence in deterring others
from exchanging their paroles for the privileges of British subjects, he
was seized, taken to St Augustine, Florida, and there, because he would
not give another parole to those who had violated the former agreement
affecting him, he was confined for forty-two weeks in a dungeon. In 1782
Gadsden was again elected a member of his state legislature; he was also
elected governor, but declined to serve on the ground that he was too
old and infirm; in 1788 he was a member of the convention which ratified
for South Carolina the Federal constitution; and in 1790 he was a member
of the convention which framed the new state constitution. He died in
Charleston on the 28th of August 1805. From the time that Governor
Thomas Boone, in 1762, pronounced his election to the legislature
improper, and dissolved the House in consequence, Gadsden was hostile to
the British administration. He was an ardent leader of the opposition to
the Stamp Act, advocating even then a separation of the colonies from
the mother country; and in the Continental Congress of 1774 he discussed
the situation on the basis of inalienable rights and liberties, and
urged an immediate attack on General Thomas Gage, that he might be
defeated before receiving reinforcements.
GADSDEN, JAMES (1788-1858), American soldier and diplomat, was born at
Charleston, S.C., on the 15th of May 1788, the grandson of Christopher
Gadsden. He graduated at Yale in 1806, became a merchant in his native
city, and in the war of 1812 served in the regular U.S. Army as a
lieutenant of engineers. In 1818 he served against the Seminoles, with
the rank of captain, as aide on the staff of Gen. Andrew Jackson. In
October 1820 he became inspector-general of the Southern Division, with
the rank of colonel, and as such assisted in the occupation and the
establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. From August
1821 to March 1822 he was adjutant-general, but, his appointment not
being confirmed by the Senate, he left the army and became a planter in
Florida. He served in the Territorial legislature, and as Federal
commissioner superintended in 1823 the removal of the Seminole Indians
to South Florida. In 1832 he negotiated with the Seminoles a treaty
which provided for their removal within three years to lands in what is
now the state of Oklahoma; but the Seminoles refused to move,
hostilities again broke out, and in the second Seminole War Gadsden was
quartermaster-general of the Florida Volunteers from February to April
1836. Returning to South Carolina he became a rice planter, and was
president of the South Carolina railway. In 1853 President Franklin
Pierce appointed him minister to Mexico, with which country he
negotiated the so-called "Gadsden treaty" (signed the 30th of December
1853), which gave to the United States freedom of transit for mails,
merchandise and troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and provided
for a readjustment of the boundary established by the treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquiring 45,535 sq. m. of land,
since known as the "Gadsden Purchase," in what is now New Mexico and
Arizona. In addition, Article XI. of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
which bound the United States to prevent incursions of Indians from the
United States into Mexico, and to restore Mexican prisoners captured by
such Indians, was abrogated, and for these considerations the United
States paid to Mexico the sum of $10,000,000. Ratifications of the
treaty, slightly modified by the Senate, were exchanged on the 30th of
June 1854; before this, however, Gadsden had retired from his post. The
boundary line between Mexico and the "Gadsden Purchase" was marked by
joint commissions appointed in 1855 and 1891, the second commission
publishing its report in 1899. Gadsden died at Charleston, South
Carolina, on the 25th of December 1858.
An elder brother, CHRISTOPHER EDWARDS GADSDEN (1785-1852), was
Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina in 1839-1852.
GADWALL, a word of obscure origin,[1] the common English name of the
duck, called by Linnaeus _Anas strepera_, but considered by many modern
ornithologists to require removal from the genus _Anas_ to that of
_Chaulelasmus_ or _Ctenorhynchus_, of either of which it is almost the
sole species. Its geographical distribution is almost identical with
that of the common wild duck or mallard (see DUCK), since it is found
over the greater part of the northern hemisphere; but, save in India,
where it is one of the most abundant species of duck during the cold
weather, it is hardly anywhere so numerous, and both in the eastern
parts of the United States and in the British Islands it is rather rare
than otherwise. Its habits also, so far as they have been observed,
greatly resemble those of the wild duck; but its appearance on the water
is very different, its small head, flat back, elongated form and
elevated stern rendering it recognizable by the fowler even at such a
distance as hinders him from seeing its very distinct plumage. In
coloration the two sexes appear almost equally sombre; but on closer
inspection the drake exhibits a pencilled grey coloration and upper
wing-coverts of a deep chestnut, which are almost wanting in his soberly
clad partner. She closely resembles the female of the mallard in colour,
but has, like her own male, some of the secondary quills of a pure
white, presenting a patch of that colour which forms one of the most
readily perceived distinctive characters of the species. The gadwall is
a bird of some interest in England, since it is one of the few that have
been induced, by the protection afforded them in certain localities, to
resume the indigenous position they once filled, but had, through the
draining and reclaiming of marshy lands, long since abandoned. In regard
to the present species, this fact was due to the efforts of Andrew
Fountaine, on whose property, in West Norfolk and its immediate
neighbourhood, the gadwall, from 1850, annually bred in increasing
numbers. It has been always esteemed one of the best of wild fowl for
the table. (A. N.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] The _New English Dictionary_ has nothing to say. Webster gives
the etymology _gad well_ = go about well. Dr R.G. Latham suggested
that it was taken from the syllables _quedul_, of the Lat.
_querquedula_, a teal. The spelling "gadwall" seems to be first found
in Willughby in 1676, and has been generally adopted by later
writers; but Merrett, in 1667, has "gaddel" (_Pinax rerum naturalium
Britannicarum_, p. 180), saying that it was so called by
bird-dealers. The synonym "gray," given by Willughby and Ray, is
doubtless derived from the general colour of the species, and has its
analogue in the Icelandic _Graond_, applied almost indifferently, or
with some distinguishing epithet, to the female of any of the
freshwater ducks, and especially to both sexes of the present, in
which, as stated in the text, there is comparatively little
conspicuous difference of plumage in drake and duck.
GAEKWAR, or GUICOWAR, the family name of the Mahratta rulers of Baroda
(q.v.) in western India, which has been converted by the English into a
dynastic title. It is derived from the vernacular word for the cow, but
it is a mistake to suppose that the family are of the cowherd caste;
they belong to the upper class of Mahrattas proper, sometimes claiming a
Rajput origin. The dynasty was founded by a succession of three
warriors, Damaji I., Pilaji and Damaji II., who established Mahratta
supremacy throughout Gujarat during the first half of the 18th century.
The present style of the ruler is Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda.
GAETA (anc. _Caietae Portus_), a seaport and episcopal see of Campania,
Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is 53 m. W.N.W. by rail
via Sparanise. Pop. (1901) 5528. It occupies a lower projecting point of
the promontory which forms the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta. The
tomb of Munatius Plancus, on the summit of the promontory (see CAIETAE
PORTUS), is now a naval signal station, and lies in the centre of the
extensive earthworks of the modern fortifications. The harbour is well
sheltered except on the E., but has little commercial importance, being
mainly a naval station. To the N.W. is the suburb of Elena (formerly
Borgo di Gaeta). Pop. (1901) 10,369. Above the town is a castle erected
by the Angevin kings, and strengthened at various periods. The cathedral
of St Erasmus (S. Elmo), consecrated in 1106, has a fine campanile begun
in 860 and completed in 1279, and a nave and four aisles; the interior
has, however, been modernized. Opposite the door of the cathedral is a
candelabrum with interesting sculptures of the end of the 13th century,
consisting of 48 panels in bas-relief, with 24 representations from the
life of Christ, and 24 of the life of St Erasmus (A. Venturi, _Storia
dell' arte Italiana_, iii. Milan, 1904, 642 seq.). The cathedral
possesses three fine _Exultet_ rolls, with miniatures dating from the
11th to the beginning of the 13th century. Behind the high altar is the
banner sent by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the victor of
Lepanto. The constable of Bourbon, who fell in the sack of Rome of 1527,
is buried here. The other churches are of minor interest; close to that
of La Trinita is the Montagna Spaccata, where a vertical fissure from 6
to 15 ft. wide runs right down to the sea-level. Over the chasm is a
chapel _del Crocefisso_, the mountain having split, it is said, at the
death of Christ.
During the break-up of the Roman empire, Gaeta, like Amalfi and Naples,
would seem to have established itself as a practically independent port
and to have carried on a thriving trade with the Levant. Its history,
however, is obscure until, in 823, it appears as a lordship ruled by
hereditary _hypati_ or consuls. In 844 the town fell into the hands of
the Arabs, but four years later they were driven out with help supplied
by Pope Leo IV. In 875 the town was in the hands of Pope John VIII., who
gave it to the count of Capua as a fief of the Holy See, which had long
claimed jurisdiction over it. In 877, however, the _hypatus_ John
(Ioannes) II. succeeded in recovering the lordship, which he established
as a duchy under the suzerainty of the East Roman emperors. In the 11th
century the duchy fell into the hands of the Norman counts of Aversa,
afterwards princes of Capua, and in 1135 it was definitively annexed to
his kingdom by Roger of Sicily. The town, however, had its own coinage
as late as 1229.
In military history the town has played a conspicuous part. Its
fortifications were strengthened in the 15th century. On the 30th of
September 1707 it was stormed, after a three months' siege, by the
Austrians under Daun; and on the 6th of August 1734 it was taken, after
a siege of four months, by French, Spanish and Sardinian troops under
the future King Charles of Naples. The fortifications were again
strengthened; and in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On
the 18th of July 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the
French under Massena; and on the 18th of July 1815 it capitulated, after
a three months' siege, to the Austrians. In November 1848 Pope Pius IX.,
after his flight in disguise from Rome, found a refuge at Gaeta, where
he remained till the 4th of September 1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the
scene of the last stand of Francis II. of Naples against the forces of
United Italy. Shut up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi's
occupation of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen
Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till the 13th of
February 1861 that, the withdrawal of the French fleet having made
bombardment from the sea possible, he was forced to capitulate.
See G.B. Federici, _Degli antichi duchi, consoli o ipati della citta
di Gaeta_ (Naples, 1791); Onorato Gaetani d' Aragona, _Mem. stor.
della citta di Gaeta_ (Milan, 1879); C. Ravizza, _Il Golfo di Gaeta_
(Novara, 1876). (T. As.)
GAETANI, or CAETANI, the name of the oldest of the Roman princely
families which played a great part in the history of the city and of the
papacy. The Gaetani are of Longobard origin, and the founder of the
house is said to be one Dominus Constantinus Cagetanus, who flourished
in the 10th century, but the family had no great importance until the
election of Benedetto Gaetani to the papacy as Boniface VIII. in 1294,
when they at once became the most notable in the city. The pope
conferred on them the fiefs of Sermoneta, Bassiano, Ninfa and San Donato
(1297-1300), and the marquisate of Ancona in 1300, while Charles II. of
Anjou created the pope's brother count of Caserta. Giordano Loffredo
Gaetani by his marriage with Giovanna dell' Aquila, heiress of the
counts of Fondi and Traetto, in 1297 added the name of Aquila to his
own, and his grandson Giacomo acquired the lordships of Piedimonte and
Gioia. The Gaetani proved brave warriors and formed a bodyguard to
protect Boniface VIII. from his many foes. During the 14th and 15th
centuries their feuds with the Colonna caused frequent disturbances in
Rome and the Campagna, sometimes amounting to civil war. They also
played an important role as Neapolitan nobles. In 1500 Alexander VI., in
his attempt to crush the great Roman feudal nobility, confiscated the
Gaetani fiefs and gave them to his daughter Lucrezia Borgia (q.v.); but
they afterwards regained them.
At present there are two lines of Gaetani: (1) Gaetani, princes of Teano
and dukes of Sermoneta, founded by Giacobello Gaetani, whose grandson,
Guglielmo Gaetani, was granted the duchy of Sermoneta by Pius III. in
1503, the marquisate of Cisterna being conferred on the family by Sixtus
V. in 1585. In 1642, Francesco, the 7th duke of Sermoneta, acquired by
marriage the county of Caserta, which was exchanged for the principality
of Teano in 1750. The present head of the house, Onorato Gaetani, 14th
duke of Sermoneta, 4th prince of Teano, duke of San Marco, marquis of
Cisterna, &c., is a senator of the kingdom of Italy, and was minister
for foreign affairs for a short time. (2) Gaetani dell' Aquila
d'Aragona, princes of Piedimonte, and dukes of Laurenzana, founded by
Onorato Gaetani dell' Aquila, count of Fondi, Traetto, Alife and
Morcone, lord of Piedimonte and Gioia, in 1454. The additional surname
of Aragona was assumed after the marriage of Onorato Gaetani, duke of
Traetto (d. 1529), with Lucrezia of Aragon, natural daughter of King
Ferdinand I. of Naples. The duchy of Laurenzana, in the kingdom of
Naples, was acquired by Alfonso Gaetani by his marriage in 1606 with
Giulia di Ruggiero, duchess of Laurenzana. The lordship of Piedimonte
was raised to a principality in 1715. The present (1908) head of the
house is Nicola Gaetani dell' Aquila d'Aragona (b. 1857), 7th prince of
Piedimonte and 12th duke of Laurenzana.
See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868); F.
Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1872); _Almanach
de Gotha_ (1907 and 1908).
GAETULIA, an ancient district in northern Africa, which in the usage of
Roman writers comprised the wandering tribes of the southern slopes of
Mount Aures and the Atlas, as far as the Atlantic, and the oases in the
northern part of the Sahara. They were always distinguished from the
Negro people to the south, and beyond doubt belonged to the same Berber
race which formed the basis of the population of Numidia and Mauretania
(q.v.). The tribes to be found there at the present day are probably of
the same race, and retain the same wandering habits; and it is possible
that they still bear in certain places the name of their Gaetulian
ancestors (see Vivien St Martin, _Le Nord de l'Afrique_, 1863). A few
only seem to have mingled with the Negroes of the Sahara, if we may thus
interpret Ptolemy's allusion to Melano-Gaetuli (4. 6. 5.). They were
noted for the rearing of horses, and according to Strabo had 100,000
foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh and
milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name is that of the
purple dye which became famous from the time of Augustus onwards, and
was made from the purple fish found on the coast, apparently both in the
Syrtes and on the Atlantic.
We first hear of this people in the Jugurthine War (111-106 B.C.), when,
as Sallust tells us, they did not even know the name of Rome. They took
part with Jugurtha against Rome; but when we next hear of them they are
in alliance with Caesar against Juba I. (_Bell. Afr._ 32). In 25 B.C.
Augustus seems to have given a part of Gaetulia to Juba II., together
with his kingdom of Mauretania, doubtless with the object of controlling
the turbulent tribes; but the Gaetulians rose and massacred the Roman
residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been inflicted on
them by Lentulus Cossus (who thus acquired the surname Gaetulicus) in
A.D. 6 that they submitted to the king. After Mauretania became a Roman
province in A.D. 40, the Roman governors made frequent expeditions into
the Gaetulian territory to the south, and the official view seems to be
expressed by Pliny (v. 4. 30) when he says that all Gaetulia as far as
the Niger and the Ethiopian frontier was reckoned as subject to the
Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but inscriptions
prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops of the empire, and
it may be assumed that the country passed within the sphere of Roman
influence, though hardly within the pale of Roman civilization.
For bibliography see AFRICA, ROMAN.
GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836- ), American financier, was born at De Ruyter,
Madison county, New York, on the 28th of June 1836. He was educated at
an academy at Rome, New York, where at the age of seventeen he became a
bank clerk. In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as
book-keeper in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house of
the Merchant's Loan and Trust Company, of which he was cashier in
1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively assistant cashier (1868),
vice-president (1882), and president (1891) of the First National Bank
of Chicago, one of the strongest financial institutions in the middle
west. He was chosen in 1892 president of the board of directors of the
World's Columbian Exposition, the successful financing of which was due
more to him than to any other man. In politics he was originally a
Republican, and was a delegate to the national convention of the party
in 1880, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884, however, he
supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency, and came to be looked
upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President Cleveland, after his second
election, offered Gage the post of secretary of the treasury, but the
offer was declined. In the "free-silver" campaign of 1896 Gage laboured
effectively for the election of William McKinley, and from March 1897
until January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets
successively of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. From April 1902 until
1906 he was president of the United States Trust Company in New York
City. His administration of the treasury department, through a more than
ordinarily trying period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking
toward the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater
flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the
relations between the government and the National banks.
GAGE, THOMAS (1721-1787), British general and governor of Massachusetts,
second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born in 1721. He entered the
army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders and in the campaign of
Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the 44th foot in March 1751. In
1754 he served in America, and he took part in the following year in
General Braddock's disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a
new regiment, and served in Amherst's operations against Montreal. He
was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general in 1761, and
in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the British forces in
America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-general. In 1774 he was
appointed governor of Massachusetts, and in that capacity was entrusted
with carrying into effect the Boston Port Act. The difficulties which
surrounded him in the execution of his office at this time of the
gravest unrest culminated in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April
at Lexington initiated the American War of Independence. After the
battle of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William)
Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782, and died on
the 2nd of April 1787.
GAGE, a pledge, something deposited as security for the performance of
an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure to carry it out. The
word also appears in "engage," and is taken from the O. Fr., as are
"wage," payment for services, and "wager," bet, stake, from the
collateral O. Fr. _waige_. These two words are from the Low Lat.
_wadiare_, _vadiare_, to pledge, _vadium_, classical Lat. _vas_,
_vadis_, but may be from the old Teutonic cognate base seen in Gothic
_wadi_, a pledge (cf. Ger. _wetten_, to wager); this Teutonic base is
seen in Eng. "wed," to marry, i.e. to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth,
_gawadjon_, to betrothe). A particular form of giving a "gage" or pledge
was that of throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a
judicial combat, the glove being the "pledge" that the parties would
appear on the field; hence the common phrase "to throw down the gage of
defiance" for any challenge (see GLOVE and WAGER).
GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST, BARON VON (1766-1852), German statesman
and political writer, was born at Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the
25th of January 1766. After studying law at the universities of Leipzig
and Gottingen, he entered the service of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg,
whom in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards
appointed the prince's envoy at Paris, where he remained till the decree
of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left side of the Rhine
to serve any other state than France, compelled him to resign his office
(1811). He then retired to Vienna, and in 1812 he took part in the
attempt to excite a second insurrection against Napoleon in Tirol. On
the failure of this attempt he left Austria and joined the headquarters
of the Prussian army (1813), and became a member of the board of
administration for north Germany. In 1814 he was appointed administrator
of the Orange principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king
of the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister. In 1815 he
represented him at the congress of Vienna, and succeeded in obtaining
for the Netherlands a considerable augmentation of territory. From 1816
to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy at the German diet, but was recalled, at
the instance of Metternich, owing to his too independent advocacy of
state constitutions. In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at
Hornau, near Hochst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first
chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take an active
share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of his country. He
retired from public life in 1848, and died at Hornau on the 22nd of
October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote a history of the German nation
(Vienna, 1813; 2nd ed., 2 vols., Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several
other books on subjects connected with history and social and political
science. Of most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, _Mein
Anteil an der Politik_, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845).
Of Hans Christoph von Gagern's sons three attained considerable
eminence:--
FRIEDRICH BALDUIN, Freiherr von Gagern (1794-1848), the eldest, was born
at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1794. He entered the university of
Gottingen, but soon left, and, taking service in the Austrian army, took
part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and fought in the following year
at Dresden, Kulm and Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took
part in the campaigns of 1815, and, after studying another year at
Heidelberg, was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of the
German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took part in the
Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being promoted to the rank
of general, was sent on an important mission to the Dutch East Indies to
inquire into the state of their military defences. In 1847 he was
appointed governor at the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the
spring of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the
revolutionary troubles he accepted the invitation of the government of
Baden to take the command against the insurgent "free companies"
(_Freischaaren_). At Kandern, on the 20th of April, he made a vain
effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was about to order his
troops to attack when he was mortally wounded by the bullets of the
insurgents. His _Life_, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg and Leipzig, 1856-1857),
was written by his brother Heinrich von Gagern.
HEINRICH WILHELM AUGUST, Freiherr von Gagern (1799-1880), the third son,
was born at Bayreuth on the 20th of August 1799, educated at the
military academy at Munich, and, as an officer in the service of the
duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo. Leaving the service after the war,
he studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg, Gottingen and Jena, and in 1819
went for a while to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his
official career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832 was
elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities he had
proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the _Burschenschaft_,
and he now threw himself into open opposition to the unconstitutional
spirit of the Hessian government, an attitude which led to his dismissal
from the state service in 1833. Henceforth he lived in comparative
retirement, cultivating a farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and
occasionally publishing criticisms of public affairs, until the February
revolution of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active
political life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian
administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation of a
united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the preliminary convention
(_Vorparlament_) of Frankfort he deeply impressed the assemblies with
the breadth and moderation of his views; with the result that when the
German national parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first
president. His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist
party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was he who
was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a united empire
with a common parliament, and in carrying the election of the Archduke
John as regent. With the growing split between the Great Germans
(_Grossdeutschen_), who wished the new empire to include the Austrian
provinces, and the Little Germans (_Kleindeutschen_), who realized that
German unity could only be attained by excluding them, his position was
shaken. On the 15th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian
members had left the cabinet, Gagern became head of the imperial
ministry, and on the 18th he introduced a programme (known as the
_Gagernsche Programm_) according to which Austria was to be excluded
from the new federal state, but bound to it by a treaty of union. After
a severe struggle this proposal was accepted; but the academic
discussion on the constitution continued for weary months, and on the
20th of May, realizing the hopelessness of coming to terms with the
ultra-democrats, Gagern and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted
to influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the
national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt
parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good results
from the vacillating policy of Prussia, he retired from the contest,
and, as a major in the service of the Schleswig-Holstein government,
took part in the Danish War of 1850. After the war he retired into
private life at Heidelberg. In 1862, misled by the constitutional
tendency of Austrian politics, he publicly declared in favour of the
Great German party. In 1864 he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring
in 1872 when the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd of
May 1880.
MAXIMILIAN, Freiherr von Gagern (1810-1889), the youngest son, was born
at Weilburg on the 26th of March 1810. Up to 1848 he was a government
official in Nassau; in that year he became a member of the German
national parliament and under-secretary of state for foreign affairs.
Throughout the revolutionary years he supported his brother's policy,
became a member of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the
national movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In
1855 he turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service as court
and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign affairs. In 1871
he retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life member of the Upper Chamber
(_Herrenhaus_). He died at Vienna on the 17th of October 1889.
See _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band viii. p. 301, &c. (1878)
and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904).
GAHANBAR, festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar celebrated by the
Parsees at six seasons of the year which correspond with the six periods
of creation: (1) _Maidhyozaremaya_ (mid spring), (2) _Maidhyoshema_
(midsummer), (3) _Paitishahya_ (season of corn), (4) _Ayathrema_ (season
of flocks), (5) _Maidhyarya_ (winter solstice), (6) _Hamaspathmaedha_
(festival of sacrifices).
GAIGNIERES, FRANCOIS ROGER DE (1642-1715), French genealogist, antiquary
and collector, was the son of Aime de Gaignieres, secretary to the
governor of Burgundy, and was born on the 30th of December 1642. He
became ecuyer (esquire) to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards
to Louis Joseph's aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed
governor of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to
make a collection of original materials for history generally, and, in
particular, for that of the French church and court. He brought together
a large collection of original letters and other documents, together
with portraits and prints, and had copies made of a great number of the
most curious antiquarian objects, such as seals, tombstones, stained
glass, miniatures and tapestry. In 1711 he presented the whole of his
collections to the king. The bulk of them is preserved in the
Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian
library at Oxford.
See G. Duplessis, _Roger de Gaignieres_ (Paris, 1870); L. Delisle,
_Cabinet des manuscrits_, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, _Les
Portraits aux crayon des XVI^e et XVII^e siecles_ (Paris, 1884); Ch.
de Grandmaison, _Gaignieres, ses correspondants et ses collections de
portraits_ (Niort, 1892).
GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1755-1829), French hellenist, was born in Paris on
the 4th of July 1755. In 1791 he was appointed deputy, and in 1792
titular professor at the College de France. During the Revolution he
quietly performed his professional duties, taking no part in politics,
although he possessed the faculty of ingratiating himself with those in
authority. In 1815 he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in
the royal library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other
conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies. Gail imagined
that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle his learning and
professional success, and there was a standing quarrel between him and
his literary opponents, the most distinguished of whom was P.L. Courier.
He died on the 5th of February 1829. Without being a great Greek
scholar, Gail was a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was
devoted to his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for
having rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during
the troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail's published
works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of
Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828). He also
wrote a number of elementary educational works, based on the principles
of the school of Port Royal. His communications to the Academie des
Inscriptions being coldly received and seldom accorded the honour of
print, he inserted them in a vast compilation in 24 volumes, which he
called _Le Philologue_, containing a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek
grammar, geography, archaeology, and various authors.
See "Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.," in
_Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_, ix.; the articles in _Biographie
universelle_ (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
Encyclopadie_ (by C.F. Bahr); a list of his works will be found in
J.M. Querard, _La France litteraire_ (1829), including the contents of
the volumes of _Le Philologue_.
GAILLAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
the department of Tarn, on the right bank of the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi
on the railway from that city to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 5388;
commune, 7535. The churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from
the 13th and 14th centuries, have little architectural importance. There
are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen, of the
Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors. The public
institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance,
and a communal college. Its industries include the manufacture of lime
and wooden shoes, while dyeing, wood-sawing and flour-milling are also
carried on; it has a considerable trade in grain, flour, vegetables,
dried plums, anise, coriander, &c., and in wine, the white and red wines
of the arrondissement having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up round
the Benedictine abbey of St Michel, founded in the 10th century.
GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806), French historian, was born at
Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the bar, but after
finishing his studies adopted a literary career, ultimately devoting his
chief attention to history. He was already a member of the Academy of
Inscriptions and Belles-lettres (1760), when, after the publication of
the three first volumes of his _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et
d'Angleterre_, he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when
Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third class
(_Academie francaise_) in 1803. For forty years he was the intimate
friend of Malesherbes, whose life (1805) he wrote. He died at St Firmin,
near Chantilly, on the 13th of February 1806. Gaillard is painstaking
and impartial in his statement of facts, and his style is correct and
elegant, but the unity of his narrative is somewhat destroyed by
digressions, and by his method of treating war, politics, civil
administration, and ecclesiastical affairs under separate heads. His
most important work is his _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et de
l'Angleterre_ (in 11 vols., 1771-1777); and among his other works may be
mentioned _Essai de rhetorique francaise, a l'usage des jeunes
demoiselles_ (1745), often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the
author; _Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne_ (1757); _Histoire de Francois
I^er_ (7 vols., 1776-1779); _Histoire des grandes querelles entre
Charles V. et Francois I^er_ (2 vols., 1777); _Histoire de Charlemagne_
(2 vols., 1782); _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et de l'Espagne_
(8 vols., 1801); _Dictionnaire historique_ (6 vols., 1789-1804), making
part of the _Encyclopedie methodique_; and _Melanges litteraires_,
containing _eloges_ on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille, La
Fontaine, Malesherbes and others.
GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Alachua county, Florida,
U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 2790; (1900) 3633,
of whom 1803 were negroes; (1905) 5413; (1910) 6183. Gainesville is
served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Tampa
& Jacksonville railways, and is an important railway junction. It is the
seat of the University of the State of Florida, established at Lake City
in 1905 and removed to Gainesville in 1906. The university includes a
school of language and literature, a general scientific school, a school
of agriculture, a technological school, a school of pedagogy, a normal
school, and an agricultural experiment station. In 1908 the university
had 15 instructors and 103 students. The Florida Winter Bible Conference
and Chautauqua is held here. Gainesville is well known as a winter
resort, and its climate is especially beneficial to persons affected by
pulmonary troubles. In the neighbourhood are the Alachua Sink, Payne's
Prairie, Newman's Lake, the Devil's Mill Hopper and other objects of
interest. The surrounding country produces Sea Island cotton, melons,
citrus and other fruits, vegetables and naval stores. About 15 m. W. of
the city there is a rich phosphate mining district. The city has
bottling works, and manufactures fertilizers, lumber, coffins, ice, &c.
The municipality owns and operates the water-works; the water-supply
comes from a spring 2 m. from the city, and the water closely resembles
that of the Poland Springs in Maine. Gainesville is in the midst of the
famous Seminole country. The first settlement was made here about 1850;
and Gainesville, named in honour of General E.P. Gaines, was
incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered as a city in 1907.
GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cooke county, Texas, U.S.A.,
about 6 m. S. of the Red river, and about 60 m. N. of Fort Worth. Pop.
(1890) 6594; (1900) 7874 (1201 negroes and 269 foreign-born); (1910)
7624. The city is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, and the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, and by an interurban electric
railway. Gainesville is a trading centre and market for the surrounding
country, in which cotton, grains, garden truck, fruit and alfalfa are
grown and live-stock is raised; and a wholesale distributing point for
the neighbouring region in Texas and Oklahoma. The city has
cotton-compresses and cotton-gins, and among its manufactures are
cotton-seed oil, flour, cement blocks, pressed bricks, canned goods,
foundry products, waggon-beds and creamery products. Gainesville was
settled about 1851, was incorporated in 1873, and was chartered as a
city in 1879; it was named in honour of General Edmund Pendleton Gaines
(1777-1849), who served with distinction in the War of 1812, becoming a
brigadier-general in March 1814 and receiving the brevet of
major-general and the thanks of Congress for his defence of Fort Erie in
August 1814. Gaines took a prominent part in the operations against the
Seminoles in Florida in 1817 (when he was in command of the Southern
Military District) and in 1836 and during the Mexican War commanded the
department of the South-West, with headquarters at New Orleans.
GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS (1727-1788), English painter, one of the greatest
masters of the English school in portraiture, and only less so in
landscape, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in the spring of 1727. His
father, who carried on the business of a woollen crape-maker in that
town, was of a respectable character and family, and was noted for his
skill in fencing; his mother excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged
her son in the use of the pencil. There were nine children of the
marriage, two of the painter's brothers being of a very ingenious turn.
At ten years old, Gainsborough "had sketched every fine tree and
picturesque cottage near Sudbury," and at fourteen, having filled his
task-books with caricatures of his schoolmaster, and sketched the
portrait of a man whom he had detected on the watch for robbing his
father's orchard, he was allowed to follow the bent of his genius in
London, with some instruction in etching from Gravelot, and under such
advantages as Hayman, the historical painter, and the academy in St
Martin's Lane could afford. Three years of study in the metropolis,
where he did some modelling and a few landscapes, were succeeded by two
years in the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young
lady of many charms, including an annuity of L200, married her after
painting her portrait, and a short courtship, and, at the age of twenty,
became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being L6 a year. The annuity
was reported to come from Margaret's real (not her putative) father, who
was one of the exiled Stuart princes or else the duke of Bedford. She
was sister of a young man employed by Gainsborough's father as a
traveller. At Ipswich, Gainsborough tells us, he was "chiefly in the
face-way"; his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often
rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society of
Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many landscapes with
an attention to details which his later works never exhibited, or from
joining a musical club and entertaining himself and his fellow-townsmen
by giving concerts. As he advanced in years he became ambitious of
advancing in reputation. Bath was then the general resort of wealth and
fashion, and to that city, towards the close of the year 1759, he
removed with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their
marriage. His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; he
gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40
guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas; and he rapidly
developed beyond the comparatively plain and humdrum quality of his
Ipswich paintings. Among his sitters at this period were the authors
Sterne and Richardson, and the actors Quin, Henderson and Garrick.
Meanwhile he contributed both portraits and landscapes to the annual
exhibitions in London. He indulged his taste for music by learning to
play the viol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His
house harboured Italian, German, French and English musicians. He
haunted the green-room of Palmer's theatre, and painted gratuitously the
portraits of many of the actors: he constantly gave away his sketches
and landscapes. In the summer of 1774, having already attained a
position of great prosperity, he took his departure for London, and
fixed his residence at Schomberg House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still
standing, for a part of which the artist paid L300 a year.
Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he received a
summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he divided with West
the favour of the court, and with Reynolds the favour of the town.
Sheridan, Burke, Johnson, Franklin, Canning, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu,
Mrs Siddons, Clive, Blackstone, Hurd, were among the number of those who
sat to him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited, were
commended, and were year after year returned to him, "till they stood,"
says Sir William Beechey, "ranged in long lines from his hall to his
painting-room." Gainsborough was a member of the Royal Academy, one of
the original 36 elected in 1768; but in 1784, being dissatisfied with
the position assigned on the exhibition walls to his portrait of the
three princesses, he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never
afterwards exhibited there. Even before this he had taken no part in the
business of the Institution. After seceding he got up an exhibition in
his own house, not successfully. In February 1788, while witnessing the
trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary chill at the back of
his neck; this was the beginning of a cancer (or, as some say, a
malignant wen) which proved fatal on the 2nd of August of the same year.
He lies buried at Kew.
Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive to the
point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish likings, a
lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough embodiment of
the artistic temperament; delighting in nature and "the look of things,"
insatiable in working, fond of music and the theatre hardly less than of
painting--a warm, rich personality, to whom severe principle was perhaps
as foreign as deliberate wrong-doing. The property which he left at his
death was not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the
musician Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of
mental aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried. Mrs
Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, survived her husband
ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that Gainsborough, if he ever had
a tiff with her, would write a pacifying note, confiding it to his dog
Fox, who delivered it to the lady's pet spaniel Tristram. The note was
worded as in the person of Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied
in the best of humours, as from Tristram to Fox.
Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest
portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance; but
Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a reconciliation. It
is difficult to say which stands the higher of the two, although
Reynolds may claim to have worked with a nearer approach to even and
demonstrable excellence. In grace, spirit, and lightness of insight and
of touch, Gainsborough is peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight
for the most part, and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree
masterly; and his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted
than his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of "Lady
Ligonier," "Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire," "Master Buttall (the Blue
Boy)," now in Grosvenor House, "Mrs Sheridan and Mrs Tickell," "Orpin,
the parish clerk" (National Gallery), "the Hon. Mrs Graham" (Scottish
National Gallery), his own portrait (Royal Academy), "Mrs Siddons"
(National Gallery); also "the Cottage Door," "the Market Cart," "the
Return from Harvest," "the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm" (destroyed by
fire), and "Waggon and Horses passing a Brook" (National Gallery--this
was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast number of drawings and
sketches.
A few observations may be added: (1) as to individual works by
Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics as a painter.
Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at Ipswich,
were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston. His first great hit
was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord Nugent. With a likeness of Mr
Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided advance in artistic type, and his style
became fixed towards 1768. The date of the "Blue Boy" is somewhat
uncertain: most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark.
This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is said
that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confuting a dictum
of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour unsuitable for the
main light of a work. But, if the picture was produced before 1778, the
date of Reynolds's dictum, this long-cherished and often-repeated
tradition must be given up. A full-length of the duke of Norfolk was
perhaps the latest work to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait
of Elizabeth, duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance,
has aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not long
after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed "the Duchess of
Devonshire," does really represent that lady, is by no means certain. It
was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in London immediately after it had been
purchased by Messrs Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a
long time elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New
York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1901, through the agency
of a man named Pat Sheedy, it was given up to the American detectives
working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold to Mr Pierpont Morgan.
Gainsborough's total output of paintings exceeded 300, including 220
portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and 3 in aquatint. At the
date of his death 56 paintings remained on hand: these, along with 148
drawings, were then exhibited. In his earlier days he made a practice of
copying works by Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration),
Titian, Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not in a
spirit of servile reproduction.
Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential element of
portraiture--truthful likeness. In process of time he advanced in the
rendering of immediate expression, while he somewhat receded in general
character. He always made his sitters look pleasant, and, after a while,
distinguished. Unity of impression is one of the most marked qualities
in his work; he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he
wrought at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very
wilful some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result. He
painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later years. For
portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft. long; there was but
little light in his painting-room, and he often worked in the evenings.
He kept his landscape work distinct from his portraiture, not ever
adding to the latter a fully realized landscape background; his views he
never signed or dated--his likenesses only once or twice. His skies are
constantly cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the
scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of coming rain,
or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his landscapes is
somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-groups or in
portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plaintive than mirthful.
It should be acknowledged that, whether in portraiture or in landscape,
the painter's mannerisms of execution increased in process of
time--patchings of the brush, tufty foliage, &c.; some of his portraits
are hurried and flimsy, with a minimum of solid content, though not
other than artistic in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms:--"What
makes the difference between man and man is real performance, and not
genius or conception." "I don't think it would be more ridiculous for a
person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours smelt
offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is just as
material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and drawing of a
picture." "The eye is the only perspective-master needed by a
landscape-painter."
AUTHORITIES.--In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor of
Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the artist's
fortunes at starting, published A _Sketch of the Life and Paintings of
Thomas Gainsborough_. He had quarrelled with the painter at Bath,
partly because the latter had undertaken to do a portrait of him as a
gift, and then neglected the work, and finally, in a huff, bundled it
off only half done. The crucial question here is whether or not
Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform any such gratuitous
work, and this point has been contested. Thicknesse's book is in part
adverse to Gainsborough, and more particularly so to his wife.
Reynolds's "Lecture" on Gainsborough, replete with critical insight,
should never be lost sight of as a leading document. In 1856 a
heedfully compiled _Life of Thomas Gainsborough_ was brought out by
T.W. Fulcher. This was the first substantial work about him subsequent
to Allan Cunningham's lively account (1829) in his _Lives of the
Painters_. Of late years a great deal has been written, mainly but not
by any means exclusively from the critical or technical point of
view:--Sir Walter Armstrong (two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur
Bell (1902); Sir W.M. Conway, _Artistic Development of Reynolds and
Gainsborough_ (1886); Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903); G.M.
Brock-Arnold (1881). G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in
Germany (1904) under the title _Gainsborough_. (W. M. R.)
GAINSBOROUGH, a market town in the W. Lindsey or Gainsborough
parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; on the right (E.) bank
of the Trent. Pop. of urban district (1901) 17,660. It is served by the
Lincoln-Doncaster joint line of the Great Northern and Great Eastern
railways, by which it is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central
railway. The parish church of All Saints is classic of the 18th century,
excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish churches are
modern. The Old Hall, of the 15th century, enlarged in the 16th, is a
picturesque building, forming three sides of a quadrangle, partially
timber-framed, but having a beautiful oriel window and other parts of
stone. There is also a Tudor tower of brick. A literary and scientific
institute occupy part of the building. Gainsborough possesses a grammar
school (founded in 1589 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other
schools, town-hall, county court-house, Albert Hall and Church of
England Institute. There is a large carrying trade by water on the Trent
and neighbouring canals. Shipbuilding and iron-founding are carried on,
and there are manufactures of linseed cake, and agricultural and other
machinery.
Gainsborough (_Gegnesburh_) was probably inhabited by the Saxons on
account of the fishing in the Trent. The _Saxon Chronicle_ states that
in 1013 the Danish king Sweyn landed here and subjugated the
inhabitants. Gainsborough, though not a chartered borough, was probably
one by prescription, for mention is made of burghal tenure in 1280. The
privilege of the return of writs was conferred on the lord of the manor,
Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1323, and confirmed to Ralph de
Percy in 1383. Mention is made in 1204 of a Wednesday market, but there
is no extant grant before 1258, when Henry III. granted a Tuesday market
to William de Valence, earl of Pembroke, who also obtained from Edward
I. in 1291 licence for an annual fair on All Saints' Day, and the seven
preceding and eight following days. In 1243 Henry III. granted to John
Talbot licence for a yearly fair on the eve, day and morrow of St James
the Apostle. Queen Elizabeth in 1592 granted to Thomas Lord Burgh two
fairs, to begin on Easter Monday and on the 9th of October, each lasting
three days. Charles I. in 1635-1636 extended the duration of each to
nine days. The Tuesday market is still held, and the fair days are
Tuesday and Wednesday in Easter-week, and the Tuesday and Wednesday
after the 20th of October.
See Adam Stark, _History and Antiquities of Gainsburgh_ (London,
1843).
GAIRDNER, JAMES (1828- ), English historian, son of John Gairdner,
M.D., was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of March 1828. Educated in his
native city, he entered the Public Record Office in London in 1846,
becoming assistant keeper of the public records (1859-1893). Gairdner's
valuable and painstaking contributions to English history relate chiefly
to the reigns of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII. For the "Rolls
Series" he edited _Letters and Papers illustrative of the Reigns of
Richard III. and Henry VII._ (London, 1861-1863), and _Memorials of
Henry VII._ (London, 1858); and he succeeded J.S. Brewer in editing the
_Letters and Papers_, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII.
(London, 1862-1905). He brought out the best edition of the _Paston
Letters_ (London, 1872-1875, and again 1896), for which he wrote a
valuable introduction; and for the Camden Society he edited the
_Historical collections of a Citizen of London_ (London, 1876), and
_Three 15th-century Chronicles_ (London, 1880). His other works include
excellent monographs on _Richard III._ (London, 1878, new and enlarged
edition, Cambridge, 1898), and on _Henry VII._ (London, 1889, and
subsequently); _The Houses of Lancaster and York_ (London, 1874, and
other editions); _The English Church in the 16th century_ (London,
1902); _Lollardy and the Reformation in England_ (1908); and
contributions to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, the _Dictionary of
National Biography_, the _Cambridge Modern History_, and the _English
Historical Review_. Gairdner received the honorary degree of LL.D. from
the university of Edinburgh in 1897, and was made a C.B. in 1900.
GAIRLOCH (Gaelic _gearr_, short), a sea loch, village and parish in the
west of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901)
3797. The parish covers a large district on the coast, and stretches
inland beyond the farther banks of Loch Maree, the whole of which lies
within its bounds. It also includes the islands of Dry and Horisdale in
the loch, and Ewe in Loch Ewe, and occupies a total area of 200,646
acres. The place and loch must not be confounded with Gareloch in
Dumbartonshire. Formerly an appanage of the earldom of Ross, Gairloch
has belonged to the Mackenzies since the end of the 15th century.
Flowerdale, an 18th-century house in the pretty little glen of the same
name, lying close to the village, is the chief seat of the Gairloch
branch of the clan Mackenzie. William Ross (1762-1790), the Gaelic
poet, who was schoolmaster of Gairloch, of which his mother was a
native, was buried in the old kirkyard, where a monument commemorates
him.
GAISERIC, or GENSERIC (c. 390-477), king of the Vandals, was a son of
King Godegisel (d. 406), and was born about 390. Though lame and only of
moderate stature, he won renown as a warrior, and became king on the
death of his brother Gonderic in 428. In 428 or 429 he led a great host
of Vandals from Spain into Roman Africa, and took possession of
Mauretania. This step is said to have been taken at the instigation of
Boniface, the Roman general in Africa; if true, Boniface soon repented
of his action, and was found resisting the Vandals and defending Hippo
Regius against them. At the end of fourteen months Gaiseric raised the
siege of Hippo; but Boniface was forced to fly to Italy, and the city
afterwards fell into the hands of the Vandals. Having pillaged and
conquered almost the whole of Roman Africa, the Vandal king concluded a
treaty with the emperor Valentinian III. in 435, by which he was allowed
to retain his conquests; this peace, however, did not last long, and in
October 439 he captured Carthage, which he made the capital of his
kingdom. According to some authorities Gaiseric at this time first
actually assumed the title of king. In religious matters he was an
Arian, and persecuted the members of the orthodox church in Africa,
although his religious policy varied with his relations to the Roman
empire. Turning his attention in another direction he built a fleet, and
the ravages of the Vandals soon made them known and feared along the
shores of the Mediterranean. "Let us make," said Gaiseric, "for the
dwellings of the men with whom God is angry," and he left the conduct of
his marauding ships to wind and wave. In 455, however, he led an
expedition to Rome, stormed the city, which for fourteen days his troops
were permitted to plunder, and then returned to Africa laden with spoil.
He also carried with him many captives, including the empress Eudoxia,
who is said to have invited the Vandals into Italy. The Romans made two
attempts to avenge themselves, one by the Western emperor, Majorianus,
in 460, and the other by the Eastern emperor, Leo I., eight years later;
but both enterprises failed, owing principally to the genius of
Gaiseric. Continuing his course on the sea the king brought Sicily,
Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands under his rule, and even
extended his conquests into Thrace, Egypt and Asia Minor. Having made
peace with the eastern emperor Zeno in 476, he died on the 25th of
January 477. Gaiseric was a cruel and cunning man, possessing great
military talents and superior mental gifts. Though the effect of his
victories was afterwards neutralized by the successes of Belisarius, his
name long remained the glory of the Vandals. The name Gaiseric is said
to be derived from _gais_, a javelin, and _reiks_, a king.
See VANDALS; also T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, vol. ii.
(London, 1892); E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed.
J.B. Bury, 1896-1900); L. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Vandalen_ (Leipzig,
1901); and F. Martroye, _Genseric; La Conquete vandale en Afrique_
(Paris, 1907).
GAISFORD, THOMAS (1779-1855), English classical scholar, was born at
Iford, Wiltshire, on the 22nd of December 1779. Proceeding to Oxford in
1797, he became successively student and tutor of Christ Church, and was
in 1811 appointed regius professor of Greek in the university. Taking
orders, he held (1815-1847) the college living of Westwell, in
Oxfordshire, and other ecclesiastical preferments simultaneously with
his professorship. From 1831 until his death on the 2nd of June 1855, he
was dean of Christ Church. As curator of the Bodleian and principal
delegate of the University Press he was instrumental in securing the
co-operation of distinguished European scholars as collators, notably
Bekker and Dindorf. Among his numerous contributions to Greek literature
may be mentioned, Hephaestion's _Encheiridion_ (1810); _Poetae Graeci
minores_ (1814-1820); Stobaeus' _Florilegium_ (1822); _Herodotus_, with
variorum notes (1824); Suidas' _Lexicon_ (1834); _Etymologicon magnum_
(1848); Eusebius's _Praeparatio_ (1843) and _Demonstratio evangelica_
(1852). In 1856 the Gaisford prizes, for Greek composition, were founded
at Oxford to perpetuate his memory.
GAIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history very little is
known. It is impossible to discover even his full name, Gaius or Caius
being merely the personal name (praenomen) so common in Rome. From
internal evidence in his works it may be gathered that he flourished in
the reigns of the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and
Commodus. His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180, at
the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and its government
the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some provincial town, and hence
we find no contemporary notices of his life or works. After his death,
however, his writings were recognized as of great authority, and the
emperor Valentinian named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestinus
and Paulus, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be
followed by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these
jurists accordingly became most important sources of Roman law.
Besides the _Institutes_, which are a complete exposition of the
elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the _Edicts
of the Magistrates_, of _Commentaries on the Twelve Tables_, and on the
important _Lex Papia Poppaea_, and several other works. His interest in
the antiquities of Roman law is apparent, and for this reason his work
is most valuable to the historian of early institutions. In the disputes
between the two schools of Roman jurists he generally attached himself
to that of the Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius
Capito, of whose life we have some account in the _Annals_ of Tacitus,
and to advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules,
and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of Gaius occur
in the _Digest_ of Justinian, and so acquired a permanent place in the
system of Roman law; while a comparison of the _Institutes_ of Justinian
with those of Gaius shows that the whole method and arrangement of the
later work were copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous
passages are word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of
the period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and Justinian,
the _Institutes_ of the former had been the familiar textbook of all
students of Roman law.
Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in 1816, a
manuscript was discovered by B.G. Niebuhr in the chapter library of
Verona, in which certain of the works of St Jerome were written over
some earlier writings, which proved to be the lost work of Gaius. The
greater part of the palimpsest has, however, been deciphered and the
text is now fairly complete. This discovery has thrown a flood of light
on portions of the history of Roman law which had previously been most
obscure. Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in
the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of the
ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be traced
"survivals" from the most primitive times, which provide the science of
comparative law with valuable illustrations, which may explain the
strange forms of legal procedure found in other early systems. Another
circumstance which renders the work of Gaius more interesting to the
historical student than that of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time
when actions were tried by the system of formulae, or formal directions
given by the praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to
whom he referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulae
it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history
of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the ancient law
of Rome were modified by what has been called the equitable jurisdiction
of the praetors, and made applicable to new conditions, and brought into
harmony with the notions and the needs of a more developed society. It
is clear from evidence of Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an
independent set of courts administering, as in England previous to the
Judicature Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts,
but by the manipulation of the formulae. In the time of Justinian the
work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared.
The _Institutes_ of Gaius are divided into four books--the first
treating of persons and the differences of the status they may occupy in
the eye of the law; the second of things, and the modes in which rights
over them may be acquired, including the law relating to wills; the
third of intestate succession and of obligations; the fourth of actions
and their forms.
There are several carefully prepared editions of the _Institutes_,
starting from that of Goschen (1820), down to that of Studemund and
Kruger (1900). The most complete English edition is that of E. Poste,
which includes beside the text an English translation and copious
commentary (1885). A comparison of the early forms of actions
mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive societies will
be found in Sir H. Maine's _Early Institutions_, cap. 9. For further
information see M. Glasson, _Etude sur Gaius et sur le jus
respondendi_; also ROMAN LAW.
GAIUS CAESAR (A.D. 12-41), surnamed CALIGULA, Roman emperor from 37-41,
youngest son of Germanicus and Agrippina the elder, was born on the 31st
of August A.D. 12. He was brought up in his father's camp on the Rhine
among the soldiers, and received the name Caligula from the _caligae_,
or foot-soldiers' boots, which he used to wear. He also accompanied his
father to Syria, and after his death returned to Rome. In 32 he was
summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed to
escape the fate of his relatives. After the murder of Tiberius by
Naevius Sertorius Macro, the prefect of the praetorian guards, which was
probably due to his instigation, Caligula ascended the throne amidst the
rejoicings of the people. The senate conferred the imperial power upon
him alone, although Tiberius Gemellus, the grandson of the preceding
emperor, had been designated as his co-heir. He entered on his first
consulship in July 37. For the first eight months of his reign he did
not disappoint the popular expectation; but after his recovery from a
severe illness his true character showed itself. His extravagance,
cruelty and profligacy can hardly be explained except on the assumption
that he was out of his mind. According to Pelham, much of his conduct
was due to the atmosphere in which he was brought up, and the ideas of
sovereignty instilled into him, which led him to pose as a monarch of
the Graeco-oriental type. To fill his exhausted treasury he put to death
his wealthy subjects and confiscated their property; even the poor fell
victims to his thirst for blood. He bestowed the priesthood and a
consulship upon his horse Incitatus, and demanded that sacrifice should
be offered to himself. He openly declared that he wished the whole Roman
people had only one head, that he might cut it off at a single stroke.
In 39 he set out with an army to Gaul, nominally to punish the Germans
for having invaded Roman territory, but in reality to get money by
plunder and confiscation. Before leaving, he led his troops to the coast
opposite Britain, and ordered them to pick up shells on the seashore, to
be dedicated to the gods at Rome as the spoils of ocean. On his return
he entered Rome with an ovation (a minor form of triumph), temples were
built, statues erected in his honour, and a special priesthood
instituted to attend to his worship. The people were ground down by new
forms of taxation and every kind of extortion, but on the whole Rome was
free from internal disturbances during his reign; some insignificant
conspiracies were discovered and rendered abortive. A personal insult to
Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian cohort, led to Caligula's
assassination on the 24th of January 41.
See Suetonius, _Caligula_; Tacitus, _Annals_, vi. 20 ff.; Dio Cassius
lix.; see also S. Baring Gould, _The Tragedy of the Caesars_ (3rd ed.,
1892); H.F. Pelham in _Quarterly Review_ (April, 1905); H. Willrich,
_Beitrage zur alten Geschichte_ (1903); H. Schiller, _Geschichte der
romischen Kaiserzeit_, i. pt. 1; J.B. Bury, _Student's Hist. of the
Roman Empire_ (1893); Merivale, _History of the Romans under the
Empire_, ch. 48; H. Furneaux's _Annals_ of Tacitus, ii.
(introduction). Mention may also be made of the famous pamphlet by L.
Quidde, _Caligula_. _Eine Studie uber romischen Casarenwahnsinn_ and
an anonymous supplement, _1st Caligula mit unserer Zeit vergleichbar?_
(both 1894); and a reply, _Fin-de-Siecle-Geschichtsschreibung_, by G.
Sommerfeldt (1895).
GALAGO, the Senegal name of the long-tailed African representatives of
the lemur-like Primates, which has been adopted as their technical
designation. Till recently the galagos have been included in the family
_Lemuridae_; but this is restricted to the lemurs of Madagascar, and
they are now classed with the lorises and pottos in the family
_Nycticebidae_, of which they form the section _Galaginae_,
characterized by the great elongation of the upper portion of the feet
(tarsus) and the power of folding the large ears. Throughout the greater
part of Africa south of the Sahara galagos are widely distributed in
the wooded districts, from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the
east, and as far south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are
very active at night, feeding on fruits, insects and small birds. When
they descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by jumping
with their hind-legs like jerboas. They are pretty little animals,
varying from the size of a small cat to less than that of a rat, with
large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur and long tails. There are several
species, of which _G. crassicaudatus_ from Mozambique is the largest;
together with _G. garnetti_ of Natal, _G. agisymbanus_ of Zanzibar, and
_G. monteiroi_ of Angola, this represents the subgenus _Otolemur_. The
typical group includes _G. senegalensis_ (or _galago_) of Senegal, _G.
alleni_ of West and Central Africa, and _G. moholi_ of South Africa;
while _G. demidoffi_ of West and Central Africa and _G. anomurus_ of
French Congoland represent the subgenus _Hemigalago_. (R. L.*)
GALANGAL, formerly written "galingale," and sometimes "garingal,"
_rhizoma galangae_ (Arab. _Kholinjan_;[1] Ger. _Galgantwurzel_; Fr.
_Racine de Galanga_), a drug, now obsolete, with an aromatic taste like
that of mingled ginger and pepper. Lesser galangal root, _radix galangae
minoris_, the ordinary galangal of commerce, is the dried rhizome of
_Alpinia officinarum_, a plant of the natural order Zingiberaceae,
growing in the Chinese island of Hainan, where it is cultivated, and
probably also in the woods of the southern provinces of China. The plant
is closely allied to _Alpinia calcarata_, the rhizome of which is sold
in the bazaars of some parts of India as a sort of galangal. Its stems
attain a length of about 4 ft., and its leaves are slender, lanceolate
and light-green, and have a hot taste; the flowers are white with red
veins, and in simple racemes; the roots form dense masses, sometimes
more than a foot in diameter; and the rhizomes grow horizontally, and
are 3/4 in. or less in thickness. Galangal seems to have been unknown to
the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to have been first introduced into
Europe by Arabian physicians. It is mentioned in the writings of Ibn
Khurdadbah, an Arabian geographer who flourished in the latter half of
the 9th century, and "gallengar" (gallingale or galangal) is one of the
ingredients in an Anglo-Saxon receipt for a "wen salve" (see O.
Cockayne, _Saxon Leechdoms_, vol. iii. p. 13). In the middle ages, as at
present in Livonia, Esthonia and central Russia, galangal was in esteem
in Europe both as a medicine and a spice, and in China it is still
employed as a therapeutic agent. Its chief consumption is in Russia,
where it is used as a cattle-medicine, and as a flavouring for liqueurs.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Apparently derived from the Chinese _Kau-liang-Kiang_, i.e.
Kau-liang ginger, the term applied by the Chinese to galangal, after
the prefecture Kau-chau fu in Canton province, formerly called
Kau-liang (see F. Porter Smith, _Contrib. to the Materia Medica ...
of China_, p. 9, 1871).
GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, an archipelago of five larger and ten smaller islands
in the Pacific Ocean, exactly under the equator. The nearest island to
the South American coast lies 580 m. W. of Ecuador, to which country
they belong. The name is derived from _galapago_, a tortoise, on account
of the giant species, the characteristic feature of the fauna. The
islands were discovered early in the 16th century by Spaniards, who gave
them their present name. They were then uninhabited. The English names
of the individual islands were probably given by buccaneers, for whom
the group formed a convenient retreat.
The larger members of the group, several of which attain an elevation of
2000 to 2500 ft., are Albemarle or Isabela (100 m. long, 28 m. in
extreme breadth, with an area of 1650 sq. m. and an extreme elevation of
5000 ft.), Narborough or Fernandina, Indefatigable or Santa Cruz,
Chatham or San Cristobal, James or San Salvador, and Charles or Santa
Maria. The total land area is estimated at about 2870 sq. m. (about that
of the West Riding of Yorkshire). The extraordinary number of craters, a
few of which are reported still to be active, gives evidence that the
archipelago is the result of volcanic action. The number of main craters
may be about twenty-five, but there are very many small eruptive cones
on the flanks of the old volcanoes. There is a convict settlement on
Chatham with some 300 inhabitants living in low thatched or iron-roofed
huts, under the supervision of a police commissioner and other officials
of Ecuador, by which country the group was annexed in 1832, when General
Villamil founded Floreana on Charles Island, naming it in honour of Juan
Jose Flores, president of Ecuador. A governor has been appointed since
1885, some importance being foreseen for the islands in connexion with
the cutting of the Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to
Australia opened up by that scheme. Charles Island, the most valuable of
the group, is cultivated by a small colony. On many of the islets
numerous tropical fruits are found growing wild, but they are no doubt
escapes from cultivation, just as the large herds of wild cattle,
horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and dogs--the last large and fierce--which
occur abundantly on most of the islands have escaped from domestication.
The shores of the larger islands are fringed in some parts with a dense
barrier of mangroves, backed by an often impenetrable thicket of
tropical undergrowth, which, as the ridges are ascended, give place to
taller trees and deep green bushes which are covered with orchids and
trailing moss (_orchilla_), and from which creepers hang down
interlacing the vegetation. But generally the low grounds are parched
and rocky, presenting only a few thickets of Peruvian cactus and stunted
shrubs, and a most uninviting shore. The contrast between this low zone
and the upper zone of rich vegetation (above about 800 ft.) is curiously
marked. From July to November the clouds hang low on the mountains, and
give moisture to the upper zone, while the climate of the lower is dry.
Rain in the lower zone is scanty, and from May to January does not
occur. The porous soil absorbs the moisture, and fresh water is scarce.
Though the islands are under the equator, the climate is not intensely
hot, as it is tempered by cold currents from the Antarctic sea, which,
having followed the coast of Peru as far as Cape Blanco, bear off to the
N.W. towards and through the Galapagos. The mean temperature of the
lower zone is about 71 deg. F., that of the upper from 66 deg. to 62 deg.
The Galapagos Islands are of some commercial importance to Ecuador, on
account of the guano and the orchilla moss found on them and exported to
Europe. Except on Charles Island, where settlement has existed longest,
little or no influence of the presence of man is evident in the group;
still, the running wild of dogs and cats, and, as regards the
vegetation, especially goats, must in a comparatively short period
greatly modify the biological conditions of the islands.
The origin and development of these conditions, in islands so distinctly
oceanic as the Galapagos, have given its chief importance to this
archipelago since it was visited by Darwin in the "Beagle." The
Galapagos archipelago possesses a rare advantage from its isolated
situation, and from the fact that its history has never been interfered
with by any aborigines of the human race. Of the seven species of giant
tortoises known to science (although at the discovery of the islands
there were probably fifteen) all are indigenous, and each is confined to
its own islet. There also occurs a peculiar genus of lizards with two
species, the one marine, the other terrestrial. The majority of the
birds are of endemic species peculiar to different islets, while more
than half belong to peculiar genera. More than half of the flora is
unknown elsewhere.
Since 1860 several visits have been paid to the group by scientific
investigators--by Dr Habel in 1868; Messrs Baur and Adams, and the
naturalists of the "Albatross," between 1888 and 1891; and in
1897-1898 by Mr Charles Harris, whose journey was specially undertaken
at the instance of the Hon. Walter Rothschild. Very complete
collections have therefore, as a result of these expeditions, been
brought together; but their examination does not materially change the
facts upon which the conclusions arrived at by Darwin, from the
evidence of the birds and plants, were based; though he "no doubt
would have paid more attention to [the evidence afforded by
Land-tortoises], if he had been in possession of facts with which we
are acquainted now" (Gunther). His conclusions were that the group
"has never been nearer the mainland than it is now, nor have its
members been at any time closer together"; and that the character of
the flora and fauna is the result of species straggling over from
America, at long intervals of time, to the different islets, where in
their isolation they have gradually varied in different degrees and
ways from their ancestors. Equally indecisive is the further
exploration as to evidence for the opinion held by other naturalists
that the endemic species of the different islands have resulted from
subsidences, through volcanic action, which have reduced one large
island mass into a number of islets, wherein the separated species
became differentiated during their isolation. The presence of these
giant reptiles on the group is the chief fact on which a former land
connexion with the continent of America may be sustained. "Nearly all
authorities agree that it is not probable that they have crossed the
wide sea between the Galapagos Islands and the American continent,
although, while they are helpless, and quite unable to swim, they can
float on the water. If their ancestors had been carried out to sea
once or twice by a flood and safely drifted as far as the Galapagos
Islands" (Wallace), "they must have been numerous on the continent"
(Rothschild and Hartert). No remains, and of course no living species,
of these tortoises are known to exist or have existed on the mainland.
Rothschild and Hartert think "it is more natural to assume the
disappearance of a great stock of animals, the remains of which have
survived, ... than to assume the disappearance in comparatively recent
times (i.e. in the Eocene period or later) of enormous land masses."
Past elevations of land, however (and doubtless equally great
subsidences) have taken place in South America since the Eocene, and
the conclusion that extensive areas of land have subsided in the
Indian Ocean has long been based on a somewhat similar distribution of
giant tortoises in the Mascarene region.
AUTHORITIES.--Darwin, _Voyage of the "Beagle"_; O. Salvin, "On the
Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ part ix.
(1876); Sclater and Salvin, "Characters of New Species collected by Dr
Habel in the Galapagos Islands," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1870, pp.
322-327; A.R. Wallace, _Geographical Distribution of Animals_ (New
York, 1876); Theodor Wolf, _Ein Besuch der Galapagos Inseln_
(Heidelberg, 1879); and paper in _Geographical Journal_, vi. 560
(1895); W.L. and P.L. Sclater, _The Geography of Mammals_ (London,
1899); Ridgway, "Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago," _Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus._ vol. xix. pp. 459-670 (1897); Baur, "New Observations on the
Origin of the Galapagos Islands," _Amer. Nat._ (1897), pp. 661-680,
864-896; A. Agassiz, "The Galapagos Islands," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._
vol. xxiii. pp. 56-75; A. Gunther, _Proc. Linn. Soc._ (London
(President's Address), October 1898), pp. 14-29 (with bibliography
from 1875 to 1898 on gigantic land-tortoises); Rothschild and Hartert,
"Review of the Ornithology of the Galapagos Islands," _Novitates
zoologicae_, vi. pp. 85-205; B.L. Robinson, "Flora of the Galapagos
Islands," _Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences_, xxxviii. (1902).
GALASHIELS, a municipal and police burgh of Selkirkshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1891) 17,367; (1901) 13,615. It is situated on Gala Water, within a
short distance of its junction with the Tweed, 33-1/2 m. S.S.E. of
Edinburgh by the North British railway. The town stretches for more than
2 m. along both banks of the river, the mills and factories occupying
the valley by the stream, the villas and better-class houses the
high-lying ground on either side. The principal structures include the
municipal buildings, corn exchange, library, public hall, and the market
cross. The town is under the control of a provost, bailies and council,
and, along with Hawick and Selkirk, forms the Hawick (or Border) group
of parliamentary burghs. The woollen manufactures, dating from the close
of the 16th century, are the most important in Scotland, though now
mainly confined to the weaving of tweeds. Other leading industries are
hosiery, tanning (with the largest yards in Scotland), dyeing, iron and
brass founding, engineering and boot-making. Originally a village built
for the accommodation of pilgrims to Melrose Abbey (4 m. E. by S.), it
became, early in the 15th century, an occasional residence of the
Douglases, who were then keepers of Ettrick Forest, and whose peel-tower
was not demolished till 1814. Galashiels was created into a burgh of
barony in 1599. The Catrail or Picts' Work begins near the town and
passes immediately to the west. Clovenfords, 3-1/2 m. W., is noted for
the Tweed vineries, which are heated by 5 m. of water-pipes, and supply
the London market throughout the winter. Two miles farther W. by S. is
Ashestiel, where Sir Walter Scott resided from 1804 to 1812, where he
wrote his most famous poems and began _Waverley_, and which he left for
Abbotsford.
GALATIA. I. In the strict sense (Galatia Proper, Roman _Gallograecia_)
this is the name applied by Greek-speaking peoples to a large inland
district of Asia Minor since its occupation by Gaulish tribes in the 3rd
century B.C. Bounded on the N. by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, W. by
Phrygia, S. by Lycaonia and Cappadocia, E. by Pontus, it included the
greater part of the modern vilayet of Angora, stretching from Pessinus
eastwards to Tavium and from the Paphlagonian hills N. of Ancyra
southwards to the N. end of the salt lake Tatta (but probably including
the plains W. of the lake during the greater part of its history),--a
rough oblong about 200 m. long and 100 (to 130) broad.
Galatia is part of the great central plateau of Asia Minor, here ranging
from 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level, and falls geographically into two
parts separated by the Halys (Kizil Irmak),--a small eastern district
lying chiefly in the basin of the Delije Irmak, the principal affluent
of the Halys, and a large western region drained almost entirely by the
Sangarius (Sakaria) and its tributaries. On the N. side Galatia consists
of a series of plains with fairly fertile soil, lying between bare
hills. But the greater part is a dreary stretch of barren, undulating
uplands, intersected by tiny streams and passing gradually into the vast
level waste of treeless (anc. _Axylon_) plain that runs S. to Lycaonia;
these uplands are little cultivated and only afford extensive pasturage
for large flocks of sheep and goats. Cities are few and far apart, and
the climate is one of extremes of heat and cold. The general condition
and aspect of the country was much the same in ancient as in modern
times.
The Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278-277 B.C. They
numbered 20,000, of which only one-half were fighting men, the rest
being doubtless women and children; and not long after their arrival we
find them divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and
Tectosages, each of which claimed a separate sphere of operations. They
had split off from the army which invaded Greece under Brennus in 279
B.C., and, marching into Thrace under Leonnorius and Lutarius, crossed
over to Asia at the invitation of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who required
help in his struggle against his brother. For about 46 years they were
the scourge of the western half of Asia Minor, ravaging the country, as
allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious
check, until Attalus I., king of Pergamum (241-197), inflicted several
severe defeats upon them, and about 232 B.C. forced them to settle
permanently in the region to which they gave their name. Probably they
already occupied parts of Galatia, but definite limits were now fixed
and their right to the district was formally recognized. The tribes were
settled where they afterwards remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the
Tolistobogii round Pessinus, and the Trocmi round Tavium. The
constitution of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably
to Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into four cantons (Gr. [Greek:
tetrarchiai]), each governed by a chief ("tetrarch") of its own with a
judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in cases of murder,
which were tried before a council of 300 drawn from the twelve cantons
and meeting at a holy place called Drynemeton. But the power of the
Gauls was not yet broken. They proved a formidable foe to the Romans in
their wars with Antiochus, and after Attalus' death their raids into W.
Asia Minor forced Rome in 189 B.C. to send an expedition against them
under Cn. Manlius Vulso, who taught them a severe lesson. Henceforward
their military power declined and they fell at times under Pontic
ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by the Mithradatic wars,
in which they heartily supported Rome. In the settlement of 64 B.C.
Galatia became a client-state of the empire, the old constitution
disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled "tetrarchs") were
appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before
the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of
Cicero and Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies
and was finally recognized by the Romans as king of Galatia. On the
death of the third king Amyntas in 25 B.C., Galatia was incorporated by
Augustus in the Roman empire, and few of the provinces were more
enthusiastically loyal.
The population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the arrival of
the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was inhabited by Phrygians,
and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians and other native races. This native
population remained, and constituted the majority of the inhabitants of
the rural parts and almost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were
left in possession of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, _B.G._ i. 31)
on condition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who took
the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the arts and
crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands. They were
henceforth ranked as "Galatians" by the outside world equally with their
overlords, and it was from their numbers that the "Galatian" slaves who
figure in the markets of the ancient world were drawn. The conquerors,
who were few in number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not
in the towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their
castles kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With
the decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with the
natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation was
accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became as complete as
that of the Normans with the Saxons in England, but they gave to the
mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and long retained their
national characteristics and social customs, as well as their language
(which continued in use, side by side with Greek, in the 4th century
after Christ). In the 1st century, when St Paul made his missionary
journeys, even the towns Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium (where Gauls were
few) were not Hellenized, though Greek, the language of government and
trade, was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected by
Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to appear
in the towns only in the later 2nd century. In the rustic parts a
knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the 3rd century; but only in the
4th and 5th centuries, after the transference of the centre of
government first to Nicomedia and then to Constantinople placed Galatia
on the highway of imperial communication, was Hellenism in its Christian
form gradually diffused over the country. (See also ANCYRA; PESSINUS;
GORDIUM.)
II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 B.C., included the
greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz. Galatia Proper, part
of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia, Antioch and Iconium), Pisidia,
part of Lycaonia (including Lystra and Derbe) and Isauria. For nearly
100 years it was the frontier province, and the changes in its
boundaries are an epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the
Euphrates, one client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in
6-5 B.C.; Sebastopolis, 3-2 B.C.; Amasia, A.D. 1-2; Comana, A.D.
34-35,--together forming Pontus Galaticus,--the Pontic kingdom of
Polemon, A.D. 64, under the name Pontus Polemoniacus. In A.D. 70
Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since A.D. 17) with Armenia Minor
became the centre of the forward movement and Galatia lost its
importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a vast double governorship
until A.D. 114 (probably), when Trajan separated the two parts, making
Galatia an inferior province of diminished size, while Cappadocia with
Armenia Minor and Pontus became a great consular military province,
charged with the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian's
reorganization Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the
name retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia of
Deiotarus); and about 390 this province, amplified by the addition of a
few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia Prima and Secunda or
Salutaris, the division indicating the renewed importance of Galatia in
the Byzantine empire. After suffering from Persian and Arabic raids,
Galatia was conquered by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and passed
to the Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 14th.
The question whether the "Churches of Galatia," to which St Paul
addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or southern part of
the province has been much discussed, and in England Prof. Sir W.M.
Ramsay has been the principal advocate of the adoption of the
South-Galatian theory, which maintains that they were the churches
planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and Antioch (see GALATIANS). In the
present writer's opinion this is supported by the study of the
historical and geographical facts.[1]
AUTHORITIES.--Van Gelder, _De Gallis in Graecia et Asia_ (1888);
Staehelin, _Gesch. d. kleinasiat. Galater_ (1897); Perrot, _De Galatia
prov. Rom._ (1867); Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Histor. Geogr._ (1890), _St
Paul_ (1898), and Introd. to _Histor. Commentary on Galatians_ (1899).
For antiquities generally, Perrot, _Explor. archeol. de la Galatie_
(1862); K. Humann and O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien_ (1890);
Koerte, _Athen. Mitteilungen_ (1897); Anderson and Crowfoot, _Journ.
of Hellenic Studies_ (1899); and Anderson, _Map of Asia Minor_
(London, Murray, 1903). (J. G. C. A.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally
attaches to the opinion of experts on either side; and the above
statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article
on the epistle, must be taken on its merits.--Ed. _E.B._
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. This
early Christian scripture is one of the books militant in the world's
literature. Its usefulness to Luther in his propaganda was no accident
in its history; it originated in a controversy, and the varying views of
the momentous struggle depicted in Gal. ii. and Acts xv. have naturally
determined, from time to time, the conception of the epistle's aim and
date. Details of the long critical discussion of this problem cannot be
given here. (See PAUL.) It must suffice to say that to the present
writer the identification of Gal. ii. 1-10 with Acts xi. 28 f. and not
with Acts xv. appears quite untenable, while a fair exegesis of Acts
xvi. 1-6 implies a distinction between such towns as Lystra, Derbe and
Iconium on the one hand and the Galatian [Greek: chora] with Phrygia
upon the other.[1] A further visit to the latter country is mentioned,
upon this view, in Acts xviii. 23. The Christians to whom the epistle
was addressed were thus inhabitants, for the most part (iv. 8) of pagan
birth, belonging to the northern section of the province, perhaps mainly
in its south-western district adjoining Bithynia and the province of
Asia. The scanty allusions to this mission in Acts cannot be taken as
any objection to the theory. Nor is there any valid geographical
difficulty. The country was quite accessible from Antioch. Least of all
does the historical evidence at our disposal justify the inference that
the civilization of north Galatia, during the 1st century A.D., was
Romano-Gallic rather than Hellenic; for, as the coins and inscriptions
indicate, the Anatolian culture which predominated throughout the
province did not exclude the infusion either of Greek religious
conceptions or of the Greek language. The degree of elementary Greek
culture needful for the understanding of Galatians cannot be shown to
have been foreign to the inhabitants of north Galatia. So far as any
trustworthy evidence is available, such Hellenic notions as are
presupposed in this epistle might well have been intelligible to the
Galatians of the northern provinces. Still less does the acquaintance
with Roman jurisprudence in iii. 15-iv. 2 imply, as Halmel contends
(_Uber rom. Recht im Galaterbrief_, 1895), not merely that Paul must
have acquired such knowledge in Italy but that he wrote the epistle
there. A popular acquaintance with the outstanding features of Roman law
was widely diffused by this time in Asia Minor.
The epistle can hardly have been written therefore until after the
period described in Acts xviii. 22, but the _terminus ad quem_ is more
difficult to fix.[2] The composition may be placed (cf. the present
writer's _Historical New Testament_, pp. 124 f. for details) either
during the earlier part of Paul's residence at Ephesus (Acts xix. 1, 10,
so most editors and scholars), or on his way from Ephesus to Corinth, or
at Corinth itself (so Lightfoot, Bleek, Salmon).
The epistle was not written until Paul had visited Thessalonica, but
the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul undertaken
some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe. When he composed this
letter, he had visited the churches twice. On the former of these visits
(iv. 13 [Greek: to proteron]), though broken down by illness (2 Cor.
xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusiastically welcomed, and the immediate
result of his mission was an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5,
iv. 14 f.). The local Christians made a most promising start (v. 7). But
they failed to maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7,
v. 21) the apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due
to discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence in
some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective. Otherwise,
this second visit is left in the shadow.[3] So far as it was accompanied
by warnings, these were evidently general rather than elicited by any
definite and imminent peril to the churches. Not long afterwards,
however, some judaizing opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous
anonymity of the [Greek: tines] in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by
one prominent and influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance
among the Galatians, promulgating a "gospel" which meant fidelity to,
not freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testament,
they represented Paul's gospel as an imperfect creed which required to
be supplemented by legal exactitude,[4] including ritual observance (iv.
10) and even circumcision,[5] while at the same time they sought to
undermine his authority[6] by pointing out that it was derived from the
apostles at Jerusalem and therefore that his teaching must be open to
the checks and tests of that orthodox primitive standard which they
themselves claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic
privileges was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory
upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16).
When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had evidently not
yet gone too far. Only a few had been circumcised. It was not too late
to arrest the Galatians on their downward plane, and the apostle, unable
or unwilling to re-visit them, despatched this epistle. How or when the
information came to him, we do not know. But the gravity of the
situation renders it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time
in writing to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from
allusions like those in i. 6 ([Greek: tacheos] and [Greek:
metatithesthe]--the lapse still in progress), we may conclude that the
interval between the reception of the news and the composition of the
letter must have been comparatively brief.
After a short introduction[7] (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual word
of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical
vindication[8] of his apostolic independence, which, developed
negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main sections
in the epistle (i. 6-ii. 21). In the closing passage he drifts over from
an account of this interview with Peter into a sort of monologue upon
the incompatibility of the Mosaic law with the Christian gospel (ii.
15-21),[9] and this starts him afresh upon a trenchant expostulation and
appeal (iii. 1-v. 12) regarding the alternatives of law and spirit.
Faith dominates this section; faith in its historical career and as the
vantage-ground of Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be
merely a provisional episode[10] culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28)
as a message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 29-iv. 11). The
genuine "sons of Abraham" are not legalistic Jewish Christians but those
who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate outburst then
follows (iv. 12 f.), and, harping still on Abraham, the apostle essays,
with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christianity over legalism
as the free and final religion for men, applying this to the moral
situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 1-12). This conception of
freedom then leads him to define the moral responsibilities of the faith
(v. 13-vi. 10), in order to prevent misconception and to enforce the
claims of the gospel upon the individual and social life of the
Galatians. The epilogue (vi. 11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt,
emphatic sentences, the main points of the epistle.
The allusion in vi. 11 [Greek: (idete pelikois hymin grammasin egrapsa
te eme cheiri)] is to the large bold size[11] of the letters in Paul's
handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are matters of
dispute. It is "a sensational heading" (Findlay), but it may either
refer[12] to the whole epistle (so Augustine, Chrysostom, &c., followed
by Zahn) or, as most hold (with Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 11-18).
Paul commonly dictated his letters. His use of the autograph here may
have been to prevent any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal
emphasis of his message. In any case it is assumed that the Galatians
knew his handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript
from a feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize
that, after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating
them like children, "playfully hinting that surely the large letters
will touch their hearts" (so Deissmann, _Bible-Studies_ (1901), 346 f.).
The earliest allusion to the epistle[13] is the notice of its inclusion
in Marcion's canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be
heard in Justin Martyr's _Dial._ xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known to
Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of its popularity
multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the Ophites to Irenaeus and
the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory's _Canon and Text of N.T._, 1907, pp.
201-203). It is no longer necessary for serious criticism to refute the
objections to its authenticity raised during the 19th century in certain
quarters;[14] as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar's
commentaries, "to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism."
Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion (cf.
Tert. _Adv. Marc._ 2-4) removed what he judged to be some
interpolations, but van Manen's attempt to prove that Marcion's text is
more original than the canonical (_Theolog. Tijdschrift_, 1887, 400 f.
451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen's refutation in _Die
Einheitlichkeit der paulin_. _Briefe_, 1894, pp. 100 f. and Zahn's
_Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons_, ii. 409 f.), and little or no
weight attaches to the attempts made (e.g. by J.A. Cramer) to
disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even D. Volter, who
applies this method to the other Pauline epistles, admits that
Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a literary unity
(_Paulus und seine Briefe_, 1905, pp. 229-285). The frequent roughnesses
of the traditional text suggest, however, that here and there marginal
glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a ([Greek: to gar Sina oros estin
en te Arabia]) probably represents the explanatory and prosaic gloss of
a later editor, as many scholars have seen from Bentley (_Opuscula
philologica_, 1781, pp. 533 f.) to H.A. Schott, J.A. Cramer, J.M.S.
Baljon and C. Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and
unpremeditated, "one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine and
inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood, such as may
often have been seen by his Galatians" (J. Macgregor). But there is a
certain rhythmical balance, especially in the first chapter (cf. J.
Weiss, _Beitrage zur paulin. Rhetorik_, 1897, 8 f.); here as elsewhere
the rush and flow of feeling carry with them some care for rhetorical
form, in the shape of antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might
more or less unconsciously retain.[15] All through, the letter shows the
breaks and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis.
Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument, are its
most characteristic features.[16] The trenchant remonstrances and fiery
outbursts make it indeed "read like a dithyramb from beginning to end."
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of more modern editions in English, the most competent
are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic and
grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), J.B. Lightfoot
(11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and F. Rendall
(_Expositor's Greek Testament_, 1903) on the Greek text; Dr Sanday (in
Ellicott's _Commentary_, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor (Edinburgh, 1879),
B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (_Pulpit Comment._, 1885), Dr Agar
Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W.F. Adeney (_Century Bible_), Dr E.H.
Perowne (_Cambridge Bible_, 1890) and Dr James Drummond (_Internat.
Handbooks to N.T._, 1899) also comment on the English text. The
editions of Lightfoot and Jowett are especially valuable for their
subsidiary essays, and Sir W.M. Ramsay's _Historical Commentary on
Galatians_ (1899) contains archaeological and historical material
which is often illuminating. The French editions are few and minor,
those by A. Sardinoux (Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being
adequate, however. In Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by
F. Sieffert (in Meyer's _Comment._, 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed.,
1907); these supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott
(1834), A. Wieseler (Gottingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859),
J.C.K. von Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd
ed., _Hand.-Commentar_, 1892), and Zockler (2nd ed., 1894) may still
be consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld's commentary (1852)
discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the
standpoint of Baur's criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed.,
1894) and W. Bousset (_in Die Schriften des N.T._, 2nd ed., 1907) are
more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), F.X.
Reithmayr (1865), A. Schafer (Munster, 1890) and F. Cornely (1892,
also in _Cursus scripturae sacrae_, 1907) are the most satisfactory
modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it should not be
forgotten that the 16th century produced the _Literalis expositio_ of
Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre Barahona
(Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition of Luther
(Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After Calvin
and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (_Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe an die Gal. u.
Romer Christen_, 1831) was perhaps the most independent interpreter.
For the patristic editions, see the introductory sections in Zahn and
Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle is admirably
expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten (_Das Evangelium
Paulus_, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (_St Paul's Conception of
Christianity_, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay (_Expositor's
Bible_). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (_Galat. und
Apostelgeschichte_, 1882) and M. Thomas (_Melanges d'histoire et de
litt. religieuse_, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H.
Askwith's essay (_Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date_,
1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S. Wood
(_Studies in St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_, 1887) criticizes
Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all
biographies of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in
works like Sabatier's _The Apostle Paul_ (pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon's
_Story of St Paul_ (pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw's _The Pauline Epistles_
(2nd ed., pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano, _Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli_
(1902), i. pp. 111 f., and Volkmar's _Paulus vom Damaskus bis zum
Galaterbrief_ (1887), to which may be added a series of papers by
Haupt in _Deutsche Evang.-Blatter_ (1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183,
238-259, and an earlier set by Hilgenfeld in the _Zeitschrift fur
wiss. Theologie_ ("Zur Vorgeschichte des Gal." 1860, pp. 206 f., 1866,
pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). Other monographs and essays have been
noted in the course of this article. See further under PAUL.
(J. Mt.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which
lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are stated
in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still a
matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent
dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the
archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the
north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia
as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English
reader in P.W. Schmiedel's exhaustive article in _Encycl. Biblica_
(1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert's _Student's Life of Paul_ (1902),
pp. 260-272. Schmiedel's arguments are mainly directed against Sir
W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A. Steinmann,
takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian side of the
controversy (_Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes_, Munster, i. W.,
1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert and
Zockler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman,
Prof. Valentine Weber.
[2] The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory is to
put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous with,
if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round in _The Date of
St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_ (1906).
[3] It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation
were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten,
Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsacker) or whether they
are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and
Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the opening
of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul seems to
have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians' defection.
[4] Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in
ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).
[5] The critical dubiety about [Greek: oude] in ii. 5 (cf. Zahn's
excursus and Prof. Lake in _Expositor_, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws
a slight doubt on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that
the agitators had quoted Paul's practice as an authoritative sanction
of the rite.
[6] This depreciation is voiced in their catch-word [Greek: oi
dokountes] ("those of repute," ii. 6), while other echoes of their
talk can be overheard in such phrases as "we are Abraham's seed"
(iii. 16), "sinners of Gentiles" (ii. 15) and "Jerusalem which is our
mother" (iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of
"seeking to please men" (i. 10) and "preaching circumcision" (v. 11).
[7] Not only is the address "to the churches of Galatia" unusually
bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was
on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to
concentrate attention upon his personal commission. Yet the [Greek:
hemeis] of i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.
[8] Cf. Hausrath's _History of the N.T. Times_ (iii. pp. 181-199),
with the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that "Paul stands before us like an
ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and
shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy to
be called Imperator."
[9] Cf. T.H. Green's _Works_, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the
indirect abstract of the speech's argument, but in verses 18-21 the
apostle, carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he
dictates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.
[10] Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught
(cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy
for the evil _yezer_ of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues,
it is an aggravation.
[11] According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the
use of his son, [Greek: idia cheiri kai megalois grammasin] (cf.
Field's _Notes on Translation of the New Testament_, p. 191). If the
point of Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot
have contemplated copies of the epistle being made. He must have
assumed that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2
Thess. iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott, _Johannine Grammar_, pp. 530-532).
[12] For [Greek: egrapsa], the epistolary aorist, at the close of a
letter, cf. Xen. _Anab._ i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX)
and Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ x.
[13] Hermann Schulze's attempt to bring out the filiation of the
later N.T. literature to Galatians (_Die Ursprunglichkeit des
Galaterbriefes_, Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of
the literary evidence.
[14] Cf. especially J. Gloe's _Die jungste Kritik des Galaterbriefes_
(Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon's reply to Steck and Loman
(_Exeg.-kritische verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal._,
1889). The English reader may consult Schmiedel's article (already
referred to) and Dr R.J. Knowling's _The Testimony of St Paul to
Christ_ (1905), 28 f.
[15] Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass,
_Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa_ (1905), pp.
43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into
unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 ([Greek: emoi men
ouk okneron, hymin d' asphales]) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv.
33, a reminiscence of Menander.
[16] This affects even the vocabulary which has also "einen gewissen
vulgaren Zug" (Nageli, _Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus_, 1905,
pp. 78-79).
GALATINA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which
it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,917
(town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable for the fine Gothic
church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by Raimondello del Balzo Orsini,
count of Soleto, with a fine portal and rose-window. The interior
contains frescoes by Francesco d' Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the
fine mausoleum of the son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported
by four columns, with his statue beneath it.
GALATZ (_Galatii_), a city of Rumania, capital of the department of
Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m. W. by N. of its
mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including 12,000 Jews. The Danube
is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E.
Galatz is built on a slight eminence among the marshes which line the
intervening shore and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the
shallow mere called Lake Bratych (_Bratesul_), more than 50 sq. m. in
extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th century,
of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved streets
and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every year, the city
improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays were constructed along the
Danube; electric tramways were opened in the main streets, which were
lighted by gas or electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher,
or north-western part of the city, which is the more open and
comfortable, contains many of the chief buildings. These include the
prefecture, consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals
and the offices of the international commission for the control of the
Danube (q.v.). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at Galatz. There
are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and other churches; the most
interesting being the cathedral, and St Mary's church, in which is the
tomb of the famous Cossack chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been
rifled of its contents by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and
the headquarters of the III. army corps, protected by a line of
fortifications which extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as
the Sereth line. But the main importance of the city is commercial.
Galatz is the chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three
waterways, the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual
volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways which
intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles, machinery,
and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a large trade in petroleum
and salt, Galatz ranks first among Rumanian cities in its export of
timber, and second to Braila in its export of grain. It possesses many
saw-mills, paste-mills, flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and
petroleum refineries; manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap
and candles. Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but
cargoes consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at
Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the principal
owners being British.
GALAXY, properly the MILKY WAY, from the Greek name [Greek: ho
galaxias], sc. [Greek: kyklos], from [Greek: gala], milk, cf. the Lat.
_via lactea_ (see STAR). The word is more generally employed in its
figurative or transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant
or distinguished persons or objects.
GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general and orator. He served under
Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian War. As praetor in 151
B.C. in farther Spain he made himself infamous by the treacherous murder
of a number of Lusitanians, with their wives and children, after
inducing them to surrender by the promise of grants of land. For this in
149 he was brought to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by
holding up his little children before the people to gain their sympathy.
He was consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an
eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in Cicero's
opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His speeches, however, were
almost forgotten in Cicero's time.
Livy xlv. 35; Appian, _Hisp._ 58-60; Cicero, _De orat._ i. 53, iii. 7;
Brutus 21.
GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman emperor (June A.D. 68 to January 69),
born near Terracina, on the 24th of December 5 B.C. He came of a noble
family and was a man of great wealth, but unconnected either by birth or
by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was
regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both
Augustus and Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, _Annals_,
vi. 20; Suetonius, _Galba_, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he
acquired a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany,
Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and
impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation of his
friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served Claudius. For the
first half of Nero's reign he lived in retirement, till, in 61, the
emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In the
spring of 68 Galba was informed of Nero's intention to put him to death,
and of the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first
inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of
the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, the
praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived Galba's
spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the legate of the
senate and Roman people; after the murder of Nero, he assumed the title
of Caesar, and marched straight for Rome. At first he was welcomed by
the senate and the party of order, but he was never popular with the
soldiers or the people. He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by
scornfully refusing to pay them the reward promised in his name, and
disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His
advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands
of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of Germany, who demanded
that the senate should choose another emperor, first made him aware of
his own unpopularity and the general discontent. In order to check the
rising storm, he adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius
Piso Frugi Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His
choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a sign of
fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was
not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly governor of Lusitania, and
one of Galba's earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen
instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented
praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at
once set out to meet the rebels--he was so feeble that he had to be
carried in a litter--was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near
the Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial
administration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to
a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the growing infirmities
of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would have pronounced him worthy
of empire if he had never been emperor ("omnium consensu capax imperii
nisi imperasset").
See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 7-49;
Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson, _Civil War and
Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 69-70_ (1908); W.A. Spooner, _On
the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitellius_ in Introd. to his edition
(1891) of the _Histories_ of Tacitus.
GALBANUM (Heb. _Helbenah_; Gr. [Greek: chalbane]), a gum-resin, the
product of _Ferula galbaniflua_, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps also
of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or soft,
irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or occasionally
in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or greenish-yellow
colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a peculiar, somewhat musky
odour, and a specific gravity of 1.212. It contains about 8% of terpene;
about 65% of a resin which contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a
very small quantity of the colourless crystalline substance
_umbelliferone_, C9H6O3. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In
Exodus xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the
making of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in
medicine, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary
curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that
"the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill
a serpent." The drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses
of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions common to substances
containing a resin and a volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however,
obsolescent.
GALCHAS, the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana, Kohistan and
Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks,
are identified with the _Calcienses populi_ of the lay Jesuit Benedict
Goes, who crossed the Pamir in 1603 and described them as "of light hair
and beard like the Belgians." The word "Galcha," which has been
explained as meaning "the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the
mountains," in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik
family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably simply
the Persian _galcha_, "clown" or "rustic," in reference to their uncouth
manners. The Galchas conform physically to what has been called the
"Alpine or Celtic European race," so much so that French anthropologists
have termed them "those belated Savoyards of Kohistan." D'Ujfalvy
describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy
cheeks, black, chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes,
never oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face
and round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas
represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through Armenia
and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The Galchas for the most
part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.
See Robert Shaw, "On the Galtchah Languages," in _Journ. As. Soc.
Bengal_, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of
the Hindoo-Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone, _An
Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_ (1815); _Bull. de la societe
d'anthropologie de Paris_ (1887); Charles Eugene D'Ujfalvy de
Mezoe-Koevesd, _Les Aryens_ (1896), and in _Revue d'anthropologie_
(1879), and _Bull. de la soc. de geogr._ (June 1878); W.Z. Ripley,
_Races of Europe_ (New York, 1899).
GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678), English nonconformist divine, was born in
1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where his father was vicar. In
1647 he was entered at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took his B.A.
degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652. In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor
of his college. He remained some years at Oxford, discharging actively
the duties of tutor, and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester
cathedral. In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and
was ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he
accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy, returning to
England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he passed in London as
assistant to John Rowe, an Independent minister who had charge of an
important church in Holborn; Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in
the following year. His principal work, _The Court of the Gentiles_,
which appeared in parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse
of miscellaneous philosophical learning. It resembles the _Intellectual
System_ of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work both in
general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale's endeavour (based on
a hint of Grotius in _De veritate_, i. 16) is to prove that the whole
philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or mangled reproduction of
Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth referred the Democritean doctrine of
atoms to Moses as the original author, so Gale tries to show that the
various systems of Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources.
Like so many of the learned works of the 17th century, the _Court of
the Gentiles_ is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is
rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical
discrimination.
His other writings are: _A True Idea of Jansenism_ (1669); _Theophil,
or a Discourse of the Saint's Amitie with God in Christ_ (1671);
_Anatomie of Infidelitie_ (1672); _Idea theologiae_ (1673);
_Philosophia generalis_ (1676).
GALE, THOMAS (?1636-1702), English classical scholar and antiquarian,
was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated at Westminster school
and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. In 1666 he
was appointed regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high
master of St Paul's school, in 1676 prebendary of St Paul's, in 1677 a
fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York
on the 7th (or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, _Opuscula
mythologica, ethica, et physica_, and editions of several Greek and
Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old works
bearing on Early English history, entitled _Historiae Anglicanae
scriptores_ and _Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae, Anglo-Danicae
scriptores XV_. He was the author of the inscription on the London
Monument in which the Roman Catholics were accused of having originated
the great fire.
See J.E.B. Mayor, _Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne_, 448-450.
GALE. 1. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from Dan. _gal_,
mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense of boisterous) a
wind of considerable power, considerably stronger than a breeze, but not
severe enough to be called a storm. In nautical language it is usually
combined with some qualifying word, as "half a gale," a "stiff gale." In
poetical and figurative language "gale" is often used in a pleasant
sense, as in "favouring gale"; in America, it is used in a slang sense
for boisterous or excited behaviour.
2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals; a "hanging
gale" is an arrear of rent left over after each successive "gale" or
rent day. The term survives in the Forest of Dean, for leases granted to
the "free miners" of the forest, granted by the "gaveller" or agent of
the crown, and the term is also applied to the royalty paid to the
crown, and to the area mined. The word is a contracted form of the O.
Eng. _gafol_, which survives in "gavel," in gavelkind (q.v.), and in the
name of the office mentioned above. The root from which these words
derive is that of "give." Through Latinized forms it appears in
_gabelle_ (q.v.).
3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or gaul,
sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of the word is
_gagel_. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub found on bogs
and moors in the British Islands, and widely distributed in the north
temperate zone. It has narrow, short-stalked leaves and inconspicuous,
apetalous, unisexual flowers borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like
fruit is attached to the persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea
and as a country medicine. John Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1228) describes it
as sweet willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The
genus _Myrica_ is the type of a small, but widely distributed order,
_Myricaceae_, which is placed among the apetalous families of
Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow family.
_Myrica cerifera_ is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-tree (q.v.).
GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (1606-1678), prince bishop of
Munster, belonged to a noble Westphalian family, and was born on the
12th of October 1606. Reduced to poverty through the loss of his
paternal inheritance, he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him
from fighting on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the
concluding stages of the Thirty Years' War. In 1650 he succeeded
Ferdinand of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Munster. After
restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality, Galen
had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of the
citizens of Munster; but at length this was crushed, and the bellicose
bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an important personage in
Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of the directors of the imperial army
raised to fight the Turk; and after the peace which followed the
Christian victory at St Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English
king Charles II. in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of
Louis XIV. and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to make
a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again attacked Holland six
years later he was in alliance with Louis, but he soon deserted his new
friend, and fought for the emperor Leopold I. against France. Afterwards
in conjunction with Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of
Sweden, and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the 19th
of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform the church,
but his chief energies were directed to increasing his power and
prestige.
See K. Tucking, _Geschichte des Stifts Munster unter C.B. von Galen_
(Munster, 1865); P. Corstiens, _Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop van
Munster_ (Rotterdam, 1872); A. Husing, _Furstbischof C.B. von Galen_
(Munster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the _English Historical Review_,
vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum a poem printed in
1666, entitled _Letter to the bishop of Munster containing a
Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse_.
GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS, called Gallien by Chaucer and other
writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of ancient medical
writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, about A.D. 130. His father
Nicon, from whom he received his early education, is described as
remarkable both for excellence of natural disposition and for mental
culture; his mother, on the other hand, appears to have been a second
Xanthippe. In 146 Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his
twentieth year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself
under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and of the
peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited other cities,
and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus. A few years later he
went for the first time to Rome. There he healed Eudemus, a celebrated
peripatetic philosopher, and other persons of distinction; and ere long,
by his learning and unparalleled success as a physician, earned for
himself the titles of "Paradoxologus," the wonder-speaker, and
"Paradoxopoeus," the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and
envy of his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to
his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in Venetia, by
the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In 170 he returned to
Rome with the latter, who, on departing thence to conduct the war on the
Danube, having with difficulty been persuaded to dispense with his
personal attendance, appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus.
In Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his reputation
as a physician, and writing some of his most important treatises. It
would appear that he eventually betook himself to Pergamus, after
spending some time at the island of Lemnos, where he learned the method
of preparing a certain popular medicine, the "terra lemnia" or
"sigillata." Whether he ever revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are
the time and place of his death. According to Suidas, he died at the age
of seventy, or in the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If,
however, we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took
place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one of the
most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He composed, it is
said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects, including logic, ethics
and grammar. Of the published works attributed to him, 83 are recognized
as genuine, 19 are of doubtful authenticity, 45 are confessedly
spurious, 19 are fragments, and 15 are notes on the writings of
Hippocrates.
Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic philosophy,
was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the numerous commentaries
and original treatises, a catalogue of which is given in his work _De
propriis libris_, one only has come down to us, the treatise on
_Fallacies in dictione_ ([Greek: Peri ton kata ten lexin sophismaton]).
Many points of logical theory, however, are discussed in his medical and
scientific writings. His name is perhaps best known in the history of
logic in connexion with the fourth syllogistic figure, the first
distinct statement of which was ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no
evidence from Galen's own works that he did make this addition to the
doctrines of syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides
Minas from a Greek commentator on the _Analytics_, referring the fourth
figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not, as generally
supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an amplification or
alteration of the indirect moods of the first figure already noted by
Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.
In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the
superscription _Galenus_, entitled [Greek: Galenou eisagoge dialektike].
Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth figure,
and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of the Aristotelian
and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest contempt. He shows
demonstratively that it cannot be regarded as a writing of Galen's, and
ascribes it to some one or other of the later Greek logicians. A full
summary of its contents will be found in the 1st vol. of the _Geschichte
der Logik_ (pp. 591-610), and a notice of the logical theories of the
true Galen in the same work, pp. 559-577.
There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen's
works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned Jo.
Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa
Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius,
Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore Goulston,
Caspar Hoffman, Rene Chartier, Haller and Kuhn. Of Latin translations
Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two in the following
century. The Greek text was edited at Venice, in 1525, 5 vols. fol.;
at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with Latin version by Rene
Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.; and at Leipzig, in
1821-1833, by C.G. Kuhn, considered to be the best, 20 vols. 8vo. An
epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, by J.R.
Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846. A new edition of Galen's
smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan Muller and G. Helmreich was
published in three volumes at Leipzig in 1884-1909.
Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical and
medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles
under the headings of ANATOMY and MEDICINE. See also Rene Chartier's
Life, in his edition of Galen's works; N.F.J. Eloy, _Dictionnaire
historique de la medecine_, s.v. "Galien," tom. i. (1778); F. Adams's
"Commentary" in his _Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta_ (London and
Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, "A Cursory Analysis of the Works of Galen,
so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology," _Trans. Provincial
Med. and Surg. Assoc._ vi., 1837, pp. 299-336; C.V. Daremberg,
_Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l'anatomie, la physiologie
et la pathologie du systeme nerveux_ (These pour le Doctorat en
Medecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, "The Practical Medicine of
Galen and his Time," _The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical
Rev._, vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg, "Die Schriften des
Claudius Galenos," _Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie_, 1889, 1892 and
1896.
GALENA, a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county, Illinois,
U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena (formerly the
Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi, about 165 m.
W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 5005, of whom 918 were foreign-born;
(1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois Central railways; the Galena
river has been made navigable by government locks at the mouth of the
river, but the river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky
limestone bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river,
and a number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected
by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General U.S.
Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the Civil War. In
the vicinity there are the most important deposits of zinc and lead in
the state, and the city derives its name from the deposits of sulphide
of lead (galena), which were the first worked about here; below the
galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or smithsonite) ores, which was the
main zone worked between 1860 and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende,
or zinc sulphide, now the principal source of the mineral wealth of the
region. The production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is
unimportant. The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery,
flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is afforded by
the river. Galena was originally a trading post, called by the French
"La Pointe" and by the English "Fever River," the river having been
named after le Fevre, a French trader who settled near its mouth. In
1826 Galena was laid out as a town and received its present name; it was
incorporated in 1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre
was opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father
of the celebrated actor of that name.
GALENA, a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the extreme S.E.
part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring river. Pop. (1890)
2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were negroes and 251 were foreign-born;
(1905) 6449; (1910) 6096. It is situated at the intersection of the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis
("Frisco System") railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region,
extremely valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in
1877. Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing
establishments. Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring
river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies
founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former S. of
Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated in 1877,
and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it.
GALENA, an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide (PbS). The
mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name, and it is sometimes now
known as lead-glance (Ger. _Bleiglanz_). It crystallizes in the cubic
system, and well-developed crystals are of common occurrence; the usual
form is the cube or the cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important character,
and one by which the mineral may always be recognized, is the perfect
cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is brilliant and metallic. The
colour of the mineral and of its streak is lead-grey; it is opaque; the
hardness is 2-1/2 and the specific gravity 7.5. Twinned crystals are not
common, but the presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by
fine striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage
surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure are of
common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such masses present a
spangled appearance owing to the numerous bright cleavages.
[Illustration]
The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86.6 and sulphur 13.4%. The
mineral nearly always contains a small amount of silver, and sometimes
antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium, &c. Argentiferous galena is
an important source of silver; this metal is present in amounts rarely
exceeding 1%, and often less than 0.03% (equivalent to 10-3/4 ounces per
ton). Since argentite (Ag2S) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable
that the silver isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that
native silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.
Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metalliferous
veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and limestones, and also
as pockets in limestones. It is often associated with blende and
pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz, barytes, chalybite and
pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the upper oxidized parts of the
deposits, cerussite and anglesite occur as alteration products. The
mineral has occasionally been observed as a recent formation replacing
organic matter, such as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal.
As small concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sandstone
at Kommern in the Eifel. In the lead-mining districts of Derbyshire and
the north of England the ore occurs as veins and flats in the
Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall the veins traverse
clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead region of Missouri, Illinois,
Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills large cavities or chambers in
limestone.
Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of localities
which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the following may be
selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the
Isle of Man (where crystals measuring almost a foot across have been
found), Neudorf in the Harz, Rossie in New York and Joplin in Missouri.
Good crystals have also been obtained as a furnace product.
Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then known
as "potters' ore" or alquifoux.
The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as
argentite (q.v.). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite (lead
selenide, PbSe) and altaite (lead telluride, PbTe), which, with their
lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely resemble galena in
appearance; these species are named after the localities at which they
were originally found, namely, Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai
mountains in Asiatic Russia. Altaite is of interest as being one of the
tellurides found associated with gold. (L. J. S.)
GALEOPITHECUS, the scientific designation of the Colugo (q.v.) or
Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone representing the
family _Galeopithecidae_. Much uncertainty has prevailed among
naturalists as to the systematic position of this animal, or rather
these animals (for there are two species); and while some have referred
it to the lemurs, others have placed it with the bats, and others again
among the _Insectivora_, as the representative of a special subordinal
group, the _Dermoptera_. Dr H.C. Chapman, who has made a special study
of the creature, writes, however, as follows: "It appears, at least in
the judgment of the author, that _Galeopithecus_ cannot be regarded as
being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands alone,
the sole representative of an ancient group, _Galeopithecidae_, as
_Hyrax_ does of _Hyracoidea_. While _Galeopithecus_ is but remotely
related to the _Lemuroidea_ and _Insectivora_, it is so closely related
to _Chiroptera_, more particularly in regard to the structure of its
patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus, &c., that
there can be but little doubt that the Chiroptera are the descendants of
Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the descendants of a
Galeopithecus-like ancestor." Without going quite so far as this, it may
be definitely admitted that the colugo is entitled to represent an order
by itself, the characters of which will be as follows: Herbivorous,
climbing, unguiculate mammals, provided with a very extensive
flying-membrane, and having the dental formula i. 2/2, c. 0/1, p. 3/3,
m. 3/3, total 34. The lower incisors are directed forwards and have a
comb-like structure of their crowns, while the outermost of these teeth
and the canines are double-rooted, being in these respects, taken
together, quite unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have
numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of milk-molars
by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded by bone, and the
tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external meatus. The ulna and
fibula are to some extent inclined backwards; the carpus has a
scapho-lunar; and the feet are five-toed. The hemispheres of the brain
are short and but slightly convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a
large caecum; the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus
is two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two pairs of
pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a birth.
[Illustration: Feet of Philippine Colugo, or Flying-Lemur
(_Galeopithecus philippinensis_).]
It will be obvious that if other representatives of the _Dermoptera_
were discovered, some of these features might apply only to the family
_Galeopithecidae_.
There are two species, _Galeopithecus volans_, ranging from Burma, Siam
and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and Java, and _G.
philippinensis_ of the Philippine group. The former, which is nearly 2
ft. in total length, is distinguished by its larger upper incisors,
shorter ears and smaller skull. In both species not only are the long
and slender limbs connected by a broad integumentary expansion
extending outwards from the sides of the neck and body, but there is
also a web between the fingers and toes as far as the base of the claws
(fig.); and the hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion
passing outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws,
and, inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true
interfemoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats
altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted
outer incisors and canines, _Galeopithecus_ contrasts strongly with that
order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and in the great
length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in _Chiroptera_. From
the lemurs, on the other hand, the form of the brain, the character of
the teeth, the structure of the skull, and the deciduate discoidal
placenta at once separate the group. (R. L.*)
GALERIUS [GALERIUS VALERIUS MAXIMIANUS], Roman emperor from A.D. 305 to
311, was born near Sardica in Thrace. He originally followed his
father's occupation, that of a herdsman, whence his surname of
_Armentarius_ (Lat. _armentum_, herd). He served with distinction as a
soldier under Aurelian and Probus, and in 293 was designated Caesar
along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's
daughter Valeria, and at the same time being entrusted with the care of
the Illyrian provinces. In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, he
was removed from the Danube to the Euphrates; his first campaign ended
in a crushing defeat, near Callinicum, but in 297, advancing through the
mountains of Armenia, he gained a decisive victory over Narses (q.v.)
and compelled him to make peace. In 305, on the abdication of Diocletian
and Maximianus, he at once assumed the title of Augustus, with
Constantius his former colleague, and having procured the promotion to
the rank of Caesar of Flavius Valerius Severus, a faithful servant, and
Daia (Maximinus), his nephew, he hoped on the death of Constantius to
become sole master of the Roman world. This scheme, however, was
defeated by the sudden elevation of Constantine at Eboracum (York) on
the death of his father, and by the action of Maximianus and Maxentius
in Italy. After an unsuccessful invasion of Italy in 307 he elevated his
friend Licinius to the rank of Augustus, and, moderating his ambition,
devoted the few remaining years of his life "to the enjoyment of
pleasure and to the execution of some works of public utility." It was
at the instance of Galerius that the first of the celebrated edicts of
persecution against the Christians was published, on the 24th of
February 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until
the appearance of the general edict of toleration (311), issued in his
own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine. He died in May 311
A.D.
See Zosimus ii. 8-11; Zonaras xii. 31-34; Eutropius ix. 24, x. 1.
GALESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
in the N.W. part of the state, 163 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890)
15,264; (1900) 18,607; of whom 3602 were foreign-born; (census, 1910)
22,089. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. Knox College (non-sectarian and
coeducational), which was chartered here in 1837 as the "Knox Manual
Labor College" (the present name was adopted in 1857), was opened in
1841, and had in 1907-1908, 31 instructors and 628 students, of whom
more than half were in the Conservatory of Music, a department of the
college, and 79 were in the Academy. Lombard College (coeducational;
Universalist), which was chartered as the "Illinois Liberal Institute"
in 1851, was known as Lombard University (in honour of Benjamin Lombard,
a benefactor) from 1855 to 1899; it includes a College of Liberal Arts,
the Ryder Divinity School (1881), and departments of music and domestic
science, and in 1907-1908 had 18 instructors and 117 students. Here also
are Corpus Christi College (Roman Catholic), St Joseph's Academy (Roman
Catholic) and Brown's Business College (1874). There is a public
library, founded in 1874. The industries consist mainly of the
construction and repairing of steam railway cars (in the shops of the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway) and the manufacture of foundry and
machine-shop products, vitrified brick, agricultural implements and
machinery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$2,217,772, being 52.9% more than in 1900. Galesburg was named in honour
of the Rev. George Washington Gale (1789-1862), a prominent Presbyterian
preacher, who in 1827-1834 had founded the Oneida Manual Labor Institute
at Whitestown, Oneida county, New York. Desiring to establish a college
in the Mississippi Valley to supply "an evangelical and able ministry"
to "spread the Gospel throughout the world," and also wishing to
counteract the influence of pro-slavery men in Illinois, he interested a
number of people in the project, formed a society for colonization, and
in 1836 led the first settlers to Galesburg, the "Mesopotamia in the
West." Knox College was founded to fulfil his educational purpose.
Galesburg was an important "station" of the Underground Railroad, one of
the conditions of membership in the "Presbyterian Church of Galesburg"
(the name of Mr Gale's society) being opposition to slavery; and in 1855
this caused the church to withdraw from the Presbytery. Galesburg was
chartered as a city in 1857. On the 7th of October 1858 one of the
famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held in the grounds of Knox College.
GALGACUS, or perhaps rather CALGACUS, a Caledonian chief who led the
tribes of North Britain against the invading Roman army under Cn. Julius
Agricola about A.D. 85 and was defeated at the battle of Mons Graupius
(Tac. _Agric._ 29). The name recurs much later, in Adamnan's _Life of
Columba_, in the name of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or
Roboretum Calgachi, "the wood of Calgacus": it may be Celtic and denote
"the man with the sword."
GALIANI, FERDINANDO (1728-1787), Italian economist, was born at Chieti
on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully educated by his uncle
Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome with a view to entering the
Church. Galiani gave early promise of distinction as an economist, and
even more as a wit. At the age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders,
he had produced two works by which his name became widely known far
beyond the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his _Trattato della
moneta_, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the mercantile
school, deals with many aspects of the question of exchange, but always
with a special reference to the state of confusion then presented by the
whole monetary system of the Neapolitan government. The other, _Raccolta
in Morte del Boia_, established his fame as a humorist, and was highly
popular in Italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. In
this volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of
discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the most
pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day. Galiani's political
knowledge and social qualities now pointed him out to the discriminating
eye of King Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and his liberal
minister Tanucci, and he was appointed in 1759 secretary to the
Neapolitan embassy at Paris. This post he held for ten years, when he
returned to Naples and was made a councillor of the tribunal of
commerce, and in 1777, minister of the royal domains. His economic
reputation was made by a book written in French and published in Paris,
namely, his _Dialogues sur le commerce des bles_. This work, by its
light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it abounded,
delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the production of which
Plato and Moliere might have been combined! The author, says Pecchio,
treated his arid subject as Fontenelle did the vortices of Descartes, or
Algarotti the Newtonian system of the world. The question at issue was
that of the freedom of the corn trade, then much agitated, and, in
particular, the policy of the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the
exportation of grain so long as the price had not arrived at a certain
height. The general principle he maintains is that the best system in
regard to this trade is to have no system--countries differently
circumstanced requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment.
He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the
mercantilists--holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even Verri, that
one country cannot gain without another losing, and in his earlier
treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments in debasing
the currency. Until his death at Naples on the 30th of October 1787,
Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends a correspondence, which
was published in 1818.
See _L'Abate Galiani_, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his
correspondence with Tanucci in Viesseux's _L'Archivio storico_
(Florence, 1878).
GALICIA (Ger. _Galizien_; Pol. _Halicz_), a crownland of Austria,
bounded E. and N. by Russia, S. by Bukovina and Hungary, and W. by
Austrian and Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 30,299 sq. m., and is
the largest Austrian province. It comprises the old kingdoms of Galicia
and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator, and the grand duchy
of Cracow.
Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, which with their
offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of the country. The
surface gradually sinks down by undulating terraces to the valleys of
the Vistula and Dniester. To the N. and E. of these rivers Galicia forms
a continuation of the great plains of Russia, intersected only by a few
hills, which descend from the plateaus of Poland and Podolia, and which
attain in some places an altitude of 1300 to 1500 ft. The Carpathians,
which, extending in the form of an arc, form the boundary between
Galicia and Hungary, are divided into the West and the East Beskides,
which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif of the
Tatra. The highest peaks are the Babia Gora (5650 ft.), the Wolowiec
(6773 ft.) and the Cserna Gora (6505 ft.). The principal passes are
those of Zdjar over the Tatra, and of Dukla, Vereczke Korosmezo or
Delatyn in the East Beskides. The river Vistula, which becomes navigable
at Cracow, and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of Galicia,
receives the Sola, the Skawa, the Raba, the Dunajec with its affluents
the Poprad and the Biala, the Wisloka, the San and the Bug. The
Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of
Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor, and receives on the right the
Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and the Bystrzyca, and on the left the
Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth and the Zbrucz, the boundary river towards
Russia. The Pruth, which also rises in the Carpathians, within the
territory of Galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives
the Czeremosz, the boundary river towards Bukovina. There are few lakes
in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable morasses exist
about the Upper Dneister, the Vistula and the San, while the ponds or
dams in the Podolian valleys are estimated to cover an area of over 200
sq. m. The most frequented mineral springs are the alkaline springs at
Szczawnica and Krynica, the sulphur springs at Krzesowice, Szklo and
Lubian, and the iodine springs at Iwonicz.
Exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and shut out by
the Carpathians from the warm southerly winds, Galicia has the severest
climate in Austria. It has long winters, with an abundant snowfall,
short and wet springs, hot summers and long and steady autumns. The mean
annual temperature at Lemberg is 46.2 deg. F., and at Tarnopol only 43
deg. F.
Of the total area 48.45% is occupied by arable land, 11.16% by meadows,
9.19% by pastures, 1.39% by gardens and 25.76% by forests. The soil is
generally fertile, but agriculture is still backward. The principal
products are barley, oats, rye, wheat, maize and leguminous plants.
Galicia has the largest area under potatoes and legumes in the whole of
Austria, and hemp, flax, tobacco and hops are of considerable
importance. The principal mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum.
Salt is extracted at Wieliczka, Bochnia, Bolechow, Dolina, Kalusz and
Kosow. Coals are found in the Cracow district at Jaworzno, at Siersza
near Trzebinia and at Dabrowa. Some of the richest petroleum fields in
Europe are spread in the region of the Carpathians, and are worked at
Boryslaw and Schodnica near Drohobycz, Bobrka and Potok near Krosno,
Sloboda-Rungurska near Kolomea, &c. Great quantities of ozocerite are
also extracted in the petroliferous region of the Carpathians. Other
mineral products are zinc, extracted at Trzebionka and Wodna in the
Cracow region, amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in Austria,
iron ore, marble and various stones for construction. The sulphur mines
of Swoszowice near Cracow, which had been worked since 1598, were
abandoned in 1884.
The manufacturing industries of Galicia are not highly developed. The
first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose output amounts to
nearly 40% of the total production of spirits in Austria. Then follow
the petroleum refineries and kindred industries, saw-mills and the
fabrication of various wood articles, paper and milling. The sugar
factory at Tlumacz and the tobacco factory at Winniki are amongst the
largest establishments of their kind in Austria. Cloth manufacture is
concentrated at Biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens is
pursued as a household industry, the former in the Carpathian region,
the latter in eastern Galicia. The commerce, which is mainly in the
hands of the Jews, is very active, and the transit trade to Russia and
to the East is also of considerable importance.
Galicia had in 1900 a population of 7,295,538, which is equivalent to
241 inhabitants per sq. m. The two principal nationalities are the Poles
(45%) and the Ruthenians (42%), the former predominating in the west and
in the big towns, and the latter in the east. The Poles who inhabit the
Carpathians are distinguished as Goralians (from _gory_, mountain), and
those of the lower regions as Mazures and Cracoviaks. The Ruthenian
highlanders bear the name of Huzulians. The Poles are mostly Roman
Catholics, the Ruthenians are Greek Catholics, and there are over
770,000 Jews, and about 2500 Armenians, who are Catholics and stand
under the jurisdiction of an Armenian archbishop at Lemberg.
The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop, at Lemberg, and three
bishops, at Cracow, at Przemysl and at Tarnow, and the Greek Catholic
Church is represented by an archbishop, at Lemberg, and two bishops, at
Przemysl and at Stanislau. At the head of the educational institutions
stand the two universities of Lemberg and Cracow, and the Polish academy
of science at Cracow.
The local Diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3 archbishops,
the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities, and Galicia sends
78 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the
province is divided into 78 districts and 2 autonomous
municipalities--Lemberg (pop. 159,618), the capital, and Cracow
(91,310). Other principal towns are: Przemysl (46,439), Kolomea
(34,188), Tarnow (31,548), Tarnopol (30,368), Stanislau (29,628), Stryj
(23,673), Jaroslau (22,614), Drohobycz (19,146), Podgorze (18,142),
Brody (17,360), Sambor (17,027), Neusandec (15,724), Rzeszow (14,714),
Zloczow (12,209), Grodek (11,845), Horodenka (11,615), Buczacz (11,504),
Sniatyn (11,498), Brzezany (11,244), Kuty (11,127), Boryslaw (10,671),
Chrzanow (10,170), Jaworow (10,090), Bochnia (10,049) and Biala (8265).
Galicia (or Halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring
principality of Lodomeria (or Vladimir), in the course of the 12th
century--the seat of the ruling dynasty being Halicz or Halitch.
Disputes between the Galician and Lodomerian houses led to the
interference of the king of Hungary, Bela III., who in 1190 assumed the
title of king, and appointed his son Andreas lieutenant of the kingdom.
Polish assistance, however, enabled Vladimir, the former possessor, to
expel Andreas, and in 1198 Roman, prince of Lodomeria, made himself
master of Galicia also. On his death in 1205 the struggle between Poland
and Hungary for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 1215 it was
arranged that Daniel (1205-1264), son of Roman, should be invested with
Lodomeria, and Coloman, son of the Hungarian king, with Galicia.
Coloman, however, was expelled by Mstislav of Novgorod; and in his turn
Andreas, Mstislav's nominee, was expelled by Daniel of Lodomeria, a
powerful prince, who by a flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his
position. Though in 1235 he had recognized the overlordship of Hungary,
yet, when he found himself hard pressed by the Mongolian general Batu,
he called in the assistance of Innocent IV., and accepted the crown of
Galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when Innocent
disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former connexion with
the Greek Church. On the extinction of his line in 1340 Casimir III. of
Poland incorporated Galicia and Lemberg; on Casimir's death in 1370
Louis the Great of Hungary, in accordance with previous treaties, became
king of Poland, Galicia and Lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of
Louis's daughter with Ladislaus II., Galicia, which he had regarded as
part of his Hungarian rather than of his Polish possessions, became
definitively assigned to Poland. On the first partition of Poland, in
1772, the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria came to Austria, and to this
was added the district of New or West Galicia in 1795; but at the peace
of Vienna in 1809 West Galicia and Cracow were surrendered to the
grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in 1810 part of East Galicia, including
Tarnopol, was made over to Russia. This latter portion was recovered by
Austria at the peace of Paris (1814), and the former came back on the
suppression of the independent republic of Cracow in 1846. After the
introduction of the constitution of February 1861, Galicia gained a
larger degree of autonomy than any other province in the Austrian
empire.
See _Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol.
19 (Wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); _Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort
und Bild_, vol. 10 (Wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). Remarkable sketches of
Galician life are to be found in the works of the German novelist
Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895).
GALICIA (the ancient _Gallaecia_ or _Callaecia_, [Greek: Kallaikia] or
[Greek: Kalaikia]), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom,
countship and province, in the north-western angle of Spain; bounded on
the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Leon and Asturias, S. by Portugal,
and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,980,515; area, 11,254 sq. m.
In 1833 Galicia was divided for administrative purposes into the
provinces of Corunna, Lugo, Orense and Pontevedra.
Galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded as a
continuation of the Cantabrian chain; and its surface is further broken
in the east by the westernmost ridges of that system, which, running in
a south-westerly direction, rise above the basin of the Mino. The high
land north of the headwaters of the Mino forms the sole connecting link
between the Cantabrians properly so-called and the mountains of central
and western Galicia. The average elevation of the province is
considerable, and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the Pena
Trevinca on the eastern border of Orense.
The principal river is the Mino (Portuguese _Minho_; Lat. _Minius_; so
named, it is said, from the _minium_ or vermilion found in its bed).
Rising near Mondonedo, within 25 m. of the northern coast, the Mino
enters the Atlantic near the port of Guardia, after a course of 170 m.
S. and S.W. Its lower reaches are navigable by small vessels. Of its
numerous affluents the most important is the Sil, which rises among the
lofty mountains between Leon and Asturias. Among other rivers having a
westerly direction may be mentioned the Tambre, the Ulla and the Lerez
or Ler, which falls into the Atlantic by estuaries or _rias_ called
respectively Ria de Muros y Noya, Ria de Arosa and Ria de Pontevedra.
The rivers of the northern versant, such as the Nera, are, like those of
Asturias, for the most part short, rapid and subject to violent floods.
The coast-line of Galicia, extending to about 240 m., is everywhere bold
and deeply indented, presenting a large number of secure harbours, and
in this respect forming a marked contrast to the neighbouring province.
The Eo, which bounds Galicia on the east, has a deep estuary, the
Rivadeo or Ribadeo, which offers a safe and commodious anchorage. Vivero
Bay and the Ria del Barquero y Vares are of a similar character; while
the harbour of Ferrol ranks among the best in Europe, and is the chief
naval station on the northern coast of Spain. On the opposite side of
Betanzos Bay (the [Greek: megas limen] or _Portus Magnus_ of the
ancients) is the great port of Corunna or Coruna. The principal port on
the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered bay of Vigo,
but there are also good roadsteads at Corcubion under Cape Finisterre,
at Marin and at Carril.
The climate of the Galician coast is mild and equable, but the interior,
owing to the great elevation (the town of Lugo is 1500 ft. above
sea-level), has a wide range of temperature. The rainfall is
exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations for
a considerable portion of the year. The soil is on the whole fertile,
and the produce very varied. A considerable quantity of timber is grown
on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures support large herds of
cattle, while the abundance of oaks and chestnuts favours the rearing of
swine. In the lowland districts good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats
and rye, as well as of turnips and potatoes, are obtained. The fruit
also is of excellent quality and in great variety, although the culture
of the vine is limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern
districts. The _dehesas_ or moorlands abound in game, and fish are
plentiful in all the streams. The mineral resources of the province,
which are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients.
Strabo (c. 63 B.C.-A.D. 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and Pliny (A.D.
23-79) mentions the _gemma Gallaica_, a precious stone. Galicia is also
remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other warm springs, the
most important of which are those at Lugo, and those from which Orense
is said to take its name (_Aquae urentes_).
Ethnologically the Galicians (_Gallegos_) are allied to the Portuguese,
whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in habits more than the
other inhabitants of the peninsula. The men are well known all over
Spain and Portugal as hardy, honest and industrious, but for the most
part somewhat unskilled, labourers; indeed the word _Gallego_ has come
to be almost a synonym in Madrid for a "hewer of wood and drawer of
water." It is also used as a term of abuse, meaning "boor." Agriculture
engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and
female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed.
The largest town in Galicia is Corunna (pop. 1900, 43,971); Santiago de
Compostela is the ancient capital and an archiepiscopal see; Lugo, Tuy,
Mondonedo and Orense are bishoprics.
_Gallaecia_, the country of the Galacci, _Callaici_ or _Gallaici_, seems
to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier geographers.
According to Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.) the entire population of the
peninsula were at one time called _Galatae_. The region properly called
by their name, bounded on the south by the Douro and on the east by the
Navia, was first entered by the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus
in 137-136 B.C. (Livy lv., lvi., _Epit._); but the final subjugation
cannot be placed earlier than the time of Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14). On
the partition of Spain, which followed the successful invasions of the
Suevi, Alans and Vandals, Gallaecia fell to the lot of the first named
(A.D. 411). After an independent subsistence of nearly 200 years, the
Suevian kingdom was annexed to the Visigothic dominions under Leovigild
in 585. In 734 it was occupied by the Moors, who in turn were driven out
by Alphonso I. of Asturias, in 739. During the 9th and 10th centuries it
was the subject of dispute between more than one count of Galicia and
the suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Normans.
When Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063, Galicia
was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the three. In 1072
it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia's brother Alphonso VI. of Castile
and thenceforward it remained an integral part of the kingdom of Castile
or of Leon. The honorary title of count of Galicia has frequently been
borne by younger sons of the Spanish sovereign.
See Annette B. Meakin, _Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain_ (London,
1909).
GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO (1752-1821), newspaper publisher, was born
at Brescia, Italy, in 1752. After living some time in London, he went to
Paris, where he started in 1800 an English library, and in 1808 a
monthly publication, the _Repertory of English Literature_. In 1814 he
began to publish, in Paris, _Galignani's Messenger_, a daily paper
printed in English. At his death in 1821 the paper was carried on by his
two sons, Jean-Antoine (1796-1873) and Guillaume (1798-1882). Under
their management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy was to promote
good feeling between England and France. The brothers established and
endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-sur-Seine. In recognition of
their generosity the city of Corbeil erected a monument in their honour.
In 1884 the Galignani family disposed of their interest in _Galignani's
Messenger_, and from that date until 1904, when it was discontinued, the
paper appeared under the title of the _Daily Messenger_.
GALILEE (Heb. [Hebrew: Galil], "border" or "ring," Gr. [Greek:
Galilaia]), a Roman province of Palestine north of Samaria, bounded S.
by Samaria and the Carmel range, E. by the Jordan, N. by the Leontes
(Litani), and W. by the Mediterranean and part of Phoenicia. Its maximum
extent was about 60 m. north to south and 30 east to west. The name in
the Hebrew Scriptures hardly had a definite territorial significance. It
literally means a ring or circuit, and, like analogous words in English,
could be applied to various districts. Thus Joshua (xiii. 2) and Joel
(iii. 4) refer to the _Geliloth_ ("borders, coast") of the Philistines
or of Palestine; Joshua again (xxii. 10, 11) and Ezekiel (xlvii. 8)
mention the Jordan valley plain as the "Geliloth of Jordan" in "the
Eastern Gelilah." In its more restricted connotation, denoting the
district to which it is usually applied or a part thereof, it is found
in Joshua xx. 7, xxi. 32, 1 Chr. vi. 76, as the place where was situated
the town of Kadesh; and in 1 Kings ix. 11, the district of "worthless"
cities given by Solomon to Hiram. In Isa. ix. 1 we find the full name of
the district, Galil ha-Goyim, literally "the ring, circuit or border of
the foreigners"--referring to the Phoenicians, Syrians and Aramaeans, by
whose country the province was on three sides surrounded. In 1 Kings xv.
29 it is specified as one of the districts whose population was deported
by Tiglath-Pileser. Throughout the Old Testament history, however,
Galilee as a whole cannot be said to have a history; the unit of
territorial subdivision was tribal rather than provincial, and though
such important events as those associated with the names of Barak,
Gideon, Gilboa, Armageddon, took place within its borders, yet these
belong rather to the histories of Issachar, Zebulon, Asher or Naphtali,
whose territories together almost correspond with Galilee, than to the
province itself.
After the Jewish return from exile the population confined itself to
Judaea, and Galilee was left in the possession of the mixed multitude of
successors established there by the Assyrians. When it once more came
into Israelite hands is uncertain; it is generally supposed that its
reconquest was due to John Hyrcanus. Before very long it developed a
nationalism and patriotism as intense as that of Judaea itself,
notwithstanding the contempt with which the metropolitans of Jerusalem
looked down upon the Galilean provincials. Stock proverbial sayings such
as "Out of Galilee cometh no prophet" (though Deborah, Jonah, Elisha,
and probably Hosea, were Galileans) were apparently common.
Provincialism of speech (Matt. xxvi. 73) distinguished the Galileans; it
appears that they confused the gutturals in pronunciation.
Under the Roman domination Galilee was made a tetrarchate governed by
members of the Herod family. Herod the Great was tetrarch of Galilee in
47 B.C.; in 4 B.C. he was succeeded by his son Antipas. Galilee was the
land of Christ's boyhood and the chief centre of His active work, and in
His various ministries here some of His chief discourses were uttered
(as the Sermon on the Mount, Matt. v.) and some of His chief miracles
performed.
After the destruction of Jerusalem the Judaean Rabbinic schools took
refuge in the Galilee they had heretofore despised. No ancient remains
of Jewish synagogues exist except those that have been identified in
some of the ancient Galilean towns, such as Tell Hum (Talhum), Kerazeh,
Kefr Bir'im, and elsewhere. One of the chief centres of Rabbinism was
Safed, still a sacred city of the Jews and largely inhabited by members
of that faith. Near here is Meirun, a place much revered by the Jews as
containing the tombs of Hillel, Shammai and Simon ben Yohai; a yearly
festival in honour of these rabbis is here celebrated. At Tiberias also
are the tombs of distinguished Jewish teachers, including Maimonides.
The province was subdivided into two parts, Upper and Lower Galilee,
the two being divided by a ridge running west to east, which prolonged
would cut the Jordan about midway between Huleh and the Sea of
Galilee. Lower Galilee includes the plains of Buttauf and Esdraelon.
Lower Galilee.
The whole of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by
volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up
towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed over the
plateau above the sea of Galilee. In this district the highest hills
are only about 1800 ft. above the sea. The ridge of Nazareth rises
north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and north of this again is the
fertile basin of the Buttauf, separated from the sea-coast plains by
low hills. East of the Buttauf extends the basaltic plateau called
Sahel el Ahma ("the inaccessible plain"), rising 1700 ft. above the
Sea of Galilee. North of the Buttauf is a confused hill country, the
spurs falling towards a broad valley which lies at the foot of the
mountains of Upper Galilee. This broad valley, running westwards to
the coast, is perhaps the old boundary of Zebulun--the valley of
Jiphthah-el (Josh, xix. 14). The great plain of Esdraelon is of
triangular form, bounded by Gilboa on the east and by the ridge which
runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 m. long from Jenin to the
Nazareth hills, and its southern border is about 20 m. long. It rises
200 ft. above the sea, the hills on both sides being some 1500 ft.
higher. The whole drainage is collected by the Kishon, which runs
through a narrow gorge at the north-west corner of the plain,
descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea. The broad valley of
Jezreel on the east, descending towards the Jordan valley, forms the
gate by which Palestine is entered from beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor
stands isolated in the plain at the north-east corner, and rather
farther south the conical hill called Nebi Duhi rises between Tabor
and Gilboa. The whole of Lower Galilee is well watered. The Kishon is
fed by springs from near Tabor and from a copious stream from the west
side of the plain of Esdraelon. North-west of Nazareth is Wadi el
Melek, an open valley full of springs. The river Belus, just south of
Acre, rising in the sea-coast marshes, drains the whole valley above
identified with Jiphthah-el. On the east the broad valley of Jezreel
is full of magnificent springs, many of which are thermal. The plains
of Esdraelon, and the Buttauf, and the plateau of el-Ahma are all
remarkable for the rich basaltic soil which covers them, in which
corn, cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, millet and various kinds of
vegetable are grown, while indigo and sugar-cane were cultivated in
former times. The Nazareth hills and Gilboa are bare and white, but
west of Nazareth is a fine oak wood, and another thick wood spreads
over the northern slopes of Tabor. The hills west of the great plain
are partly of bare white chalk, partly covered with dense thickets.
The mountains north of the Buttauf are rugged and covered with scrub,
except near the villages, where fine olive groves exist. The principal
places of importance in Lower Galilee are Nazareth (10,000
inhabitants), Sepphoris (now Seffuria), a large village standing above
the Buttauf on the spurs of the southern hills, and Jenin (En Gannim),
a flourishing village, with a palm garden (3000 inhabitants). The
ancient capital, Jezreel (Zerin), is now a miserable village on a
precipitous spur of Gilboa; north of this are the small mud hamlets,
Solam (Shunem), Endur (Endor), Nein (Nain); on the west side of the
plain is the ruin of Lejjun (the Legio of the 4th century, which was
then a place of importance). In the hills north of the Buttauf is
Jefat, situated on a steep hill-top, and representing the Jotapata
defended by Josephus. Kefr Kenna, now a flourishing Christian village
at the foot of the Nazareth hills, south of the Buttauf, is one of the
sites identified with Cana of Galilee, and the ruin Kana, on the north
side of the same plain, represents the site pointed out to the
pilgrims of the 12th and 13th centuries.
Upper Galilee.
The mountains are tilted up towards the Sea of Galilee, and the
drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the
rocky range of Jebel Jarmuk rises to nearly 4000 ft. above the sea; on
the east a narrow ridge 2800 ft. high forms the watershed, with steep
eastern slopes falling towards Jordan. Immediately west of the
watershed are two small plateaus covered with basaltic debris, near
el-Jish and Kades. On the west are rugged mountains with deep
intricate valleys. The main drains of the country are--first, Wadi el
'Ayun, rising north of Jebel Jarmuk, and running north-west as an open
valley; and secondly, Wadi el Ahjar, a rugged precipitous gorge
running north to join the Leontes. The district is well provided with
springs throughout, and the valleys are full of water in the
spring-time. Though rocky and difficult, Upper Galilee is not barren,
the soil of the plateaus is rich, and the vine flourishes in the
higher hills, especially in the neighbourhood of Kefr Bir'im. The
principal town is Safed, perched on a white mountain 2700 ft. above
the sea. It has a population of about 9000, including Jews, Christians
and Moslems.
Josephus gives a good description of the Galilee of his time in _Wars_,
iii. 3. 2: "The Galileans are inured to war from their infancy, and have
been always very numerous; nor hath the country been ever destitute of
men of courage or wanted a numerous set of them; for their soil is
universally rich and fruitful, and full of plantations of trees of all
sorts, insomuch that it invites the most slothful to take pains in its
cultivation.... Moreover, the cities lie here very thick, and the very
many villages there are here are everywhere full of people." Though the
population is diminished and the cities ruinous, the country is still
remarkable for fertility, thanks to the copiousness of its water-supply
draining from the Lebanon mountains.
The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil and soap (from
the olives), with every species of pulse and gourd.
The antiquities of Galilee include dolmens and rude stone monuments,
rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous remains of Byzantine
monasteries and fine churches of the time of the crusades. There are
also remains of Greek architecture in various places; but the most
interesting buildings are the ancient synagogues, of which some eleven
examples are now known. They are rectangular, with the door to the
south, and two rows of columns forming aisles east and west. The
architecture is a peculiar and debased imitation of classic style,
attributed by architects to the 2nd century A.D. In Kefr Bir'im there
were remains of two synagogues, but early in the 20th century one of
them was completely destroyed by a local stone-mason. At Irbid, above
Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different character. Traces of
synagogues have also been found on Carmel, and at Tireh, west of
Nazareth. It is curious to find the representation of various animals in
relief on the lintels of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also
occur, and the carved work of the cornices and capitals is rich though
debased.
In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Christian kingdom of
Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly protected by fortresses, the
magnificent remains of which still crown the most important strategical
points. Toron (mod. _Tibnin_) was built in 1104, the first fortress
erected by the crusaders, and standing on the summit of the mountains of
Upper Galilee. Beauvoir (Kaukab el-Hawa, built in 1182) stood on a
precipice above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and guarded the
advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about the same time Chateau Neuf
(Hunin) was erected above the Huleh lake. Belfort (esh Shukif), on the
north bank of the Leontes, the finest and most important, dates somewhat
earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el Kurn) stood on a narrow spur north-east
of Acre, completing the chain of frontier fortresses. The town of
Banias, with its castle, formed also a strong outpost against Damascus,
and was the scene, in common with the other strongholds, of many
desperate encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee was
the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the Christians. In
1250 the knights of the Teutonic order owned lands extending round Acre
as far east as the Sea of Galilee, and including Safed. These
possessions were lost in 1291, on the fall of Acre.
The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee the peasants are
principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of Greek Christians round
Nazareth, which is a Christian town. In Upper Galilee, however, there is
a mixture of Jews and Maronites, Druses and Moslems (natives or Algerine
settlers), while the slopes above the Jordan are inhabited by wandering
Arabs. The Jews are engaged in trade, and the Christians, Druses and
Moslems in agriculture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral people.
(C. R. C.; R. A. S. M.)
GALILEE, an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or chapel
which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case at Durham and
Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name is sometimes given to
the south-west porch. The name is said to be derived from the scriptural
expression "Galilee of the Gentiles" (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are
supposed to have been used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably
served chiefly for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church.
The Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey
church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they were
related, or from which they could hear divine service. The foundation of
what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at the west end of
Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were placed there before
interment.
GALILEE, SEA OF, a lake in Palestine consisting of an expansion of the
Jordan, on the latitude of Mt. Carmel. It is 13 m. long, 8 m. broad, 64
sq. m. in area, 680 ft. below the level of the Mediterranean, and,
according to Merrill and Barrois (who have corrected the excessive depth
said to have been found by Lortet at the northern end), 150 ft. in
maximum depth. It is pear-shaped, the narrow end pointing southward. In
the Hebrew Scriptures it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth
(probably derived from a town of the same name mentioned in Joshua xi. 2
and elsewhere; the etymology that connects it with [Hebrew: kinor], "a
harp," is very doubtful.) In Josephus and the book of Maccabees it is
named Gennesar; while in the Gospels it is usually called Sea of
Galilee, though once it is called Lake of Gennesaret (Luke v. i) and
twice Sea of Tiberias (John vi. 1, xxi. 1). The modern Arabic name is
_Bahr Tubariya_, which is often rendered "Lake of Tiberias." Pliny
refers to it as the Lake of Taricheae.
Like the Dead Sea it is a "rift" lake, being part of the great fault
that formed the Jordan-Araba depression. Deposits show that originally
it formed part of the great inland sea that filled this depression in
Pleistocene times. The district on each side of the lake has a number of
hot springs, at least one of which is beneath the sea itself, and has
always shown indications of volcanic and other subterranean
disturbances. It is especially liable to earthquakes. The water of the
sea, though slightly brackish and not very clear, is generally used for
drinking. The shores are for the greater part formed of fine gravel;
some yards from the shore the bed is uniformly covered with fine greyish
mud. The temperature in summer is tropical, but after noon falls about
10 deg. F. owing to strong north-west winds. This range of temperature
affects the water to a depth of about 49 ft.; below that depth the water
is uniformly about 59 deg. F. The sea is set deep in hills which rise on
the east side to a height of about 2000 ft. Sudden and violent storms
(such as are described in Matt. viii. 23, xiv. 22, and the parallel
passages) are often produced by the changes of temperature in the air
resulting from these great differences of level.
The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western
precipices. It presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills
rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes
and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with black
basalt. On the west the plateau known as Sahel el-Ahma terminates in
precipices 1700 ft. above the lake, and over these the black rocky
tops called "the Horns of Hattin" are conspicuous objects. On the
south is a broad valley through which the Jordan flows. On the east
are furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the great plateau of the
Jaulan (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the lake through a narrow gorge
between lower hills. A marshy plain, 2-1/2 m. long and 1-1/2 broad,
called el-Batihah, exists immediately east of the Jordan inlet. There
is also on the west side of the lake a small plain called el-Ghuweir,
formed by the junction of three large valleys. It measures 3-1/4 m.
along the shore, and is 1 m. wide. This plain, naturally fertile, but
now almost uncultivated, is supposed to be the plain of Gennesareth,
described by Josephus (B. J. iii. 10, 8). On the east the hills
approach in one place within 40 ft. of the water, but there is
generally a width of about 3/4 of a mile from the hills to the beach.
On the west the flat ground at the foot of the hills has an average
width of about 200 yds. A few scattered palms dot the western shores,
and a palm grove is to be found near Kefr Harib on the south-east. The
hot baths south of Tiberias include seven springs, the largest of
which has a temperature of 137 deg. F. In these springs a distinct
rise in temperature was observed in 1837, when Tiberias and Safed were
destroyed by an earthquake. The plain of Gennesareth, with its
environs, is the best-watered part of the lake-basin. North of this
plain are the five springs of et-Tabighah, the largest of which was
enclosed about a century ago in an octagonal reservoir by 'Ali, son of
Dhahr el-Amir, and the water led off by an aqueduct 52 ft. above the
lake. The Tabighah springs, though abundant, are warm and brackish. At
the north end of the plain is 'Ain et-Tineh ("spring of the
fig-tree"), also a brackish spring with a good stream; south of the
plain is 'Ain el-Bardeh ("the cold spring"), which is sweet, but
scarcely lower in temperature than the others. One of the most
important springs is 'Ain el-Madawwera ("the round spring"), situated
1 m. from the south end of the plain and half a mile from the shore.
The water rises in a circular well 32 ft. in diameter, and is clear
and sweet, with a temperature of 73 deg. F. The bottom is of loose
sand, and the fish called _coracinus_ by Josephus (B.J. iii. 10, 8) is
here found (see below). Dr Tristram was the first explorer to identify
this fish, and on account of its presence suggested the identification
of the "round spring" with the fountain of _Capharnaum_, which,
according to Josephus, watered the plain of Gennesareth. There is,
however, a difficulty in this identification; there are no ruins at
'Ain el-Madawwera.
_Fauna and Flora._--For half the year the hillsides are bare and
steppe-like, but in spring are clothed with a subtropical vegetation.
Oleanders flourish round the lake, and the large papyrus grows at 'Ain
et-Tin as well as at the mouth of the Jordan. The lake swarms with
fish, which are caught with nets by a gild of fishermen, whose boats
are the only representatives of the many ships and boats which plied
on the lake as late as the 10th century. Fishing was a lucrative
industry at an early date, and the Jews ascribed the laws regulating
it to Joshua. The fish, which were classed as clean and unclean, the
good and bad of the parable (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), belong to the genera
_Chromis_, _Barbus_, _Capoeta_, _Discognathus_, _Nemachilus_,
_Blennius_ and _Clarias_; and there is a great affinity between them
and the fish of the East African lakes and streams. There are eight
species of _Chromis_, most of which hatch their eggs and raise their
young in the buccal cavities of the males. The _Chromis simonis_ is
popularly supposed to be the fish from which Peter took the piece of
money (Matt. xvii. 27). _Clarias macracanthus_ (Arab. _Burbur_) is the
_coracinus_ of Josephus. It was found by Lortet in the springs of 'Ain
el-Madawwera, 'Ain et-Tineh and 'Ain et-Tabighah, on the lake shore
where muddy, and in Lake Huleh. It is a scaleless, snake-like fish,
often nearly 5 ft. long, which resembles the _C. anguillaris_ of
Egypt. From the absence of scales it was held by the Jews to be
unclean, and some commentators suppose it to be the serpent of Matt.
vii. 10 and Luke xi. 11. Large numbers of grebes--great crested,
eared, and little,--gulls and pelicans frequent the lake. On its
shores are tortoises, mud-turtles, crayfish and innumerable
sand-hoppers; and at varying depths in the lake several species of
_Melania_, _Melanopsis_, _Neritina_, _Corbicula_ and _Unio_ have been
found.
_Antiquities._--The principal sites of interest round the lake may be
enumerated from north to west and from south to east. Kerazeh, the
undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur 900 ft. above the
lake, 2 m. north of the shore. Foundations and scattered stones cover
the slopes and the flat valley below. On the west is a rugged gorge. In
the middle of the ruins are the scattered remains of a synagogue of
richly ornamental style built of black basalt. A small spring occurs on
the north. Tell Hum (as the name is generally spelt, though _Talhum_
would probably be preferable for several reasons) is an important ruin
on the shore, south of the last-mentioned site. The remains consist of
foundations and piles of stones (in spring concealed by gigantic
thistles) extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations
of a fine synagogue, measuring 75 ft. by 57, and built in white
limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has been erected
close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell Hum synagogue. Since
the 4th century Tell Hum has been pointed out by all the Christian
writers of importance as the site of Capernaum. Some modern geographers
question this identification, but without sufficient reason (see
CAPERNAUM). Minyeh is a ruined site at the north end of the plain of
Gennesareth, 2-1/2 m. from the last, and close to the shore. There are
extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and foundations.
Masonry of well-dressed stones has also been here discovered in course
of excavation. Near the ruins are remains of an old khan, which appears
to have been built in the middle ages. This is another suggested
identification for Capernaum; but all the remains belong to the Arab
period. Between Tell Hum and Minyeh is _Tell 'Oreimeh_, the site of a
forgotten Amorite city.
South of the supposed plain of Gennesareth is Mejdel, commonly supposed
to represent the New Testament town of Magdala. A few lotus trees and
some rock-cut tombs are here found beside a miserable mud hamlet on the
hill slope, with a modern tombhouse (_kubbeh_). Passing beneath rugged
cliffs a recess in the hills is next reached, where stands Tubariya, the
ancient Tiberias or Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half
of whom are Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, but partly
destroyed by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el-Amir, as was
the court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were erected by
his sons. There are remains of a Crusaders' church, and the tomb of the
celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town, while Rabbi Aqiba and Rabbi
Meir lie buried outside. The ruins of the ancient city, including
granite columns and traces of a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards
a mile beyond the modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought
water a distance of 9 m. from the south.
Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a peninsula
surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan, and by a broad water
ditch, while on the north-west a narrow neck of land remains. The
plateau thus enclosed is partly artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 ft.
above the water. A ruined citadel remains on the north-west, and on the
east was a bridge over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of
sculptured stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the
description given by Josephus of the city of Taricheae, which lay 30
stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities.
Taricheae was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the cliffs, and
partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a plain (the
Ghor). Pliny further informs us that Taricheae was at the south end of
the Sea of Galilee. _Sinn en-Nabreh_, a ruin on a spur of the hills
close to the last-mentioned site, represents the ancient Sennabris,
where Vespasian (Josephus, _B.J._ iii. 9, 7) fixed his camp, advancing
from Scythopolis (Beisen) on Taricheae and Tiberias. Sennabris was 30
stadia from Tiberias, or about the distance of the ruin now existing.
The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully explored
than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly recovered. The site
of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, is fixed by Clermont-Ganneau
at Khurbet Susieh. Kalat el-Hosn ("castle of the stronghold") is a ruin
on a rocky spur opposite Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings remain,
with traces of an old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong
wall once surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the east
where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the site on the
north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut tombs are found beneath
the ruin. This site is not identified; the suggestion that it is Gamala
is doubtful, and not borne out by Josephus (_War_, iv. 1, 1), who says
Gamala was over against Taricheae. Kersa, an insignificant ruin north of
the last, is thought to represent the Gerasa or Gergesa of the 4th
century, situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill
south of this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine "ran
violently down a steep place" (Matt. viii. 32).
(C. R. C; C. W. W.; R. A. S. M.)
GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642), Italian astronomer and experimental
philosopher, was born at Pisa on the 15th of February 1564. His father,
Vincenzio, was an impoverished descendant of a noble Florentine house,
which had exchanged the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the
election, in 1343, of one of its members, Tommaso de' Bonajuti, to the
college of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was nineteen times
represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier to Florence,
flourished with the republic and declined with its fall. Vincenzio
Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was a competent
mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on the theory and
practice of music, and was especially distinguished amongst his
contemporaries for the grace and skill of his performance upon the lute.
By his wife, Giulia Ammannati of Pescia, he had three sons and four
daughters.
From his earliest childhood Galileo, the eldest of the family, was
remarkable for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical
invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of original and
ingenious toy-machines; but his application to literary studies was
equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallombrosa, near Florence,
where his education was principally conducted, he not only made himself
acquainted with the best Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of
the Greek tongue, thus laying the foundation of his brilliant and
elegant style. From one of the monks he also received instruction in
logic; but the subtleties of the scholastic science were thoroughly
distasteful to him. A document published by F. Selmi in 1864 proves that
he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to have
joined the novitiate; but his father, who had other designs for him,
seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to withdraw him
permanently from the care of the monks. Having had personal experience
of the unremunerative character both of music and of mathematics, he
desired that his son should apply himself to the cultivation of
medicine, and, not without some straining of his slender resources,
placed him, before he had completed his eighteenth year, at the
university of Pisa. He accordingly matriculated there on the 5th of
November 1581, and immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures
of the celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Cesalpino.
The natural gifts of the young student seemed at this time equally ready
to develop in any direction towards which choice or hazard might incline
them. In musical skill and invention he already vied with the best
professors of the art in Italy; his personal taste would have led him to
choose painting as his profession, and one of the most eminent artists
of his day, Lodovico Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he
was mainly indebted for the success of his works. In 1581, while
watching a lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed that,
whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably executed in
equal times. The experimental verification of this fact led him to the
important discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum. He at first
applied the new principle to pulse-measurement, and more than fifty
years later turned it to account in the construction of an astronomical
clock. Up to this time he was entirely ignorant of mathematics, his
father having carefully held him aloof from a study which he rightly
apprehended would lead to his total alienation from that of medicine.
Accident, however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in geometry, given
by Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand-ducal court, chanced,
tradition avers, to have Galileo for an unseen listener; his attention
was riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he threw all his
energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly presented to him. With
Ricci's assistance, he rapidly mastered the elements of the science, and
eventually extorted his father's reluctant permission to exchange
Hippocrates and Galen for Euclid and Archimedes. In 1585 he was
withdrawn from the university, through lack of means, before he had
taken a degree, and returned to Florence, where his family habitually
resided. We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy
on the site and dimensions of Dante's _Inferno_; and he shortly
afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the
hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known throughout Italy.
His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo del Monte of Pesaro, a man
equally eminent in science, and influential through family connexions.
At the Marchese's request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of
gravity in solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of
"the Archimedes of his time," the honourable though not lucrative post
of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During the ensuing two
years (1589-1591) he carried on that remarkable series of experiments by
which he established the first principles of dynamics and earned the
undying hostility of bigoted Aristotelians. From the leaning tower of
Pisa he afforded to all the professors and students of the university
ocular demonstration of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that
heavy bodies fall with velocities proportional to their weights, and
with unanswerable logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the
schools regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or
levity. But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his adversaries.
The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not calculated to soothe
the susceptibilities of men already smarting under the deprivation of
their most cherished illusions. He seems, in addition, to have
compromised his position with the grand-ducal family by the imprudent
candour with which he condemned a machine for clearing the port of
Leghorn, invented by Giovanni de' Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo
I. Princely favour being withdrawn, private rancour was free to show
itself. He was publicly hissed at his lecture, and found it prudent to
resign his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Through the
death of his father in July of that year family cares and
responsibilities devolved upon him, and thus his nomination to the chair
of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by the influence of
the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian senate, was welcome both as
affording a relief from pecuniary embarrassment and as opening a field
for scientific distinction.
His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of eighteen years,
from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninterrupted prosperity. His
appointment was three times renewed, on each occasion with the
expressions of the highest esteem on the part of the governing body, and
his yearly salary was progressively raised from 180 to 1000 florins. His
lectures were attended by persons of the highest distinction from all
parts of Europe, and such was the charm of his demonstrations that a
hall capable of containing 2000 people had eventually to be assigned for
the accommodation of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His
invention of the proportional compass or sector--an implement still used
in geometrical drawing--dates from 1597; and about the same time he
constructed the first thermometer, consisting of a bulb and tube filled
with air and water, and terminating in a vessel of water. In this
instrument the results of varying atmospheric pressure were not
distinguishable from the expansive and contractive effects of heat and
cold, and it became an efficient measure of temperature only when
Rinieri, in 1646, introduced the improvement of hermetically sealing the
liquid in glass. The substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water
completed the modern thermometer.
Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the
Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from avowing his
opinions--as is proved by his letter to Kepler of August 4, 1597--by the
fear of ridicule rather than of persecution. The appearance, in September
1604, of a new star in the constellation Serpentarius afforded him indeed
an opportunity, of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an
onslaught upon the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the
heavens; but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to
Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent implement
of research in the shape of the telescope (q.v.) placed at his command
startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as to the constitution and
mutual relations of the heavenly bodies. Galileo was not the original
inventor of the telescope.[1] That honour must be assigned to Johannes
Lippershey, an obscure optician of Middleburg, who, on the 2nd of October
1608, petitioned the states-general of the Low Countries for exclusive
rights in the manufacture of an instrument for increasing the apparent
size of remote objects. A rumour of the new invention, which reached
Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the track; and after one
night's profound meditation on the principles of refraction, he succeeded
in producing a telescope of threefold magnifying power. Upon this first
attempt he rapidly improved, until he attained to a power of thirty-two,
and his instruments, of which he manufactured hundreds with his own
hands, were soon in request in every part of Europe. Two lenses only--a
plano-convex and a plano-concave--were needed for the composition of
each, and this simple principle is that still employed in the
construction of opera-glasses. Galileo's direction of his new instrument
to the heavens formed an era in the history of astronomy. Discoveries
followed upon it with astounding rapidity and in bewildering variety. The
_Sidereus Nuncius_, published at Venice early in 1610, contained the
first-fruits of the new mode of investigation, which were sufficient to
excite learned amazement on both sides of the Alps. The mountainous
configuration of the moon's surface was there first described, and the
so-called "phosphorescence" of the dark portion of our satellite
attributed to its true cause--namely, illumination by sunlight reflected
from the earth.[2] All the time-worn fables and conjectures regarding the
composition of the Milky Way were at once dissipated by the simple
statement that to the eye, reinforced by the telescope, it appeared as a
congeries of lesser stars, while the great nebulae were equally declared
to be resolvable into similar elements. But the discovery which was at
once perceived to be most important in itself, and most revolutionary in
its effects, was that of Jupiter's satellites, first seen by Galileo on
the 7th of January 1610, and by him named _Sidera Medicea_, in honour of
the grand-duke of Tuscany, Cosmo II., who had been his pupil, and was
about to become his employer. An illustration is, with the general run of
mankind, more powerful to convince than an argument; and the cogency of
the visible plea for the Copernican theory offered by the miniature
system, then first disclosed to view, was recognizable in the triumph of
its advocates as well as in the increased acrimony of its opponents.
In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for Florence. His
researches with the telescope had been rewarded by the Venetian senate
with the appointment for life to his professorship, at an
unprecedentedly high salary. His discovery of the "Medicean Stars" was
acknowledged by his nomination (July 12, 1610) as philosopher and
mathematician extraordinary to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments
of this office, which involved no duties save that of continuing his
scientific labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of
increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism, which
induced him to accept an offer the original suggestion of which had
indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610 the memorable cycle
of discoveries begun in the previous year was completed by the
observation of the ansated or, as it appeared to Galileo, triple form of
Saturn (the ring-formation was first recognized by Christiaan Huygens in
1655), of the phases of Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. As regards
sun-spots, however, Johann Fabricius of Osteel in Friesland can claim
priority of publication, if not of actual detection. In the spring of
1611 Galileo visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the Quirinal
Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to the most eminent
personages at the pontifical court. Encouraged by the flattering
reception accorded to him, he ventured, in his _Letters on the Solar
Spots_, printed at Rome in 1613, to take up a more decided position
towards that doctrine on the establishment of which, as he avowed in a
letter to Belisario Vinta, secretary to the grand-duke, "all his life
and being henceforward depended." Even in the time of Copernicus some
well-meaning persons, especially those of the reformed persuasion, had
suspected a discrepancy between the new view of the solar system and
certain passages of Scripture--a suspicion strengthened by the
anti-Christian inferences drawn from it by Giordano Bruno; but the
question was never formally debated until Galileo's brilliant
disclosures, enhanced by his formidable dialectic and enthusiastic zeal,
irresistibly challenged for it the attention of the authorities.
Although he had no desire to raise the theological issue, it must be
admitted that, the discussion once set on foot, he threw himself into it
with characteristic impetuosity, and thus helped to precipitate a
decision which it was his interest to avert. In December 1613 a
Benedictine monk named Benedetto Castelli, at that time professor of
mathematics at the university of Pisa, wrote to inform Galileo of a
recent discussion at the grand-ducal table, in which he had been called
upon to defend the Copernican doctrine against theological objections.
This task Castelli, who was a steady friend and disciple of the Tuscan
astronomer, seems to have discharged with moderation and success.
Galileo's answer, written, as he said himself, _currente calamo_, was an
exposition of a formal theory as to the relations of physical science to
Holy Writ, still further developed in an elaborate apology addressed by
him in the following year (1614) to Christina of Lorraine, dowager
grand-duchess of Tuscany. Not satisfied with explaining adverse texts,
he met his opponents with unwise audacity on their own ground, and
endeavoured to produce scriptural confirmation of a system which seemed
to the ignorant many an incredible paradox, and to the scientific few a
beautiful but daring innovation. The rising agitation on the subject,
fomented for their own purposes by the rabid Aristotelians of the
schools, was heightened rather than allayed by these manifestoes, and on
the fourth Sunday of the following Advent found a voice in the pulpit of
Santa Maria Novella. Padre Caccini's denunciation of the new astronomy
was indeed disavowed and strongly condemned by his superiors;
nevertheless, on the 5th of February 1615, another Dominican monk named
Lorini laid Galileo's letter to Castelli before the Inquisition.
Cardinal Robert Bellarmin was at that time by far the most influential
member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast learning and upright
piety, but, although personally friendly to Galileo, there is no doubt
that he saw in his scientific teachings a danger to religion. The year
1615 seems to have been a period of suspense. Galileo received, as the
result of a conference between Cardinals Bellarmin and Del Monte, a
semi-official warning to avoid theology, and limit himself to physical
reasoning. "Write freely," he was told by Monsignor Dini, "but keep
outside the sacristy." Unfortunately, he had already committed himself
to dangerous ground. In December he repaired personally to Rome, full of
confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity of his
eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical court to his
views. He was cordially received, and eagerly listened to, but his
imprudent ardour served but to injure his cause. On the 24th of February
1616 the consulting theologians of the Holy Office characterized the two
propositions--that the sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and
that the earth has a diurnal motion of rotation--the first as "absurd in
philosophy, and formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy
Scripture," and the second as "open to the same censure in philosophy,
and at least erroneous as to faith." Two days later Galileo was, by
command of the pope (Paul V.), summoned to the palace of Cardinal
Bellarmin, and there officially admonished not thenceforward to "hold,
teach or defend" the condemned doctrine. This injunction he promised to
obey. On the 5th of March the Congregation of the Index issued a decree
reiterating, with the omission of the word "heretical," the censure of
the theologians, suspending, _usque corrigatur_, the great work of
Copernicus, _De revolutionibus orbium coelestium_, and absolutely
prohibiting a treatise by a Carmelite monk named Foscarini, which
treated the same subject from a theological point of view. At the same
time it was given to be understood that the new theory of the solar
system might be held _ex hypothesi_, and the trivial verbal alterations
introduced into the Polish astronomer's book in 1620, when the work of
revision was completed by Cardinal Gaetani, confirmed this
interpretation. This edict, it is essential to observe, the
responsibility for which rests with a disciplinary congregation in no
sense representing the church, was never confirmed by the pope, and was
virtually repealed in 1757 under Benedict XIV.
Galileo returned to Florence three months later, not ill-pleased, as his
letters testify, with the result of his visit to Rome. He brought with
him, for the refutation of calumnious reports circulated by his enemies,
a written certificate from Cardinal Bellarmin, to the effect that no
abjuration had been required of or penance imposed upon him. During a
prolonged audience he had received from the pope assurances of private
esteem and personal protection; and he trusted to his dialectical
ingenuity to find the means of presenting his scientific convictions
under the transparent veil of an hypothesis. Although a sincere
Catholic, he seems to have laid but little stress on the secret
admonition of the Holy Office, which his sanguine temperament encouraged
him gradually to dismiss from his mind. He preserved no written
memorandum of its terms, and it was represented to him, according to his
own deposition in 1633, solely by Cardinal Bellarmin's certificate, in
which, for obvious reasons, it was glossed over rather than expressly
recorded. For seven years, nevertheless, during which he led a life of
studious retirement in the Villa Segni at Bellosguardo, near Florence,
he maintained an almost unbroken silence. At the end of that time he
appeared in public with his _Saggiatore_, a polemical treatise written
in reply to the _Libra astronomica_ of Padre Grassi (under the pseudonym
of Lotario Sarsi), the Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano. The
subject in debate was the nature of comets, the conspicuous appearance
of three of which bodies in the year 1618 furnished the occasion of the
controversy. Galileo's views, although erroneous, since he held comets
to be mere atmospheric emanations reflecting sunlight after the
evanescent fashion of a halo or a rainbow, were expressed with such
triumphant vigour, and embellished with such telling sarcasms, that his
opponent did not venture upon a reply. The _Saggiatore_ was printed at
Rome in October 1623 by the Academy of the Lincei, of which Galileo was
a member, with a dedication to the new pope, Urban VIII., and
notwithstanding some passages containing a covert defence of Copernican
opinions, was received with acclamation by ecclesiastical, no less than
by scientific authorities.
Everything seemed now to promise a close of unbroken prosperity to
Galileo's career. Maffeo Barberini, his warmest friend and admirer in
the Sacred College, was, by the election of the 8th of August 1623,
seated on the pontifical throne; and the marked distinction with which
he was received on his visit of congratulation to Rome in 1624
encouraged him to hope for the realization of his utmost wishes. He
received every mark of private favour. The pope admitted him to six long
audiences in the course of two months, wrote an enthusiastic letter to
the grand-duke praising the great astronomer, not only for his
distinguished learning, but also for his exemplary piety, and granted a
pension to his son Vincenzio, which was afterwards transferred to
himself, and paid, with some irregularities, to the end of his life. But
on the subject of the decree of 1616, the revocation of which Galileo
had hoped to obtain through his personal influence, he found him
inexorable. Yet there seemed reason to expect that it would at least be
interpreted in a liberal spirit, and Galileo's friends encouraged his
imprudent confidence by eagerly retailing to him every papal utterance
which it was possible to construe in a favourable sense. To Cardinal
Hohenzollern, Urban was reported to have said that the theory of the
earth's motion had not been and could not be condemned as heretical, but
only as rash; and in 1630 the brilliant Dominican monk Tommaso
Campanella wrote to Galileo that the pope had expressed to him in
conversation his disapproval of the prohibitory decree. Thus, in the
full anticipation of added renown, and without any misgiving as to
ulterior consequences, Galileo set himself, on his return to Florence,
to complete his famous but ill-starred work, the _Dialogo dei due
massimi sistemi del mondo_. Finished in 1630, it was not until January
1632 that it emerged from the presses of Landini at Florence. The book
was originally intended to appear in Rome, but unexpected obstacles
interposed. The Lincean Academy collapsed with the death of Prince
Federigo Cesi, its founder and president; an outbreak of plague impeded
communication between the various Italian cities; and the _imprimatur_
was finally extorted, rather than accorded, under the pressure of
private friendship and powerful interest. A tumult of applause from
every part of Europe followed its publication; and it would be difficult
to find in any language a book in which animation and elegance of style
are so happily combined with strength and clearness of scientific
exposition. Three interlocutors, named respectively Salviati, Sagredo,
and Simplicio, take part in the four dialogues of which the work is
composed. The first-named expounds the views of the author; the second
is an eager and intelligent listener; the third represents a
well-meaning but obtuse Peripatetic, whom the others treat at times with
undisguised contempt. Salviati and Sagredo took their names from two of
Galileo's early friends, the former a learned Florentine, the latter a
distinguished Venetian gentleman; Simplicio ostensibly derived his from
the Cilician commentator of Aristotle, but the choice was doubtless
instigated by a sarcastic regard to the double meaning of the word.
There were not wanting those who insinuated that Galileo intended to
depict the pope himself in the guise of the simpleton of the party; and
the charge, though preposterous in itself, was supported by certain
imprudences of expression, which Urban was not permitted to ignore.
It was at once evident that the whole tenor of this remarkable work was
in flagrant contradiction with the edict passed sixteen years before its
publication, as well as with the author's personal pledge of conformity
to it. The ironical submission with which it opened, and the assumed
indetermination with which it closed, were hardly intended to mask the
vigorous assertion of Copernican principles which formed its substance.
It is a singular circumstance, however, that the argument upon which
Galileo mainly relied as furnishing a physical demonstration of the
truth of the new theory rested on a misconception. The ebb and flow of
the tides were, he asserted, a visible proof of the terrestrial double
movement, since they resulted from inequalities in the absolute
velocities through space of the various parts of the earth's surface,
due to its rotation. To this notion, which took its rise in a confusion
of thought, he attached capital importance, and he treated with scorn
Kepler's suggestion that a certain occult attraction of the moon was in
some way concerned in the phenomenon. The theological censures which the
book did not fail to incur were not slow in making themselves felt.
Towards the end of August the sale was prohibited; on the 1st of
October the author was cited to Rome by the Inquisition. He pleaded his
age, now close upon seventy years, his infirm health, and the obstacles
to travel caused by quarantine regulations; but the pope was sternly
indignant at what he held to be his ingratitude and insubordination, and
no excuse was admitted. At length, on the 13th of February 1633, he
arrived at the residence of Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador to the
pontifical court, and there abode in retirement for two months. From the
12th to the 30th of April he was detained in the palace of the
Inquisition, where he occupied the best apartments and was treated with
unexampled indulgence. On the 30th he was restored to the hospitality of
Niccolini, his warm partisan. The accusation against him was that he had
written in contravention of the decree of 1616, and in defiance of the
command of the Holy Office communicated to him by Cardinal Bellarmin;
and his defence consisted mainly in a disavowal of his opinions, and an
appeal to his good intentions. On the 21st of June he was finally
examined under menace of torture; but he continued to maintain his
assertion that after its condemnation by the Congregation of the Index,
he had never held the Copernican theory. Since the publication of the
documents relating to this memorable trial, there can no longer be any
doubt, not only that the threat of torture was not carried into
execution, but that it was never intended that it should be. On the 22nd
of June, in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Galileo read his
recantation, and received his sentence. He was condemned, as "vehemently
suspected of heresy," to incarceration at the pleasure of the tribunal,
and by way of penance was enjoined to recite once a week for three years
the seven penitential psalms. This sentence was signed by seven
cardinals, but did not receive the customary papal ratification. The
legend according to which Galileo, rising from his knees after repeating
the formula of abjuration, stamped on the ground, and exclaimed, "_Eppur
si muove!_" is, as may readily be supposed, entirely apocryphal. Its
earliest ascertained appearance is in the Abbe Irailh's _Querelles
litteraires_ (vol. iii. p. 49, 1761).
Galileo remained in the custody of the Inquisition from the 21st to the
24th of June, on which day he was relegated to the Villa Medici on the
Trinita de' Monti. Thence, on the 6th of July, he was permitted to
depart for Siena, where he spent several months in the house of the
archbishop, Ascanio Piccolomini, one of his numerous and trusty friends.
It was not until December that his earnest desire of returning to
Florence was realized, and the remaining eight years of his life were
spent in his villa at Arcetri called "Il Giojello," in the strict
seclusion which was the prescribed condition of his comparative freedom.
Domestic afflictions combined with numerous and painful infirmities to
embitter his old age. His sister-in-law and her whole family, who came
to live with him on his return from Rome, perished shortly afterwards of
the plague; and on the 2nd of April 1634 died, to the inexpressible
grief of her father, his eldest and best-beloved daughter, a nun in the
convent of San Matteo at Arcetri. Galileo was never married; but by a
Venetian woman named Marina Gamba he had three children--a son who
married and left descendants, and two daughters who took the veil at an
early age. His prodigious mental activity continued undiminished to the
last. In 1636 he completed his _Dialoghi delle nuove scienze_, in which
he recapitulated the results of his early experiments and mature
meditations on the principles of mechanics. This in many respects his
most valuable work was printed by the Elzevirs at Leiden in 1638, and
excited admiration equally universal and more lasting than that accorded
to his astronomical treatises. His last telescopic discovery--that of
the moon's diurnal and monthly librations--was made in 1637, only a few
months before his eyes were for ever closed in hopeless blindness. It
was in this condition that Milton found him when he visited him at
Arcetri in 1638. But the fire of his genius was not even yet extinct. He
continued his scientific correspondence with unbroken interest and
undiminished logical acumen; he thought out the application of the
pendulum to the regulation of clockwork, which Huygens successfully
realized fifteen years later; and he was engaged in dictating to his
disciples, Viviani and Torricelli, his latest ideas on the theory of
impact when he was seized with the slow fever which in two months
brought him to the grave. On the 8th of January 1642 he closed his long
life of triumph and humiliation, which just spanned the interval between
the death of Michelangelo and the birth of Isaac Newton.
The direct services which Galileo rendered to astronomy are virtually
summed up in his telescopic discoveries. To the theoretical perfection
of the science he contributed little or nothing. He pointed out indeed
that the so-called "third motion," introduced by Copernicus to account
for the constant parallelism of the earth's axis, was a superfluous
complication. But he substituted the equally unnecessary hypothesis of a
magnetic attraction, and failed to perceive that the phenomenon to be
explained was, in relation to absolute space, not a movement but the
absence of movement. The circumstance, however, which most seriously
detracts from his scientific reputation is his neglect of the
discoveries made during his lifetime by the greatest of his
contemporaries. Kepler's first and second laws were published in 1609,
and his third ten years later. By these momentous inductions the
geometrical theory of the solar system was perfected, and a hitherto
unimagined symmetry was perceived to regulate the mutual relations of
its members. But by Galileo they were passed over in silence. In his
_Dialogo dei massimi sistemi_, printed not less than thirteen years
after the last of the three laws had been given to the world, the
epicycles by which Copernicus, adhering to the ancient postulate of
uniform circular motion, had endeavoured to reduce to theory the
irregularities of the planetary movements, were neither expressly
adopted nor expressly rejected; and the conclusion seems inevitable that
this grave defection from the cause of progress was due to his perhaps
unconscious reluctance to accept discoveries which he had not
originated. His name is nevertheless justly associated with that vast
extension of the bounds of the visible universe which has rendered
modern astronomy the most sublime of sciences, and his telescopic
observations are a standing monument to his sagacity and acumen.
With the sure instinct of genius, he seized the characteristic features
of the phenomena presented to his attention, and his inferences, except
when distorted by polemical exigencies, have been strikingly confirmed
by modern investigations. Of his two capital errors, regarding
respectively the theory of the tides and the nature of comets, the first
was insidiously recommended to him by his passionate desire to find a
physical confirmation of the earth's double motion; the second was
adopted for the purpose of rebutting an anti-Copernican argument founded
on the planetary analogies of those erratic subjects of the sun. Within
two years of their first discovery, he had constructed approximately
accurate tables of the revolutions of Jupiter's satellites, and he
proposed their frequent eclipses as a means of determining longitudes,
not only on land, but at sea. This method, on which he laid great
stress, and for the facilitation of which he invented a binocular glass,
and devised some skilful mechanical contrivances, was offered by him in
1616 to the Spanish government, and afterwards to that of Tuscany, but
in each case unsuccessfully; and the close of his life was occupied with
prolonged but fruitless negotiations on the same subject with the
states-general of Holland. The idea, though ingenious, has been found of
little practical utility at sea.
A series of careful observations made him acquainted with the principal
appearances revealed by modern instruments in the solar spots. He
pointed out that they were limited to a certain defined zone on the
sun's surface; he noted the _faculae_ with which they are associated,
the penumbra by which they are bordered, their slight proper motions and
their rapid changes of form. He inferred from the regularity of their
general movements the rotation of the sun on its axis in a period of
little less than a month; and he grounded on the varying nature of the
paths seemingly traversed by them a plausible, though inconclusive,
argument in favour of the earth's annual revolution. Twice in the year,
he observed, they seem to travel across the solar disk in straight
lines; at other times, in curves. These appearances he referred with
great acuteness to the slight inclination of the sun's axis of rotation
to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, when the earth finds herself in the
plane of the sun's equator, which occurs at two opposite points of her
orbit, the spots, travelling in circles parallel with that plane,
necessarily appear to describe right lines; but when the earth is above
or below the equatorial level, the paths of the spots open out into
curves turned downwards or upwards, according to the direction in which
they are seen. But the explanation of this phenomenon is equally
consistent with the geocentric as with the heliocentric theory of the
solar system. The idea of a universal force of gravitation seems to have
hovered on the borders of this great man's mind, without ever fully
entering it. He perceived the analogy between the power which holds the
moon in the neighbourhood of the earth, and compels Jupiter's satellites
to circulate round their primary, and the attraction exercised by the
earth on bodies at its surface;[3] but he failed to conceive the
combination of central force with tangential velocity, and was disposed
to connect the revolutions of the planets with the axial rotation of the
sun. This notion, it is plain, tended rather towards Descartes's theory
of vortices than towards Newton's theory of gravitation. More valid
instances of the anticipation of modern discoveries may be found in his
prevision that a small annual parallax would eventually be found for
some of the fixed stars, and that extra-Saturnian planets would at some
future time be ascertained to exist, and in his conviction that light
travels with a measurable, although, in relation to terrestrial
distances, infinite velocity.
The invention of the microscope, attributed to Galileo by his first
biographer, Vincenzio Viviani, does not in truth belong to him. Such an
instrument was made as early as 1590 by Zacharias Jansen of Middleburg;
and although Galileo discovered, in 1610, a means of adapting his
telescope to the examination of minute objects, he did not become
acquainted with the compound microscope until 1624 when he saw one of
Drebbel's instruments in Rome, and, with characteristic ingenuity,
immediately introduced some material improvements into its construction.
The most substantial, if not the most brilliant part of his work
consisted undoubtedly in his contributions towards the establishment of
mechanics as a science. Some valuable but isolated facts and theorems
had been previously discovered and proved, but it was he who first
clearly grasped the idea of force as a mechanical agent, and extended to
the external world the conception of the invariability of the relation
between cause and effect. From the time of Archimedes there had existed
a science of equilibrium, but the science of motion began with Galileo.
It is not too much to say that the final triumph of the Copernican
system was due in larger measure to his labours in this department than
to his direct arguments in its favour. The problem of the heavens is
essentially a mechanical one; and without the mechanical conceptions of
the dependence of motion upon force which Galileo familiarized to men's
minds, that problem might have remained a sealed book even to the
intelligence of Newton. The interdependence of motion and force was not
indeed formulated into definite laws by Galileo, but his writings on
dynamics are everywhere suggestive of those laws, and his solutions of
dynamical problems involve their recognition. The extraordinary advances
made by him in this branch of knowledge were owing to his happy method
of applying mathematical analysis to physical problems. As a pure
mathematician he was, it is true, surpassed in profundity by more than
one among his pupils and contemporaries; and in the wider imaginative
grasp of abstract geometrical principles he cannot be compared with
Fermat, Descartes or Pascal, to say nothing of Newton or Leibnitz.
Still, even in the region of pure mathematics, his powerful and
original mind left notable traces of its working. He studied the
properties of the cycloid, and attempted the problem of its quadrature;
and in the "infinitesimals," which he was one of the first to introduce
into geometrical demonstrations, was contained the fruitful germ of the
differential calculus. But the method which was peculiarly his, and
which still forms the open road to discoveries in natural science,
consisted in the combination of experiment with calculation--in the
transformation of the concrete into the abstract, and the assiduous
comparison of results. The first-fruits of the new system of
investigation was his determination of the laws of falling bodies.
Conceiving that the simplest principle is the most likely to be true, he
assumed as a postulate that bodies falling freely towards the earth
descend with a uniformly accelerated motion, and deduced thence that the
velocities acquired are in the direct, and the spaces traversed in the
duplicate ratio of the times, counted from the beginning of motion;
finally, he proved, by observing the times of descent of bodies falling
down inclined planes, that the postulated law was the true law. Even
here, he was obliged to take for granted that the velocities acquired in
descending from the same height along planes of every inclination are
equal; and it was not until shortly before his death that he found the
mathematical demonstration of this not very obvious principle.
The first law of motion--that which expresses the principle of
inertia--is virtually contained in the idea of uniformly accelerated
velocity. The recognition of the second--that of the independence of
different motions--must be added to form the true theory of projectiles.
This was due to Galileo. Up to his time it was universally held in the
schools that the motion of a body should cease with the impulse
communicated to it, but for the "reaction of the medium" helping it
forward. Galileo showed, on the contrary, that the nature of motion once
impressed is to continue indefinitely in a uniform direction, and that
the effect of the medium is a retarding, not an impelling one. Another
commonly received axiom was that no body could be affected by more than
one movement at one time, and it was thus supposed that a cannon ball,
or other projectile, moves forward in a right line until its first
impulse is exhausted, when it falls vertically to the ground. In the
fourth of Galileo's dialogues on mechanics, he demonstrated that the
path described by a projectile, being the result of the combination of a
uniform transverse motion with a uniformly accelerated vertical motion,
must, apart from the resistance of the air, be a parabola. The
establishment of the principle of the composition of motions formed a
conclusive answer to the most formidable of the arguments used against
the rotation of the earth, and we find it accordingly triumphantly
brought forward by Galileo in the second of his dialogues on the systems
of the world. It was urged by anti-Copernicans that a body flung upward
or cast downward would, if the earth were in motion, be left behind by
the rapid translation of the point from which it started; Galileo proved
on the contrary that the reception of a fresh impulse in no way
interfered with the movement already impressed, and that the rotation of
the earth was insensible, because shared equally by all bodies at its
surface. His theory of the inclined plane, combined with his
satisfactory definition of "momentum," led him towards the third law of
motion. We find Newton's theorem, that "action and reaction are equal
and opposite," stated with approximate precision in his treatise _Della
scienza meccanica_, which contains the substance of lectures delivered
during his professorship at Padua; and the same principle is involved in
the axiom enunciated in the third of his mechanical dialogues, that "the
propensity of a body to fall is equal to the least resistance which
suffices to support it." The problems of percussion, however, received
no definitive solution until after his death.
His services were as conspicuous in the statical as in the kinetical
division of mechanics. He gave the first satisfactory demonstration of
equilibrium on an inclined plane, reducing it to the level by a sound
and ingenious train of reasoning; while, by establishing the theory of
"virtual velocities," he laid down the fundamental principle which, in
the opinion of Lagrange, contains the general expression of the laws of
equilibrium. He studied with attention the still obscure subject of
molecular cohesion, and little has been added to what he ascertained on
the question of transverse strains and the strength of beams, first
brought by him within the scope of mechanical theory. In his _Discorso
intorno alle cose che stanno su l'acqua_, published in 1612, he used the
principle of virtual velocities to demonstrate the more important
theorems of hydrostatics, deducing from it the equilibrium of fluid in a
siphon, and proved against the Aristotelians that the floating of solid
bodies in a liquid depends not upon their form, but upon their specific
gravities relative to such liquid.
In order to form an adequate estimate of the stride made by Galileo in
natural philosophy, it would be necessary to enumerate the confused and
erroneous opinions prevailing on all such subjects in his time. His best
eulogium, it has been truly said, consists in the fallacies which he
exposed. The scholastic distinctions between corruptible and
incorruptible substances, between absolute gravity and absolute levity,
between natural and violent motions, if they did not wholly disappear
from scientific phraseology, ceased thenceforward to hold the place of
honour in the controversies of the learned. Discarding these obscure and
misleading notions, Galileo taught that gravity and levity are relative
terms, and that all bodies are heavy, even those which, like the air,
are invisible; that motion is the result of force, instantaneous or
continuous; that weight is a continuous force, attracting towards the
centre of the earth; that, in a vacuum, all bodies would fall with equal
velocities; that the "inertia of matter" implies the continuance of
motion, as well as the permanence of rest; and that the substance of the
heavenly bodies is equally "corruptible" with that of the earth. These
simple elementary ideas were eminently capable of development and
investigation, and were not only true but the prelude to further truth;
while those they superseded defied inquiry by their vagueness and
obscurity. Galileo was a man born in due time. He was superior to his
contemporaries, but not isolated amongst them. He represented and
intensified a growing tendency of the age in which he lived. It was
beginning to be suspected that from Aristotle an appeal lay to nature,
and some were found who no longer treated the _ipse dixit_ of the
Stagirite as the final authority in matters of science. A vigorous but
ineffectual warfare had already been waged against the blind traditions
of the schools by Ramus and Telesius, by Patricius and Campanella, and
the revolution which Galileo completed had been prepared by his
predecessors. Nevertheless, the task which he so effectually
accomplished demanded the highest and rarest quality of genius. He
struck out for himself the happy middle path between the _a priori_ and
the empirical systems, and exemplified with brilliant success the method
by which experimental science has wrested from nature so many of her
secrets. His mind was eminently practical. He concerned himself above
all with what fell within the range of exact inquiry, and left to others
the larger but less fruitful speculations which can never be brought to
the direct test of experiment. Thus, while far-reaching but hasty
generalizations have had their day and been forgotten, his work has
proved permanent, because he made sure of its foundations. His keen
intuition of truth, his vigour and yet sobriety of argument, his
fertility of illustration and acuteness of sarcasm, made him
irresistible to his antagonists; and the evanescent triumphs of scornful
controversy have given place to the sedate applause of a long-lived
posterity.
The first complete edition of Galileo's writings was published at
Florence (1842-1856), in 16 8vo vols., under the supervision of Signor
Eugenio Alberi. Besides the works already enumerated, it contained the
_Sermones de motu gravium_ composed at Pisa between 1589 and 1591; his
letters to his friends, with many of their replies, as well as several
of the essays of his scientific opponents; his laudatory comments on
the _Orlando Furioso_, and depreciatory notes on the _Gerusalemme
Liberata_, some stanzas and sonnets of no great merit, together with
the sketch of a comedy; finally, a reprint of Viviani's _Life_, with
valuable notes and corrections. The original documents from the
archives of the Inquisition, relating to the events of 1616 and 1633,
recovered from Paris in 1846 by the efforts of Count Rossi, and now in
the Vatican Library, were to a limited extent made public by Monsignor
Marino-Marini in 1850, and more unreservedly by M. Henri de l'Epinois,
in an essay entitled _Galilee, son proces, sa condemnation_,
published in 1867 in the _Revue des questions historiques_. He was
followed by M. Karl von Gebler, who, in an able and exhaustive but
somewhat prejudiced work, _Galileo Galilei und die romische Curie_
(Stuttgart, 1876), sought to impeach the authenticity of a document of
prime importance in the trial of 1633. He was victoriously answered by
Signor Domenico Berti, in _Il Processo originale di Galileo Galilei_
(Rome, 1876), and by M. de l'Epinois, with _Les pieces du proces de
Galilee_ (Rome, Paris, 1877). The touching letters of Galileo's eldest
daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, to her father were printed in 1864 by
Professor Carlo Arduini, in a publication entitled _La Primogenita di
Galileo Galilei_.
The issue of a "national edition" of the Works of Galileo, in 20 large
volumes, was begun at Florence in 1890. It includes a mass of
previously inedited correspondence and other documents, collected by
the indefatigable director, Professor Antonio Favaro, among whose
numerous publications on Galilean subjects may be mentioned: _Galileo
e lo studio di Padova_ (2 vols., 1883); _Scampoli Galileani_ (12
series, 1886-1897); _Nuovi Studii Galileani_ (1891); _Galileo Galilei
e Suor Maria Celeste_ (1891). See also Th. Henri Martin's _Galilee,
les droits de la science et la methode des sciences physiques_ (1868);
_Private Life of Galileo_ (by Mrs Olney, 1870); J.J. Fahie's _Galileo;
his Life and Work_ (1903); _Galilee et Marius_, by J.A.C. Oudemans and
J. Bosscha (1903). The relations of Galileo to the Church are
temperately and ably discussed by F.R. Wegg-Prosser in _Galileo and
his Judges_ (1889), and in two articles published in the _American
Catholic Quarterly_ for April and July 1901. (A. M. C.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The word _telescope_, from [Greek: tele], far, [Greek: skopein],
to view, was invented by Demiscianus, an eminent Greek scholar, at
the request of Prince Cesi, president of the Lyncean Academy. It was
used by Galileo as early as 1612, but was not introduced into England
until much later. In 1655 the word _telescope_ was inserted and
explained in Bagwell's _Mysteries of Astronomy_, _trunk_ or
_cylinder_ being the terms until then ordinarily employed.
[2] Leonardo da Vinci, more than a hundred years earlier, had come to
the same conclusion.
[3] The passage is sufficiently remarkable to deserve quotation in
the original:--"Le parti della Terra hanno tal propensione al centro
di essa, che quando ella cangiasse luogo, le dette parti, benche
lontane dal globo nel tempo delle mutazioni di esso, lo seguirebbero
per tutto; esempio di cio sia il seguito perpetuo delle Medicee,
ancorche separate continuamente da Giove. L'istesso si deve dire
della Luna, obbligata a seguir la Terra."--_Dialogo dei massimi
sistemi_, Giornata terza, p. 351 of Alberi's edition.
GALION, a city of Crawford County, Ohio, U.S.A., about 75 m. S.W. of
Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 6326; (1900) 7282 (703 foreign-born); (1910)
7214. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and
the Erie railways, and by an interurban electric railway. The city is
about 1165 ft. above sea level, and has extensive railway shops (of the
Erie railway) and manufactories of brick and tile machinery, carriages
and wagons, and grain and seed cleaners. The municipality owns and
operates its electric-lighting plant. Galion was laid out as a town in
1831, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and was chartered as a city
in 1878.
GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828), anatomist, physiologist, and founder of
phrenology (q.v.), was born at Tiefenbrunn near Pforzheim, Baden, on the
9th of March 1758. After completing the usual literary course at Baden
and Bruchsal, he began the study of medicine under J. Hermann
(1738-1800) at Strassburg, whence, attracted by the names of Gerhard van
Swieten (1700-1772) and Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), he removed to
Vienna in 1781. Having received his diploma, he began to practise as a
physician there in 1785; but his energies were mainly devoted to the
scientific investigation of problems which had occupied his attention
from boyhood. At a comparatively early period he formed the
generalization that in the human subject at least a powerful memory is
invariably associated with prominent eyes; and further observation
enabled him, as he thought, also to define the external characteristics
indicative of special talents for painting, music and the mechanical
arts. Following out these researches, he gradually reached the strong
conviction, not only that the talents and dispositions of men are
dependent upon the functions of the brain, but also that they may be
inferred with perfect exactitude and precision from the external
appearances of the skull. Gall's first appearance as an author was made
in 1791, when he published the first two chapters of a (never completed)
work entitled _Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen uber Natur u.
Kunst im kranken u. gesunden Zustande des Menschen_. The first public
notice of his inquiries in cranioscopy, however, was in the form of a
letter addressed to a friend, which appeared in C.M. Wieland's
_Deutscher Mercur_ in 1798; but two years previously he had begun to
give private courses of phrenological lectures in Vienna, where his
doctrines soon attracted general attention, and met with increasing
success until, in 1802, they were interdicted by the government as being
dangerous to religion. This step on the part of the authorities had the
effect of greatly stimulating public curiosity and increasing Gall's
celebrity.
In March 1805 he finally left Vienna in company with his friend and
associate J.C. Spurzheim, and made a tour through Germany, in the course
of which he lectured in Berlin, Dresden, Magdeburg and several of the
university towns. His expositions, which he knew how to make popular and
attractive, were much resorted to by the public, and excited
considerable controversy in the scientific world. He had almost reached
the zenith of his fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and
established himself there as a medical practitioner, at the same time
continuing his activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1808 appeared his
_Introduction au cours de physiologie du cerveau_, which was followed in
1809 by the _Recherches sur le systeme nerveux en general, et sur celui
du cerveau en particulier_ (originally laid before the Institute of
France in March 1808), and in 1810 by the first instalment of the
_Anatomie et physiologie du systeme nerveux en general, et du cerveau en
particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilite de reconnaitre
plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des
animaux par la configuration de leurs tetes._ The _Recherches_ and the
first two volumes of the _Anatomie_ bear the conjoint names of Gall and
Spurzheim. The latter work was completed in 1819, and appeared in a
second edition of six volumes in 1822-1825. In 1811 he replied to a
charge of Spinozism or atheism, which had been strongly urged against
him, by a treatise entitled _Des dispositions innees de l'ame et de
l'esprit_, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater work. In
1819 he became a naturalized French subject, but his efforts two years
afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy of Sciences, although
supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, were unsuccessful. In 1823 he
visited London with the intention of giving a series of phrenological
lectures, but his reception was not what he had anticipated, and he
speedily abandoned his plans. He continued to lecture and practise in
Paris until the beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic
seizure. His death took place at Montrouge near Paris, on the 22nd of
August 1828.
GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _gal_, and
Ger. _Galle_; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. [Greek: chole] and
Lat. _fel_; possibly connected with "yellow," with reference to the
colour of bile), the secretion of the liver known as "bile," the term
being also used of the pear-shaped _diverticulum_ of the bile-duct,
which forms a reservoir for the bile, more generally known as the
"gall-bladder" (see LIVER). From the extreme bitterness of the
secretion, "gall," like the Lat. _fel_, is used for anything extremely
bitter, whether actually or metaphorically. From the idea that the
gall-bladder was the dominating organ of a bitter, sharp temperament,
"gall" was formerly used in English for such a spirit, and also for one
very ready to resent injuries. It thus survives in American slang, with
the meaning "impudence" or "assurance."
"Gall," meaning a sore or painful swelling, especially on a horse, may
be the same word, derived from an early use of the word as meaning
"poison." On the other hand, in Romanic languages, the Fr. _galle_, Sp.
_agalla_, a wind-gall or puffy distension of the synovial bursa on the
fetlock joint of a horse, is derived from the Lat. _galla_, oak-apple,
from which comes the English "gall," meaning an excrescence on trees
caused by certain insects. (See GALLS.)
GALLABAT, or GALABAT, called by the Abyssinians Matemma (Metemma), a
town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 13 deg. N. 36 deg. 12' E. It is
built, at the foot of a steep slope, on the left bank of a tributary of
the Atbara called the Khor Abnaheir, which forms here the
Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Gallabat lies 90 m. W. by N. of Gondar, the
capital of Amhara, and being on the main route from Sennar to Abyssinia,
is a trade centre of some importance. Pop. about 3000. The majority of
the buildings are grass _tukls_. Slaves, beeswax, coffee, cotton and
hides were formerly the chief articles of commerce. The slave market was
closed about 1874. Being on the frontier line, the possession of the
town was for long a matter of dispute between the Sudanese, and later
the Egyptians, on the one hand and the Abyssinians on the other. About
1870 the Egyptians garrisoned the town, which in 1886 was attacked by
the dervishes and sacked. From Gallabat a dervish raiding party
penetrated to Gondar, which they looted. In revenge an Abyssinian army
under King John attacked the dervishes close to Gallabat in March 1889.
The dervishes suffered very severely, but King John being killed by a
stray bullet, the Abyssinians retired (see EGYPT: _Military Operations_,
1885-1896). In December 1898 an Anglo-Egyptian force entered Gallabat.
The Abyssinians then held the fort, but as the result of frontier
arrangement the town was definitely included in the Sudan, though
Abyssinia takes half the customs revenue. Since 1899 the trade of the
place has revived, coffee and live stock being the most important items.
The town and district form a small ethnographical island, having been
peopled in the 18th century by a colony of Takruri from Darfur, who,
finding the spot a convenient resting-place for their fellow-pilgrims on
their way to Mecca and back, obtained permission from the negus of
Abyssinia to make a permanent settlement. They are an industrious
agricultural race, and cultivate cotton with considerable success. They
also collect honey in large quantities. The Takruri possess jagged
throwing knives, which are said to have been brought from their original
home in the Upper Congo regions.
GALLAIT, LOUIS (1810-1887), Belgian painter, was born at Tournay, in
Hainaut, Belgium, on the 9th of May 1810. He first studied in his native
town under Hennequin. In 1832 his first picture, "Tribute to Caesar,"
won a prize at the exhibition at Ghent. He then went to Antwerp to
prosecute his studies under Mathieu Ignace Van Bree, and in the
following year exhibited at the Brussels Salon "Christ Healing the
Blind." This picture was purchased by subscription and placed in the
cathedral at Tournay. Gallait next went to Paris, whence he sent to the
Belgian Salons "Job on the Dunghill," "Montaigne Visiting Tasso in
Prison"; and, in 1841, "The Abdication of Charles V.," in the Brussels
Gallery. This was hailed as a triumph, and gained for the painter a
European reputation. Official invitations then caused him to settle at
Brussels, where he died on the 20th of November 1887. Among his greater
works may be named: "The Last Honours paid to Counts Egmont and Horn by
the Corporations of the Town of Brussels," now at Tournay; "The Death of
Egmont," in the Berlin gallery; the "Coronation of Baudouin, Emperor of
Constantinople," painted for Versailles; "The Temptation of St Anthony,"
in the palace at Brussels; "The Siege of Antioch," "Art and Liberty," a
"Portrait of M.B. Dumortier" and "The Plague at Tournay," all in the
Brussels gallery. "A Gipsy Woman and her Children" was painted in 1852.
"M. Gallait has all the gifts that may be acquired by work, taste,
judgment and determination," wrote Theophile Gautier; his art is that of
a man of tact, a skilled painter, happy in his dramatic treatment but
superficial. No doubt, this Walloon artist, following the example of the
Flemings of the Renaissance and the treatment of Belgian classical
painters and the French Romantic school, sincerely aimed at truth;
unfortunately, misled by contemporary taste, he could not conceive of it
excepting as dressed in sentimentality. As an artist employed by the
State he exercised considerable influence, and for a long period he was
the leader of public taste in Brussels.
See Teichlin, _Louis Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland_ (1853);
J. Dujardin, _L'Art flamand_ (1899); C. Lemonnier, _Histoire des
beaux-arts en Belgique_ (1881).
GALLAND, ANTOINE (1646-1715), French Orientalist and archaeologist, the
first European translator of the _Arabian Nights_, was born on the 4th
of April 1646 at Rollot, in the department of Somme. The completion of
his school education at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to
a trade, from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic
studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time in making a
catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sorbonne, he was, in 1670,
attached to the French embassy at Constantinople; and in 1673 he
travelled in Syria and the Levant, where he copied a great number of
inscriptions, and sketched, and in some cases removed historical
monuments. After a brief visit to France, where his collection of
ancient coins attracted some attention, Galland returned to the Levant
in 1676; and in 1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by
the French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert; on
the expiration of this commission he was instructed by the government to
continue his researches, and had the title of "antiquary to the king"
conferred upon him. During his prolonged residences abroad he acquired a
thorough knowledge of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages and
literatures, which, on his final return to France, enabled him to render
valuable assistance to Thevenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to
Barthelemy d'Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some time at Caen
under the roof of Nicolas Foucault (1643-1721), the intendant of Caen,
himself no mean archaeologist; and there he began the publication (12
vols., 1704-1717) of _Les mille et une nuits_, which excited immense
interest during the time of its appearance, and is still the standard
French translation. It had no pretensions to verbal accuracy, and the
coarseness of the language was modified to suit European taste, but the
narrative was adequately rendered. In 1701 Galland had been admitted
into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1709 he was appointed to the
chair of Arabic in the College de France. He continued to discharge the
duties of this post until his death, which took place on the 17th of
February 1715.
Besides a number of archaeological works, especially in the department
of numismatics, he published a compilation from the Arabic, Persian
and Turkish, entitled _Paroles remarquables, bons mots et maximes des
orientaux_ (1694), and a translation from an Arabic manuscript, _De
l'origine et du progres du cafe_ (1699). The former of these works
appeared in an English translation in 1795. His _Contes et fables
indiennes de Bidpai et de Lokman_ was published (1724) after his
death. Among his numerous unpublished manuscripts are a translation of
the Koran and a _Histoire generale des empereurs turcs_. His _Journal_
was published by M. Charles Schefer in 1881.
GALLARATE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, from
which it is 25 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,002. The town is of
medieval origin. It is remarkable mainly for its textile factories. It
is the junction of railways to Varese, Laveno and Arona (for the
Simplon). Six miles to the W. are the electric works of Vizzola, the
largest in Europe, where 23,000 h.p. are derived from the river Ticino.
GALLARS [in Lat. GALLASIUS], NICOLAS DES (c. 1520-c. 1580), Calvinistic
divine, first appears as author of a _Defensio_ of William Farel,
published at Geneva in 1545, followed (1545-1549) by translations into
French of three tracts by Calvin. In 1551 he was admitted burgess of
Geneva, and in 1553 made pastor of a country church in the
neighbourhood. In 1557 he was sent to minister to the Protestants at
Paris; his conductor, Nicolas du Rousseau, having prohibited books in
his possession, was executed at Dijon; des Gallars, having nothing
suspicious about him, continued his journey. On the revival of the
Strangers' church in London (1560), he, being then minister at Geneva,
came to London to organize the French branch; and in 1561 he published
_La Forme de police ecclesiastique instituee a Londres en l'Eglise des
Francois_. In the same year he assisted Beza at the colloquy of Poissy.
He became minister to the Protestants at Orleans in 1564; presided at
the synod of Paris in 1565; was driven out of Orleans with other
Protestants in 1568; and in 1571 was chaplain to Jeanne d'Albret, queen
of Navarre. Calvin held him in high esteem, employing him as amanuensis,
and as editor as well as translator of several of his exegetical and
polemical works. He himself wrote a commentary on Exodus (1560); edited
an annotated French Bible (1562) and New Testament (1562); and published
tracts against Arians (1565-1566). His main work was his edition of
Irenaeus (1570) with prefatory letter to Grindal, then bishop of London,
and giving, for the first time, some fragments of the Greek text. His
collaboration with Beza in the _Histoire des Eglises Reformees du
royaume de France_ (1580) is doubted by Bayle.
See Bayle, _Dictionnaire hist. et crit._; Jean Senebier, _Hist.
litteraire de Geneve_ (1786); _Nouvelle Biog. gen._ (1857),
(A. Go.*)
GALLAS, MATTHIAS, COUNT OF CAMPO, DUKE OF LUCERA (1584-1647), Austrian
soldier, first saw service in Flanders, and in Savoy with the Spaniards,
and subsequently joined the forces of the Catholic League as captain. On
the general outbreak of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an
infantry regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of
Stadtlohn (1623). In 1630 he was serving as _General-Feldwachtmeister_
under Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the capture of
Mantua. Made count of the Empire for this service, he returned to
Germany for the campaign against Gustavus Adolphus. In command of a
corps of Wallenstein's army, he covered Bohemia against the Swedes in
1631-1632, and served at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Lutzen.
Further good service against Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar commended General
Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-general in
his own army. He was one of the chief conspirators against Wallenstein,
and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed to the command of the army
which Wallenstein had formed and led. At the great battle of Nordlingen
(23rd of August 1634) in which the army of Sweden was almost
annihilated, Gallas commanded the victorious Imperialists. His next
command was in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so
much from the ravages of war that his army perished of want. Still more
was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas commanded against
the Swedish general Baner in 1637 and 1638. At first driving the Swedes
before him, in the end he made a complete failure of the campaign, lost
his command, and was subject to much ridicule. It was, however, rather
the indiscipline of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein's
methods) than his own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat
across North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to
endeavour to stop Torstenson's victorious advance, only to be shut up in
Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant of his forces. Once
more relieved of his command, he was again recalled to make head against
the Swedes in 1645 (after their victory at Jankow). Before long, old and
warworn, he resigned his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna. His army
had earned for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and
rapacious force even in the Thirty Years' War, and his _Merode Bruder_
have survived in the word _marauder_. Like many other generals of that
period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial possessions
(the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein's estates). He was the
founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which furnished many
distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army.
GALLAS, or more correctly GALLA, a powerful Hamitic people of eastern
Africa, scattered over the wide region which extends for about 1000 m.
from the central parts of Abyssinia to the neighbourhood of the river
Sabaki in British East Africa. The name "Galla" or "Gala" appears to be
an Abyssinian nickname, unknown to the people, who call themselves _Ilm'
Orma_, "sons of men" or "sons of Orma," an eponymous hero. In Shoa
(Abyssinia) the word is connected with the river Gala in Guragie, on the
banks of which a great battle is said to have been fought between the
Galla and the Abyssinians. Arnaud d'Abbadie says that the Abyssinian
Moslems recount that, when summoned by the Prophet's messenger to adopt
Islam, the chief of the Galla said "No,"--in Arabic _kal_ (or _gal_)
_la_,--and the Prophet on hearing this said, "Then let their very name
imply their denial of the Faith." Of all Hamitic peoples the Galla are
the most numerous. Dr J. Ludwig Krapf estimated them (c. 1860) at from
six to eight millions; later authorities put them at not much over three
millions. Individual tribes are said to be able to bring 20,000 to
30,000 horsemen into the field.
Hardly anything is definitely known as to the origin and early home of
the race, but it appears to have occupied the southern part of its
present territory since the 16th century. According to Hiob Ludolf and
James Bruce, the Galla invaders first crossed the Abyssinian frontiers
in the year 1537. The Galla of Gojam (a district along the northern side
of the river Abai) tell how their savage forefathers came from the
south-east from a country on the other side of a bahr (lake or river),
and the Yejju and Raia Galla also point towards the east and commemorate
the passage of a bahr. Among the southern Galla tradition appears to be
mainly concerned with the expulsion of the race from the country now
occupied by the Somali. Their original home was possibly in the district
east of Victoria Nyanza, for the tribes near Mount Kenya are stated to
go on periodical pilgrimages to the mountain, making offerings to it as
if to their mother. A theory has been advanced that the great exodus
which it seems certain took place among the peoples throughout eastern
Africa during the 15th century was caused by some great eruption of
Kenya and other volcanoes of equatorial Africa. As a geographical term
Galla-land is now used mainly to denote the south-central regions of the
Abyssinian empire, the country in which the Galla are numerically
strongest. There is no sharp dividing line between the territory
occupied respectively by the Galla and by the Somali.
In any case the Galla must be regarded as members of that vast eastern
Hamitic family which includes their neighbours, the Somali, the Afars
(Danakil) and the Abyssinians. As in all the eastern Hamites, there is a
perceptible strain of Negro blood in the Galla, who are, however,
described by Sir Frederick Lugard as "a wonderfully handsome race, with
high foreheads, brown skins, and soft wavy hair quite different from the
wool of the Bantus." As a rule their features are quite European. Their
colour is dark brown, but many of the northern Galla are of a coffee and
milk tint. The finest men are to be found among the Limmu and Gudru on
the river Abai.
The Galla are for the most part still in the nomadic and pastoral
stage, though in Abyssinia they have some agricultural settlements.
Their dwellings, circles of rough stones roofed with grasses, are
generally built under trees. Their wealth consists chiefly in cattle
and horses. Among the southern tribes it is said that about seven or
eight head of cattle are kept for every man, woman and child; and
among the northern tribes, as neither man nor woman ever thinks of
going any distance on foot, the number of horses is very large. The
ordinary food consists of flesh, blood, milk, butter and honey, the
last being considered of so much importance by the southern Galla that
a rude system of bee-keeping is in vogue, and the husband who fails to
furnish his wife with a sufficient supply of honey may be excluded
from all conjugal rights. In the south monogamy is the rule, but in
the north the number of a man's wives is limited only by his wishes
and his wealth. Marriage-forms are numerous, that of bride-capture
being common. Each tribe has its own chief, who enjoys the strange
privilege of being the only merchant for his people, but in all public
concerns must take the advice of the fathers of families assembled in
council. The greater proportion of the tribes are still pagan,
worshipping a supreme god Waka, and the subordinate god and goddess
Oglieh and Atetieh, whose favour is secured by sacrifices of oxen and
sheep. With a strange liberality of sentiment, they say that at a
certain time of the year Waka leaves them and goes to attend to the
wants of their enemies the Somali, whom also he has created. Some
tribes, and notably the Wollo Galla, have been converted to
Mahommedanism and are very bigoted adherents of the Prophet. In the
north, where the Galla are under Abyssinian rule, a kind of
superficial Christianization has taken place, to the extent at least
that the people are familiar with the names of Maremma or Mary,
Balawold or Jesus, Girgis or St George, &c.; but to all practical
intents paganism is still in force. The serpent is a special object of
worship, the northern Galla believing that he is the author of the
human race. There is a belief in were-wolves (_buda_), and the
northern Galla have sorcerers who terrorize the people. Though cruel
in war, all Galla respect their pledged word. They are armed with a
lance, a two-edged knife, and a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide.
A considerable number find employment in the Abyssinian armies.
Among the more important tribes in the south (the name in each
instance being compounded with Galla) are the Ramatta, the Kukatta,
the Baole, the Aurova, the Wadjole, the Ilani, the Arrar and the
Kanigo Galla; the Borani, a very powerful tribe, may be considered to
mark the division between north and south; and in the north we find
the Amoro, the Jarso, the Toolama, the Wollo, the Ambassil, the Aijjo,
and the Azobo Galla.
See C.T. Beke, "On the Origin of the Gallas," in _Trans. of Brit.
Assoc._ (1847); J. Ludwig Krapf, _Travels in Eastern Africa_ (1860);
and _Vocabulary of the Galla Language_ (London, 1842); Arnaud
d'Abbadie, _Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie_ (1868); Ph. Paulitschke,
_Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas_; _Die geistige Kultur der Dan'akil,
Galla u. Somal_ (Berlin, 1896); P.M. de Salviac, _Les Galla_ (Paris,
1901).
GALLATIN, ALBERT (1761-1849), American statesman, was born in Geneva
(Switzerland) on the 29th of January 1761. The Gallatins were both an
old and a noble family. They are first heard of in Savoy in the year
1258, and more than two centuries later they went to Geneva (1510),
united with Calvin in his opposition to Rome, and associated their
fortunes with those of the little Swiss city. Here they remained, and
with one or two other great families governed Geneva, and sent forth
many representatives to seek their fortune and win distinction in the
service of foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers. On the eve
of the French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva, occupying
the same position which they had held for two hundred years. Albert
Gallatin's father died in 1765, his mother five years later, and his
only sister in 1777. Although left an orphan at nine, he was by no means
lonely or unprotected. His grandparents, a large circle of near
relatives and Mlle Catherine Pictet (d. 1795), an intimate friend of his
mother, cared for him during his boyhood. He was thoroughly educated at
the schools of Geneva, and graduated with honour from the college or
academy there in 1779. His grandmother then wished him to enter the army
of the landgrave of Hesse, but he declined to serve "a tyrant," and a
year later slipped away from Geneva and embarked for the United States.
A competent fortune, good prospects, social position, and a strong
family connexion were all thrown aside in order to tempt fate in the New
World. His relatives very properly opposed his course, but they
nevertheless did all in their power to smooth his way, and continued to
treat him kindly. In after life he himself admitted the justice of their
opinions. The temper of the times, a vague discontent with the
established order of things, and some political enthusiasm imbibed from
the writings of Rousseau, are the best reasons which can now be assigned
for Gallatin's desertion of home and friends.
In July 1780 Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 1784) landed in
Massachusetts. They brought with them youth, hope and courage, as well
as a little money, and at once entered into business. The times,
however, were unfavourable. The great convulsion of the Revolution was
drawing to a close, and everything was in an unsettled condition. The
young Genevans failed in business, passed a severe winter in the wilds
of Maine, and returned to Boston penniless. Gallatin tried to earn a
living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not without
success, but the cold and rigid civilization of New England repelled
him, and he made his way to the South. In the backwoods of Pennsylvania
and Virginia there seemed to be better chances for a young adventurer.
Gallatin engaged in land speculations, and tried to lay the foundation
of his fortune in a frontier farm. In 1789 he married Sophie Allegre,
and every prospect seemed to be brightening. But clouds soon gathered
again. After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and Gallatin
was once more alone. The solitary and desolate frontier life became now
more dreary than ever; he flung himself into politics, the only outside
resource open to him, and his long, and eventful public career began.
The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and Gallatin, with
his dislike of strong government still upon him, threw himself into
opposition and became one of the founders of the Anti-Federalist, or, as
it was afterwards called, the Republican party. He was a member of the
Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention of 1789-1790, and of the
Pennsylvania Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and rose with surprising
rapidity, despite his foreign birth and his inability to speak English
with correctness or fluency. He was helped of course by his sound
education; but the true cause of his success lay in his strong sense,
untiring industry, courage, clear-sightedness and great intellectual
force. In 1793 he was chosen United States senator from Pennsylvania by
the votes of both political parties. No higher tribute was ever paid to
character and ability than that conveyed by this election. But the
staunch Federalists of the senate, who had begun to draw the party lines
rather sharply, found the presence of the young Genevan highly
distasteful. They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a
man of levelling principles. His seat was contested on account of a
technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in
February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the session,
the senate annulled the election and sent him back to Pennsylvania with
all the glory of political martyrdom.
The leading part which Gallatin had taken in the "Whisky Insurrection"
in Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt, been an efficient cause in
his rejection by the senate. He intended fully to restrain within legal
bounds the opposition which the excise on domestic spirits had provoked,
but he made the serious mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the
character of the backwoods population. When legal resistance developed
into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his error and
prevent open war. At Redstone Old Fort (Brownsville) on the 29th of
August 1794, before the "Committee of Sixty" who were appointed to
represent the disaffected people, he opposed with vigorous eloquence the
use of force against the government, and refused to be intimidated by an
excited band of riflemen who happened to be in the vicinity and
represented the radical element. He effectively checked the excitement,
and when a month later an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon
the western counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed. Of
all the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin
alone came out with credit. He was at once elected to the national house
of representatives, and took his seat in December 1795. There, by sheer
force of ability and industry, he wrested from all competitors the
leadership of the Republicans, and became the most dangerous opponent
whom the Federalists had ever encountered in congress. Inflamed with a
hatred of France just then rising to the dignity of a party principle,
they found in Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and opinion
peculiarly obnoxious to them. They attacked him unsparingly, but in
vain. His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and
action, in a bitterly personal age, never failed, and were his most
effective weapons; but he made his power felt in other ways. His clear
mind and industrious habits drew him to questions of finance. He became
the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his cardinal doctrines
of simplicity and economy, and was an effective critic of the measures
of government. Cool and temperate, Gallatin, when following his own
theories, was usually in the right, although accused by his followers of
trimming. Thus, in regard to the Jay treaty, he defended the
constitutional right of the house to consider the treaty, but he did not
urge rejection in this specific case. On the other hand, when following
a purely party policy he generally erred. He resisted the navy, the
mainspring of Washington's foreign policy; he opposed commercial
treaties and diplomatic intercourse in a similar fashion. On these
points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed his views after a
good deal of bitter experience.
The greatest period of Gallatin's career in congress was in 1798, after
the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches. The insults of
Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort bribes from the
American commissioners, roused the deep anger of the people against
France. The Federalists swept all before them, and the members of the
opposition either retired from Philadelphia or went over to the
government. Alone and single-handed, Gallatin carried on the fight in
congress. The Federalists bore down on him unmercifully, and even
attempted (1798) a constitutional amendment in regard to citizenship,
partly, it appears, in order to drive him from office. Still he held on,
making a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying very
little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by Jefferson and
Madison. But even then the tide was turning. The strong measures of the
Federalists shocked the country; the leaders of the dominant party
quarrelled fiercely among themselves; and the Republicans carried the
elections of 1800. In the exciting contest for the presidency in the
house of representatives between Jefferson and Burr, it was Gallatin who
led the Republicans.
When, after this contest, Jefferson became president (1801), there were
two men whose commanding abilities marked them for the first places in
the cabinet. James Madison became secretary of state, and Albert
Gallatin secretary of the treasury. Wise, prudent and conservative,
Gallatin made few changes in Hamilton's arrangements, and for twelve
years administered the national finances with the greatest skill. He and
Jefferson were both imbued with the idea that government could be
carried on upon a priori principles resting on the assumed perfectness
of human nature, and the chief burden of carrying out this theory fell
upon Gallatin. His guiding principles were still simplicity of
administration and speedy extinction of all debt, and everything bent to
these objects. Fighting or bribing the Barbary pirates was a mere
question of expense. It was cheaper to seize Louisiana than to await the
settlement of doubtful points. Commercial warfare was to be avoided
because of the cost. All wars were bad, but if they could not be evaded
it was less extravagant to be ready than to rush to arms unprepared.
Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself in the
matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six years the public
debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana purchase) by $14,260,000,
a large surplus was on hand, a comprehensive and beneficent scheme of
internal improvements was ready for execution, and the promised land
seemed in sight. Then came the stress of war in Europe, a wretched
neutrality at home, fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the fair
structure of government by a priori theories based on the goodness of
unoppressed humanity came to the ground. Gallatin was thrown helplessly
back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of government according to
circumstances. He uttered no vain regrets, but the position was a trying
one. The sworn foe of strong government, he was compelled, in pursuance
of Jefferson's policy, to put into execution the Embargo and other
radical and stringent measures. He did his best, but all was in vain.
Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and Jefferson,
having entangled foreign relations and brought the country to the verge
of civil war, retired to private life, leaving to his successor Madison,
and to Gallatin, the task of extricating the nation from its
difficulties. From 1809 the new administration, drifting steadily
towards war, struggled on from one abortive and exasperating negotiation
to another. It was a period of sore trial to Gallatin. The peace policy
had failed, and nothing else replaced it. He had lost his hold upon
Pennsylvania and his support in the house, while a cabal in the senate,
bitterly and personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the
administration and reduced every government measure to mere inanity. At
last, however, in June 1812, congress on Madison's recommendation
declared war against England.
Gallatin never wasted time in futile complaints. His cherished schemes
were shattered. War and extravagant expenditure had come, and he
believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and progress of America. He
therefore put the finances in the best order he could, and set himself
to mitigate the evil effects of the war by obtaining an early peace.
With this end in view he grasped eagerly at the proffered mediation of
Russia, and without resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May
1813.
Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered, catching at
every opportunity for negotiation. In the midst of his labours came the
news that the senate had refused to confirm his appointment as peace
commissioner. He still toiled on unofficially until, the objection of
the senate having been met by the appointment of a new secretary of the
treasury, his second nomination was approved, and he was able to proceed
with direct negotiations. The English and American commissioners finally
met at Ghent, and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued
Gallatin took the leading part. His great difficulty lay in managing his
colleagues, who were, especially Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams, able
men of strong wills and jarring tempers. He succeeded in preserving
harmony, and thus established his own reputation as an able diplomatist.
Peace was his reward; on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was
signed; and after visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood,
and assisting in negotiating a commercial convention (1815) with England
by which all discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July 1815
returned to America.
While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become minister to
France; this appointment he accepted in January 1816, and adhered to his
acceptance in spite of his being asked in April 1816 to serve once more
as secretary of the treasury. He remained in France for the next seven
years. He passed his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing
everybody of note or merit in Europe. He did not neglect the duties of
his official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted
patience to settle the commercial relations of his adopted country with
the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted Richard Rush, then United
States minister in London, in negotiating a commercial convention with
Great Britain to take the place of that negotiated in 1815.
In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found himself
plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress for the
presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal friend William H.
Crawford, whom he regarded as the true heir and representative of the
old Jeffersonian principles. With these feelings he consented in May
1824 to stand for the vice-presidency on the Crawford ticket. But
Gallatin had come home to new scenes and new actors, and he did not
fully appreciate the situation. The contest was bitter, personal,
factious and full of intrigue. Martin Van Buren, then in the Crawford
interest, came to the conclusion that the candidate for the second
place, by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in October
Gallatin retired from the contest. The election, undecided by the
popular vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the choice of
John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from his retirement and
sent him as minister to England to conduct another complicated and
arduous negotiation. Gallatin worked at his new task with his usual
industry, tact and patience, but the results were meagre, although an
open breach on the delicate question of the north-east boundary of the
United States was avoided by referring it to the arbitration of the king
of the Netherlands. In November 1827 he once more returned to the United
States and bade farewell to public life.
Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-1839 president of
the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank) of New York, but his
duties were light, and he devoted himself chiefly to the congenial
pursuits of science and literature. In both fields he displayed much
talent, and by writing his _Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the
United States East of the Rocky Mountains and in the British and Russian
Possessions in North America_ (1836), and by founding the American
Ethnological Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of "Father
of American Ethnology." He continued, of course, to interest himself in
public affairs, although no longer an active participant, and in all
financial questions, especially in regard to the bank charter, the
resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837, he exerted a
powerful influence. The rise of the slavery question touched him nearly.
Gallatin had always been a consistent opponent of slavery; he felt
keenly, therefore, the attempts of the South to extend the slave power
and confirm its existence, and the remnant of his strength was devoted
in his last days to writing and distributing two able pamphlets against
the war with Mexico. Almost his last public act was a speech, on the
24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the annexation of Texas;
and in his eighty-fourth year he confronted a howling New York mob with
the same cool, unflinching courage which he had displayed half a century
before when he faced the armed frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort. During
the winter of 1848-1849 his health failed, and on the 12th of August
1849, at the home of his daughter in Astoria, Long Island, he passed
peacefully away.
Gallatin was twice married. His second wife, whom he married in November
1793, was Miss Hannah Nicholson, of New York, the daughter of Com. James
Nicholson (1737-1804), an American naval officer, commander-in-chief of
the navy from 1777 until August 1781, when with his ship the "Virginia,"
he was taken by the British "Iris" and "General Monk." By her he had
three children, two sons and a daughter, who all survived him. In
personal appearance he was above middle height, with strongly-marked
features, indicating great strength of intellect and character. He was
reserved and very reticent, cold in manner and not sympathetic. There
was, too, a certain Calvinistic austerity about him. But he was much
beloved by his family. He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have
a strong personal following or many attached friends. He stood, with
Jefferson and Madison, at the head of his party, and won his place by
force of character, courage, application and intellectual power. His
eminent and manifold services to his adopted country, his great
abilities and upright character, assure him a high position in the
history of the United States.
_The Writings of Albert Gallatin_, edited by Henry Adams, were
published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879. With these
volumes was published an excellent biography, _The Life of Albert
Gallatin_, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John Austin
Stevens's _Albert Gallatin_ (Boston, 1884) in the "American Statesmen"
series. (H. C. L.)
GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS (1787-1851), American educator of the deaf and
dumb, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of French Huguenot
ancestry, on the 10th of December 1787. He graduated at Yale in 1805,
where he was a tutor from 1808 to 1810. Subsequently he studied theology
at Andover, and was licensed to preach in 1814, but having determined to
abandon the ministry and devote his life to the education of deaf mutes,
he visited Europe in 1815-1816, and studied the methods of the abbe
Sicard in Paris, and of Thomas Braidwood (1715-1806) and his successor
Joseph Watson (1765-1829) in Great Britain. Returning to the United
States in 1816, he established at Hartford, Connecticut, with the aid of
Laurent Clerc (1785-1869), a deaf mute assistant of the abbe Sicard, a
school for deaf mutes, in support of which Congress, largely through the
influence of Henry Clay, made a land grant, and which Gallaudet presided
over with great success until ill-health compelled him to retire in
1830. It was the first institution of the sort in the United States, and
served as a model for institutions which were subsequently established.
He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 5th of September 1851.
There are three accounts of his life, one by Henry Barnard, _Life,
Character and Services of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet_ (Hartford,
1852); another by Herman Humphrey (Hartford, 1858), and a third (and
the best one) by his son Edward Miner Gallaudet (1888).
His son, THOMAS GALLAUDET (1822-1902), after graduating at Trinity
College in 1842, entered the Protestant Episcopal ministry, settled in
New York City, and there in 1852 organized St Anne's Episcopal church,
where he conducted services for deaf mutes. In 1872 he organized and
became general manager of the Church mission to deaf mutes, and in 1885
founded the Gallaudet home for deaf mutes, particularly the aged, at
Wappingers Falls, near Poughkeepsie, New York.
Another son, EDWARD MINER GALLAUDET (b. 1837), was born at Hartford,
Connecticut, on the 3rd of February 1837, and graduated at Trinity
College in 1856. After teaching for a year in the institution for deaf
mutes founded by his father at Hartford, he removed with his mother,
Sophia Fowler Gallaudet (1798-1877), to Washington, D.C., where at the
request of Amos Kendall (1789-1869), its founder, he organized and took
charge of the Columbia Institution for the deaf and dumb, which received
support from the government, and of which he became president. This
institution was the first to furnish actual collegiate education for
deaf mutes (in 1864 it acquired the right to grant degrees), and was
successful from the start. The Gallaudet College (founded in 1864 as the
National Deaf Mute College and renamed in 1893 in honour of Thomas H.
Gallaudet) and the Kendall School are separate departments of this
institution, under independent faculties (each headed by Gallaudet), but
under the management of one board of directors.
GALLE, or POINT DE GALLE, a town and port of Ceylon on the south-west
coast. It was made a municipality in 1865, and divided into the five
districts of the Fort, Callowelle, Galopiadde, Hirimbure and
Cumbalwalla. The fort, which is more than a mile in circumference,
overlooks the whole harbour, but is commanded by a range of hills.
Within its enclosure are not only several government buildings, but an
old church erected by the Dutch East India Company, a mosque, a Wesleyan
chapel, a hospital, and a considerable number of houses occupied by
Europeans. The old Dutch building known as the queen's house, or
governor's residence, which dated from 1687, was in such a dilapidated
state that it was sold by the governor, Sir William Gregory, in 1873.
Elsewhere there are few buildings of individual note, but the general
style of domestic architecture is pleasant and comfortable, though not
pretentious. One of the most delightful features of the place is the
profusion of trees, even within the town, and along the edge of the
shore--suriyas, palms, coco-nut trees and bread-fruit trees. The
ramparts towards the sea furnish fine promenades. In the harbour deep
water is found close to the shore, and the outer roads are spacious; but
the south-west monsoon renders entrance difficult, and not unfrequently
drives vessels from their moorings.
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of a
breakwater at Colombo, leading to the transfer of the mail and most of
the commercial steamers to the capital of the island, seriously
diminished the prosperity of Galle. Although a few steamers still call
to coal and take in some cargo, yet the loss of the Peninsular and
Oriental and other steamer agencies reduced the port to a subordinate
position; nor has the extension of the railway from Colombo, and beyond
Galle to Matara, very much improved matters. The tea-planting industry
has, however, spread to the neighbourhood, and a great deal is done in
digging plumbago and in growing grass for the distillation of citronella
oil. The export trade is chiefly represented by coco-nut oil, plumbago,
coir yarn, fibre, rope and tea. In the import trade cotton goods are the
chief item. Both the export and import trade for the district, however,
now chiefly passes through Colombo. Pop. (1901) 37,165.
Galle is mentioned by none of the Greek or Latin geographers, unless
the identification with Ptolemy's Avium Promontorium or Cape of Birds
be a correct one. It is hardly noticed in the native chronicles before
1267, and Ibn Batuta, in the middle of the 14th century, distinctly
states that Kali--that is, Galle--was a _small_ town. It was not till
the period of Portuguese occupation that it rose to importance. When
the Dutch succeeded the Portuguese they strengthened the
fortifications, which had been vigorously defended against their
admiral, Kosten; and under their rule the place had the rank of a
commandancy. In the marriage treaty of the infanta of Portugal with
Charles II. of England it was agreed that if the Portuguese recovered
Ceylon they were to hand over Galle to the English; but as the
Portuguese did not recover Ceylon the town was left to fall into
English hands at the conquest of the island from the Dutch in 1796.
The name Galle is derived from the Sinhalese _galla_, equivalent to
"rock"; but the Portuguese and Dutch settlers, being better fighters
than philologists, connected it with the Latin _gallus_, a cock, and
the image of a cock was carved as a symbol of the town in the front of
the old government house.
GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE (1810-1895), Italian author and
patriot, born at Parma on the 4th of November 1810, was the eldest son
of a Piedmontese of good family, who served for ten years in the French
army under Massena and Napoleon. He had finished his education at the
university of Parma, when the French Revolution of 1830 caused a ferment
in Italy. He sympathized with the movement, and within a few months was
successively a conspirator, a state prisoner, a combatant and a
fugitive. For the next five years he lived a wandering life in France,
Spain and Africa. In August 1836 he embarked for New York, and three
years later he proceeded to England, where he supported himself as a
translator and teacher of languages. His first book, _Italy; General
Views of its History and Literature_, which appeared in 1841, was well
received, but was not successful financially. On the outbreak of the
Italian revolution in 1848 he at once put himself in communication with
the insurgents. He filled the post of Charge d'Affaires for Piedmont at
Frankfort in 1848-1849, and for the next few years he travelled
incessantly between Italy and England, working for the liberation of his
country. In 1854, through Cavour's influence, he was elected a deputy to
the Italian parliament. He retained his seat until 1864, passing the
summer in England and fulfilling his parliamentary duties at Turin in
the winter. On the outbreak of the Austro-French War of 1859 he
proceeded to Lombardy as war correspondent of _The Times_. The campaign
was so brief that the fighting was over before he arrived, but his
connexion with _The Times_ endured for twenty years. He was a forcible
and picturesque writer, with a command of English remarkable for an
Italian. He materially helped to establish that friendly feeling towards
Italy which became traditional in England. In 1859 Gallenga purchased
the Falls, at Llandogo on the Wye, as a residence, and thither he
retired in 1885. He died at this house on the 17th of December 1895. He
was twice married. Among his chief works are an _Historical Memoir of
Fra Dolcino and his Times_ (1853); a _History of Piedmont_ (3 vols.,
1855; Italian translation, 1856); _Country Life in Piedmont_ (1858);
_The Invasion of Denmark_ (2 vols., 1864); _The Pearl of the Antilles_
[travels in Cuba] (1873); _Italy Revisited_ (2 vols., 1875); _Two Years
of the Eastern Question_ (2 vols., 1877); _The Pope_ [Pius IX.] _and the
King_ [Victor Emmanuel] (2 vols., 1879); _South America_ (1880); _A
Summer Tour in Russia_ (1882); _Iberian Reminiscences_ (2 vols., 1883);
_Episodes of my Second Life_ (1884); _Italy, Present and Future_ (2
vols., 1887). Gallenga's earlier publications appeared under the
pseudonym of Luigi Mariotti.
GALLERY (through Ital. _galleria_, from Med. Lat. _galeria_, of which
the origin is unknown),[1] a covered passage or space outside a main
wall, sometimes used as a verandah if on the ground floor, and as a
balcony if on an upper floor and supported by columns, piers or corbels;
similarly the upper seats in a theatre or a church, on either side as in
many 17th-century churches, or across the west end under the organ. The
word is also used of an internal passage primarily provided to place
various rooms in communication with one another; but if of narrow width
this is usually called a corridor or passage. When of sufficient width
the gallery is utilized to exhibit pictures and other art treasures. In
the 16th century the picture gallery formed the largest room or hall in
English mansions, with wainscoted walls and a richly decorated plaster
ceiling; the principal examples are those of Audley End, Essex (226 ft.
by 34 ft.); Hardwick, Derbyshire (166 ft. by 22 ft.); Hatfield,
Hertfordshire (163 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in.); Aston Hall, near Birmingham
(136 ft. by 18 ft.); Haddon Hall, Derbyshire (116 ft. by 17 ft.); and
Montacute in Somersetshire (189 ft. by 22 ft.). Hence the application of
the term to art museums (the National Gallery, &c.) and also to smaller
rooms with top-light in which temporary exhibitions are held.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Galeria," suggests an origin from
_galera_, a galley, on the analogy of "nave," from _navis_, the
galley being a long and narrow ship; but, he adds, _alii alia
opinantur_.
GALLEY (derived through the O. Fr. _galee_, _galie_, from the Med. Lat.
_galea_, Ital. _galea_, Port. _gale_, of uncertain origin; from the Med.
Lat. variant form _galera_ are derived the Mod. Fr. _galere_, Span. and
Ital. _galera_), a long single or half decked vessel of war, with low
free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps; but also having masts
for sails. The word is used generally of the ancient war vessels of
Greece and Rome of various types, whose chief propelling power was the
oar or sweep, but its more specific application is to the medieval war
vessel which survived in the navies of the Mediterranean sea-powers
after the general adoption of the larger many-decked ship of war,
propelled solely by sail-power. Lepanto (1571) was the last great naval
battle in which the galley played the principal part. The "galleass" or
"galliass" (Med. Lat. _galeasea_, Ital. _galeazza_, an augmented form of
_galea_) was a larger and heavier form of galley; it usually carried
three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated structure. The
"galliot" (O. Fr. _galiot_, Span. and Port. _galeota_, Ital. _galeotta_,
a diminutive of _galea_) was a small light type of galley. The "galleon"
(formerly in English "galloon," Fr. _galion_, derived from the Med. Lat.
_galio_, _galionis_, a derivative of _galea_) was a sailing ship of war
and trade, shorter than the galley and standing high out of the water
with several decks, chiefly used by the Spaniards during the 16th
century in the carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or
sweeps varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the
galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men. This
labour was from the earliest times often performed by slaves or
prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediterranean powers to
sentence condemned criminals to row in the war galleys of the state.
Traces of this in France can be found as early as 1532, but the first
legislative enactment is in the _Ordonnance d'Orleans_ of 1561. In 1564
Charles IX. forbade the sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less
than ten years. The galley-slaves were branded with the letters _Gal._
At the end of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war
purposes had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not
incorporated with the navy till 1748. The headquarters of the galleys
and of the convict rowers (_galeriens_) was at Marseilles. The majority
of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others were sent to
Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work in the arsenal. At
Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on the galleys, which were
moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore prisons were, however, provided
for them, known as _bagnes_, baths, a name given to such penal
establishments first by the Italians (_bagno_), and said to have been
derived from the prison at Constantinople situated close by or attached
to the great baths there. The name _galerien_ was still given to all
convicts, though the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the
French Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed
to _forcat_. In Spain _galera_ is still used for a criminal condemned to
penal servitude.
A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in
Jean Marteilhes's _Memoirs of a Protestant_, translated by Oliver
Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of one
of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict of
Nantes.
GALLIA CISALPINA (Lat. _Cis_, on this side, i.e. of the Alps), in
ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of Liguria and
Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited by various Celtic and
other peoples, of whom the Celts were in continual hostility to Rome. In
early times it was bounded on the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in
Caesar's time by Liguria and the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War
(203 B.C.) these tribes were severely punished by the Roman generals for
the assistance they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district
into two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was made
directly subject to the government at Rome, while the northern portion
was put under a distinct authority, probably similar to the usual
transmarine commands (see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, Eng. trans., bk. iv.
c. 10).
For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the
district see ITALY (ancient), and ROME: _History, Ancient_.
GALLIC ACID, trioxybenzoic acid (HO)3(3.4.5.)C6H2CO2H.H2O, the _acidum
gallicum_ of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K. W. Scheele; it
occurs in the leaves of the bearberry, in pomegranate root-bark, in tea,
in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3%, and in other vegetable
productions. It may be prepared by keeping moist and exposed to the air
for from four to six weeks, at a temperature of 20 deg. to 25 deg. C., a
paste of powdered gall-nuts and water, and removing from time to time
the mould which forms on its surface; the paste is then boiled with
water, the hot solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic
acid drained, and purified by dissolving in boiling water,
recrystallization at about 27 deg. C., and washing of the crystals with
ice-cold water. The production of the acid appears to be due to the
presence in the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained
by boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol and
ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced by heating an
aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with excess of alkaline
carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid with moist silver oxide,
and by other methods. It crystallizes in white or pale fawn-coloured
acicular prisms or silky needles, and is soluble in alcohol and ether,
and in 100 parts of cold and 3 of boiling water; it is without odour and
has an astringent and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200
deg. C., and at 210 deg. to 215 deg. it is resolved into carbon dioxide
and pyrogallol, C6H3(OH)3. With ferric salts its solution gives a deep
blue colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an
insoluble, blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali
metals give with it four series of salts; these are stable except in
alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown. Solution
of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on exposure to the air,
of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid, gallic acid does not
precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids, or, except when mixed
with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver are reduced by it, slowly in
cold, instantaneously in warm solutions, hence its employment in
photography. With phosphorus oxychloride at 120 deg. C. gallic acid
yields tannic acid, and with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100 deg.,
_rufigallic acid_, C14H8O8, an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents,
such as arsenic acid, convert it into _ellagic acid_, C14H8O9 + H2O,
probably a fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts,
in the external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and probably in
many plants, and composes the "bezoar stones" found in the intestines of
Persian wild goats. Medicinally, gallic acid has been, and is still,
largely used as an astringent, styptic and haemostatic. Gallic acid,
however, does not coagulate albumen and therefore possesses no local
astringent action. So far is it from being an haemostatic that, if
perfused through living blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its
rapid neutralization in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any
remote actions.
GALLICANISM, the collective name for various theories maintaining that
the church and king of France had ecclesiastical rights of their own,
independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction of the pope. Gallicanism
had two distinct sides, a constitutional and a dogmatic, though both
were generally held together, the second serving as the logical basis of
the first. And neither is intelligible, except in relation to the rival
theory of Ultramontanism (q.v.). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with
the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that the
church's infallible authority was committed to pope and bishops jointly.
The pope decided in the first instance, but his judgments must be
tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops before they had the force
of law. This ancient theory survived much longer in France than in other
Catholic countries. Hence the name of Gallican is loosely given to all
its modern upholders, whether of French nationality or not.
Constitutional Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state
in France. It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the
theocratic pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as
vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns of
princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they disapproved.
Gallicanism answered that kings held their power directly of God; hence
their temporal concerns lay altogether outside the jurisdiction of the
pope. During the troubles of the Reformation era, when the papal
deposing power threatened to become a reality, the Gallican theory
became of great importance. It was elaborated, and connected with
dogmatic Gallicanism, by the famous theologian, Edmond Richer
(1559-1631), and finally incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration
of the French Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that
the temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2) that a
general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient liberties of the
Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible teaching authority
of the church belongs to pope and bishops jointly. This declaration led
to a violent quarrel with Rome, and was officially withdrawn in 1693,
though its doctrines continued to be largely held. They were asserted in
an extreme form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which
almost severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802 Napoleon
contented himself by embodying Bossuet's declaration textually in a
statute. Long before his time, however, the issue had been narrowed down
to determining exactly how far the pope should be allowed to interfere
in French ecclesiastical affairs. Down to the repeal of the Concordat in
1905 all French governments continued to uphold two of the ancient
"Gallican Liberties." The secular courts took cognizance of
ecclesiastical affairs whenever the law of the land was alleged to have
been broken; and papal bulls were not allowed to be published without
the leave of the state. (See also FEBRONIANISM.) (St. C.)
GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON (1849- ), French soldier and colonial
administrator, was born at Saint-Beat, in the department of
Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military academy
of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the Marines,
becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He saw service in the
Franco-German War, and between 1877 and 1881 took an important part in
the explorations and military expeditions by which the French dominion
was extended in the basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly
valuable service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu,
almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce on the
upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the Societe de
Geographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed in Martinique. On
the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and
on the 20th of December was nominated governor of Upper Senegal. He
obtained several successes against Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory
to agree to a treaty by which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger
(see SENEGAL: _History_). In connexion with his service in West Africa,
Gallieni published two works--_Mission d'exploration du Haut-Niger,
1879-1881_ (Paris, 1885), and _Deux Campagnes au Sudan francais_ (Paris,
1891)--which, besides possessing great narrative interest, give
information of considerable value in regard to the resources and
topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an officer of the
Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of colonel, and from 1893
to 1895 he served in Tongking, commanding the second military division
of the territory. In 1899 he published his experiences in _Trois
Colonnes au Tonkin_. In 1896 Madagascar was made a French colony, and
Gallieni was appointed resident-general (a title changed in 1897 to
governor-general) and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administration
of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out against the
French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni succeeded in completing
the subjugation of the island. He also turned his attention to the
destruction of the political supremacy of the Hovas and the restoration
of the autonomy of the other tribes. The execution of the queen's uncle,
Ratsimamanga, and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior,
in October 1896, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in 1897,
on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up the Hova hegemony, and
made an end of Hova intrigues against French rule. The task of
government was one of considerable difficulty. The application of the
French customs and other like measures, disastrous to British and
American trade, were matters for which Gallieni was not wholly
responsible. His policy was directed to the development of the economic
resources of the island and was conciliatory towards the non-French
European population. He also secured for the Protestants religious
liberty. In 1899 he published a _Rapport d'ensemble sur la situation
generale de Madagascar_. In 1905, when he resigned the governorship,
Madagascar enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In
1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army corps and
military government of Lyons. He reviewed the results of his Madagascar
administration in a book entitled _Neuf Ans a Madagascar_ (Paris, 1908).
GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS, Roman emperor from A.D. 260 to
268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about 218. From 253 to 260 he
reigned conjointly with his father, during which time he gave proof of
military ability and bravery. But when his father was taken prisoner by
Shapur I. of Persia, in 260, Gallienus made no effort to obtain his
release, or to withstand the incursions of the invaders who threatened
the empire from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in
literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up
chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of their
military and provincial commands, which were transferred to equites.
During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful pestilence; and the
chief cities of Greece were sacked by the Goths, who descended on the
Greek coast with a fleet of five hundred. His generals rebelled against
him in almost every province of the empire, and this period of Roman
history came to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless,
these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by maintaining
order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians. Gallienus was killed
at Mediolanum by his own soldiers while besieging Aureolus, who was
proclaimed emperor by the Illyrian legions. His sons Valerianus and
Saloninus predeceased him.
Life by Trebellius Pollio in _Script. Hist. Aug._; on coins see
articles in _Numism. Zeit._ (1908) and _Riv. ital. d. num._ (1908).
GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE, MARQUIS DE, Prince de Martignes
(1830-1909), French general, was born in Paris on the 23rd of January
1830. He entered the army in 1848, was commissioned as sub-lieutenant in
1853, and served with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in
the Italian campaign of 1859, and in Algeria in 1860, after which for a
time he served on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon III. He
displayed great gallantry as a captain at the siege and storm of
Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded. When he
returned to France to recover from his wounds he was entrusted with the
task of presenting the captured standards and colours to the emperor,
and was promoted _chef d'escadrons_. He went again to Algeria in 1864,
took part in expeditions against the Arabs, returned to Mexico as
lieutenant-colonel, and, after winning further distinction, became in
1867 colonel of the 3rd Chasseurs d'Afrique. In the Franco-German War of
1870-71 he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until
promoted to be general of brigade on the 30th of August. At the battle
of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d'Afrique in the heroic charge
of General Margueritte's cavalry division, which extorted the admiration
of the old king of Prussia. Made prisoner of war at the capitulation, he
returned to France during the siege of Paris by the French army of
Versailles, and commanded a brigade against the Communists. In the
suppression of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly,
and on that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout
his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army,
made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the chamber of
deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna subdivision of Algeria,
and commanded an expedition against El Golea, surmounting great
difficulties in a rapid march across the desert, and inflicting severe
chastisement on the revolted tribes. On the general reorganization of
the army he commanded the 31st infantry brigade. Promoted general of
division in 1875, he successively commanded the 15th infantry division
at Dijon, the IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps
at Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Superieur de la
Guerre. He conducted the cavalry manoeuvres in successive years, and
attained a European reputation on all cavalry questions, and, indeed, as
an army commander. Decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of
Honour in 1887, he received the military medal for his able conduct of
the autumn manoeuvres in 1891, and after again commanding at the
manoeuvres of 1894 he retired from the active list. Afterwards he took
an important part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1899
to 29th of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet, and distinguished
himself by the firmness with which he dealt with cases of unrest in the
army, but he then retired into private life, and died on the 8th of July
1909.
GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS (originally LUCIUS ANNAEUS NOVATUS), son of the
rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca
the philosopher, was born at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of
the Christian era. At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallio, a
rhetorician of some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio.
His brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises _De Ira_ and _De
Vita Beata_, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded to by
the poet Statius (_Silvae_, ii. 7, 32). It is probable that he was
banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned together to
Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to Nero. Towards the
close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was proconsul of the newly
constituted senatorial province of Achaea, but seems to have been
compelled by ill-health to resign the post within a few years. During
his tenure of office (in 53) he dismissed the charge brought by the Jews
against the apostle Paul (Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion
("But Gallio cared for none of these things") shows the impartial
attitude of the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days.
He survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death by
order of Nero (in 65) or committed suicide.
Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 73; Dio Cassius lx. 35, lxii. 25; Sir W.M.
Ramsay, _St Paul the Traveller_, pp. 257-261; art. in Hastings' _Dict.
of the Bible_ (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction is given by
Anatole France in _Sur la pierre blanche_.
GALLIPOLI (anc. _Callipolis_), a seaport town and episcopal see of
Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 31 m. S. by W. of it by rail,
46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 10,399; commune, 13,459. It is
situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of Taranto, but is united to the
mainland by a bridge, protected by a castle constructed by Charles I.
of Anjou. The other fortifications have been removed. The handsome
cathedral dates from 1629. The town was once famous for its exports of
olive-oil, which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the
rock. This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine,
however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.
The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its name
("beautiful city") shows. It is hardly mentioned in ancient times. Pliny
tells us that in his time it was known as Anxa. It lay a little off the
road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, but was reached by a branch from
Aletium (the site is marked by the modern church of S. Maria della
Lizza), among the ruins of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no
Latin ones, have been found. (T. As.)
GALLIPOLI (Turk. _Gelibolu_, anc. [Greek: Kallipolis]), a seaport and
city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the
north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula 132 m.
W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in 40 deg. 24' N.
and 26 deg. 40' 30" E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly opposite is
Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is here about 2 m.
wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appearance; its streets are narrow
and dirty, and many of its houses are built of wood, although there are
a few better structures, occupied by the foreign residents and the
richer class of Turkish citizens. The only noteworthy buildings are the
large, crowded and well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are
several mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman and
Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor Justinian
(483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to Bayezid I.
(1389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly called the tombs of
the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built on a cliff, has a fine
appearance as seen from the Dardanelles. Gallipoli is the seat of a
Greek bishop. It has two good harbours, and is the principal station for
the Turkish fleet. From its position as the key of the Dardanelles, it
was occupied by the allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the
isthmus a few miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was
fortified with strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly
on the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifications
were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the Russians threatening
to take possession of Constantinople. The peninsula thus isolated by the
fortified positions has the Gulf of Saros on the N.W., and extends some
50 m. S.W. The guns of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the
strait joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly
fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the
Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.
The district (_sanjak_) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well
adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and comprises
four _kazas_ (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its excellent
cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli, noted for its
cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and canary seed; (3)
Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi (Peristeri) on the coast of the
Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the
neighbourhood formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and
largely exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however,
amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit of the
viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and replanted their
lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture their occupation.
There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli itself,
except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line of railway
between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been prejudicial to the
transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts have been made to
obtain concessions for the construction of a railway that would connect
this port with the Turkish railway system. Steamers to and from
Constantinople call regularly. In 1904 the total value of the exports
was L80,000. Wheat and maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to
Turkish ports on the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great
Britain; canary seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain.
Semolina and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock,
principally sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople
and Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats' skins and sheepskins are also
exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from Italy,
Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from Germany and
Austria. These goods are imported through Constantinople. Cordage is
chiefly obtained from Servia. Other imports are fuel, iron and
groceries.
The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the 5th century B.C. At
an early date it became a Christian bishopric, and in the middle ages
developed into a great commercial city, with a population estimated at
100,000. It was fortified by the East Roman emperors owing to its
commanding strategic position and its valuable trade with Greece and
Italy. In 1190 the armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor
Frederick I. (Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the
capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into
the power of Venice. In 1294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force in
the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus, established
themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their leader massacred
almost all the citizens; they were vainly besieged by the allied troops
of Venice and the Empire, and withdrew in 1307, after dismantling the
fortifications. About the middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded
Europe, and Gallipoli was the first city to fall into their power. The
Venetians under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416.
GALLIPOLIS, a city and the county-seat of Gallia county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890)
4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910) 5560. It is served by the
Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways,
and (at Gallipolis Ferry, West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the
Baltimore & Ohio railway. The city is built on a level site several feet
above the river's high-water mark. It has a United States marine
hospital and a state hospital for epileptics. Among the city's
manufactures are lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The
municipality owns and operates its water-works. Gallipolis was settled
in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received worthless deeds to
lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company, founded by Col. William Duer
(1747-1799) and others in 1787 and officially organized in 1789 as the
Compagnie du Scioto in Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his
associates abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen.
This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for the use of
about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the Scioto, on which the
Ohio Company had secured an option only. The dishonesty of those who
conducted the sales in France, the unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and
the failure of Duer and his associates to meet their contract with the
Ohio Company, caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790,
and two subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about 150,000
acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and in October
1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained for two months at
Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of Gallipolis, where rude huts
had been built for them. This land, however, fell within the limits of
the tract bought outright by the Ohio Company, which sold it to the
Scioto Company, and to which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto
Company to pay. In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United
States, decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the
Ohio Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were legally
vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company sold to the French
settlers for $1.25 an acre the land they occupied and adjacent improved
lots, and the United States government granted to them 24,000 acres in
the southern part of what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this
land (still known as the "French Grant"), however, was ever occupied by
them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was first
chartered as a city in 1865.
See Theodore T. Belote, _The Scioto Speculation and the French
Settlement at Gallipolis_ (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No.
3 of the _University Studies_ of the University of Cincinnati.
GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770-1840), American Roman Catholic
priest, called "The Apostle of the Alleghanies," was born at the Hague
on the 22nd of December 1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (q.v.),
the Russian family from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich
Gallitzin (1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate
friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many years
was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau (1748-1806),
until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the Roman Catholic
church, in which she had been reared. At the age of seventeen he too
became a member of that church. His father had planned for him a
diplomatic or military career, and in 1792 he was aide-de-camp to the
commander of the Austrian troops in Brabant; but, after the
assassination of the king of Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was
dismissed from the service. He then set out to complete his education by
travel, and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland,
where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was ordained priest
in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic priest ordained in
America, and then worked in the mission at Port Tobacco, Maryland,
whence he was soon transferred to the Conewago district. His impulsive
objection to some of Bishop Carroll's instructions was sharply rebuked,
and he was recalled to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown,
Maryland, and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such
misdirected zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved by
his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a settlement
in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and bought up much land
which he gave or sold at low prices to Catholic immigrants, spending
$150,000 or more in the purchase of some 20,000 acres in a spot
singularly ill suited for such an enterprise. In 1808, after his
father's death, he was disinherited by the emperor Alexander I. of
Russia "by reason of your Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical
profession"; and although his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his
half of the valuable estate and sent him money from time to time, after
her death her brother received little or nothing from the estate. The
priest, who after his father's death had in 1809 discarded the name of
Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had taken his
real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was a loan from
Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for the see of
Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection Gallitzin's
"great load of debt rashly, though for excellent and charitable
purposes, contracted." In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested for the bishopric
of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for the proposed see of Pittsburg,
and he refused the bishopric of Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the
settlement he had founded in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840.
Among his parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in
building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania cannot be
estimated; but it is said that at his death there were 10,000 members of
his church in the district where forty years before he had found a scant
dozen. One of the villages he founded bears his name. Among his
controversial pamphlets are: _A Defence of Catholic Principles_ (1816),
_Letter to a Protestant Friend on the Holy Scriptures_ (1820), _Appeal
to the Protestant Public_ (1834), and _Six Letters of Advice_ (1834), in
reply to attacks on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.
See Sarah M. Brownson, _Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest_
(New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A.A. Lambing in
_American Catholic Records_ (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October 1886,
pp. 58-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton in _The
Gallitzin Memorandum Book_, in _American Catholic Historical Society
of Philadelphia, Records_, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq.
GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9), one of the metallic chemical
elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its spectrum, in a specimen
of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran (_Comptes rendus_, 1875, 81, p.
493, and following years). The chief chemical and physical properties of
gallium had been predicted many years before by D. Mendeleeff (c. 1869)
from a consideration of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc
(see ELEMENT). The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only
contains it in very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an
acid, and precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate
is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by
sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally
precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the gallium before
the zinc. This precipitate is converted into gallium sulphate and
finally into a pure specimen of the oxide, from which the metal is
obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline solution. Gallium
crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which melt at 30.15 deg. C. to a
silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but slightly malleable and
flexible, although in thin plates it may be bent several times without
breaking. The specific gravity of the solid form is 5.956 (24.5 deg.
C.), of the liquid 6.069, whilst the specific heats of the two varieties
are, for the solid form 0.079 (12-23 deg. C.) and for the liquid 0.082
(106-119 deg.) [M. Berthelot, _Comptes rendus_, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is
not appreciably volatilized at a red heat. Chlorine acts on it readily
in the cold, bromine not so easily, and iodine only when the mixture is
heated. The atomic weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de
Boisbaudran by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer
and K. Seubert.
_Gallium oxide_ Ga2O3 is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by
solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It
forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids.
On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish mass
which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium forms
colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are
converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are
precipitated by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not
by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium
ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In
neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By
heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the _dichloride_
GaCl2 is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164 deg. C.
and readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride GaCl3
is similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream of
chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of
nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at
75.5 deg. C. and boiling at 215-220 deg. C. The bromide, iodide and
sulphate are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best
detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines
of wave length 4171 and 4031.
GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids, but also
used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four quarts. The word
was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. _galon_, Central Fr. _jalon_, and was
Latinized as _galo_ and _galona_. It appears to be connected with the
modern French _jale_, a bowl, but the ultimate origin is unknown; it has
been referred without much plausibility to Gr. [Greek: gaulos], a milk
pail. The British imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277.274 cub.
in. The old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard
gallon of the United States.
GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803), American lawyer and politician, one of the
most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in West River, Anne Arundel
county, Maryland, in 1731. He early removed to Philadelphia, where he
acquired a high standing as a lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in
1764) he was one of the most influential members of the Pennsylvania
Assembly, over which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with
his friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary
government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a royal charter for
the province. With the approach of the crisis in the relations between
Great Britain and the American colonies he adopted a conservative
course, and, while recognizing the justice of many of the colonial
complaints, discouraged radical action and advocated a compromise. As a
member of the First Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September
1774) a "Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the
Colonies," and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It provided
for a president-general appointed by the crown, who should have supreme
executive authority over all the colonies, and for a grand council,
elected triennially by the several provincial assemblies, and to have
such "rights, liberties and privileges as are held and exercised by and
in the House of Commons of Great Britain"; the president-general and
grand council were to be "an inferior distinct branch of the British
legislature, united and incorporated with it." The assent of the grand
council and of the British parliament was to be "requisite to the
validity of all ... general acts or statutes," except that "in time of
War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared by the grand
council and approved by the president-general, shall be valid and passed
into a law, without the assent of the British parliament." The
individual colonies, however, were to retain control over their strictly
internal affairs. The measure was debated at length, was advocated by
such influential members as John Jay and James Duane of New York and
Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by
the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second election to
Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New Brunswick, New Jersey
(December 1776), advised the British to attack Philadelphia by the
Delaware, and during the British occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778)
was superintendent of the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of
the city. In October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until
his death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803. After
he left America his life was attainted, and his property, valued at
L40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania Assembly, a loss for which
he received a partial recompense in the form of a small parliamentary
pension. He was one of the clearest thinkers and ablest political
writers among the American Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler,
"shared with Thomas Hutchinson the supreme place among American
statesmen opposed to the Revolution."
Among his pamphlets are _A Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of
Great Britain and the Colonies_ (1775); _Historical and Political
Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion_
(1780); _Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of
American Independence_ (1780); and _The Claim of the American
Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of
Law and Justice_ (1788).
See Thomas Balch (Ed.), _The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a
Committee of the House of Commons_ (Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H.
Baldwin, _Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician_ (New Haven, 1903);
and M.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2
vols., New York, 1897).
GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician, was born at
Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February 1796. In 1812 he entered
the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself specially in
mathematics. In 1823 he was appointed one of the teachers of mathematics
at the military college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed
actuary to the Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of
that kind in London; in which situation he remained till his death on
the 1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for the
most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting paper is "On the
Proper Motion of the Solar System," and was published in the _Phil.
Trans._, 1847. He contributed largely to the seventh edition of the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and also wrote several scientific papers for
the _Edinburgh Review_ and various scientific journals. His
_Encyclopaedia_ article, "Probability," was published separately.
See _Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society_ (1852).
GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising the
counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was the _Novantia_ of the
Romans, and till the end of the 12th century included Carrick, now the
southern division of Ayrshire. Though the designation has not been
adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long
established. Thus the Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of
earl of Galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts.
Galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black
hornless cattle. See KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE and WIGTOWNSHIRE.
GALLOWS[1] (a common Teutonic word--cf. Goth. _galga_, O.H. Ger.
_galgo_, Mod. Ger. _Galgen_, A.S. _galzan_, &c.--of uncertain origin),
the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. It usually
consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, but sometimes of a
single upright with a beam projecting from the top. The Roman gallows
was the cross, and in the older translations of the Bible "gallows" was
used for the cross on which Christ suffered (so _galga_ in Ulfilas's
Gothic Testament).[2] Another form of gallows in the middle ages was
that of which the famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type.
This was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected in
each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, into which
the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the weather.
According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop
(introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and
the noose at its end is placed round his neck. He is hanged by the
falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the
spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. In old times
the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in
a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a
ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. Until 1832 malefactors
in England were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by
a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. Death in these cases was by
strangulation. At the present time executions in the United Kingdom are
private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set
apart for the purpose inside the gaol.
The word "gibbet," the Fr. _gibet_, gallows, which appears in the first
instance to have meant a crooked stick,[3] was originally used in
English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. Its later
and more special application, however, was to the upright posts with a
projecting arm on which the bodies of criminals were suspended after
their execution. These gibbets were erected in conspicuous spots, on the
tops of hills (Gallows Hill is still a common name) or near frequented
roads. The bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid
decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the
gruesome custom comes the common use of the word "to gibbet" for any
holding up to public infamy or contempt.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The word "gallows" is the plural of a word (_galwe_, _galowe_,
_gallow_) which, according to the _New English Dictionary_, was
occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th
century onwards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of
"a gallows," and, in the older form, of "a pair of gallows," this
referring probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century
onwards "gallows" has been consistently treated as a singular form, a
new plural, "gallowses," having come into use. "The latter, though
not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to
be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in
commonly evaded" (_New Eng. Dict._ s.v. "Gallows").
[2] In Med. Lat. "gallows" was translated by _furia_ and _patibulum_,
both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument of
punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. _Furia_, in
feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major
jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.
[3] Cf. Wace, _Roman de Rou_, iii. 8349:
"Et il a le gibet saisi
Qui a son destre braz pendi."
GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living
mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous
insects of the genus _Oestrus_. Signor Moriggia[1] has described and
figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of
the human hand, which was caused by _Acarus domesticus_. What are
commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to
the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise "all abnormal vegetable
productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more
particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation."
For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance.
The exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls,
appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus,
secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the
puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of
plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the
cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or
larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the
formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain
relation is necessary between the "stimulus" and the "supporter of the
stimulus," as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of
each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it
must be the quality of the irritant of the tissues, rather than the
specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that
principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics
of the currant-gall of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., which occurs alike
on the leaves and on the flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to
the act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing
it; the bright red galls of the saw-fly _Nematus gallicola_ are found on
four different species of willow, _Salix fragilis_, _S. alba_, _S.
caprea_ and _S. cinerea_;[2] and the galls of a Cynipid, _Biorhiza
aptera_, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been
procured also from the deodar.[3] Often the gall bears no visible
resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly,
however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the
gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less
modified special organs of the plant. The gall of _Cecidomyia
strobilina_, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the
stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, smooth,
seed-shaped gall of the American _Cynips seminator_, Harris, according
to W.F. Bassett,[4] is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly
hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the young oak-leaf. The
moss-like covering of the "bedeguars" of the wild rose, the galls of a
Cynipid, _Rhodites rosae_, represents leaves which have been developed
with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and
the "artichoke-galls" or "oak-strobile," produced by _Aphilothrix
gemmae_, L., which insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists
of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached,
with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall.[5] E. Newman held the view that
many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: "to produce an acorn
has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the
attempt." Their formation from buds which normally would have yielded
leaves and shoots is explained by Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at
fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result
in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise.[6] Galls
vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their
makers. The polythalamous gall of _Aphilothrix radicis_, found on the
roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls
of another Cynipid, _Andricus occultus_, Tschek,[7] which occurs on the
male flowers of _Quercus sessiliflora_, is 2 millimetres, or barely a
line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the
oak-leaf hairy galls of _Spathegaster tricolor_, which are of a crimson
hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. The variety
of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns or cups, others
lenticular. The "knoppern" galls of _Cynips polycera_, Gir., are cones
having the broad, slightly convex upper surface surrounded with a
toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese galls, "some are as symmetrical as a
composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry;
some protected by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of
long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs."[8] The
characters of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic,
even when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American
willow, _Salix humilis_, it is difficult or impossible to tell the
full-grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree of
complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. Some are
monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, whilst
others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. The largest class are
the unilocular, or simple, external galls, divided by Lacaze-Duthiers
into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or
rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common
gall-nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an
epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer,
composing the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a
complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer;
and lastly, within that, an alimentary central mass inhabited by the
growing larva.[9]
Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the Hymenoptera are
the gall-wasps (_Cynips_ and its allies), which infect the various
species of oak. They are small insects, having straight antennae, and a
compressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or second and
third segments greatly developed, and the rest imbricated, and
concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. The transformations from the
larval state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or
perfect insect, tunnels its way,--usually in autumn, though sometimes,
as has been observed of some individuals of _Cynips Kollari_, after
hibernation.
Among the commoner of the galls of the _Cynipidae_ are the "oak-apple"
or "oak-sponge" of _Andricus terminalis_, Fab.; the "currant" or "berry
galls" of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., above mentioned; and the
"oak-spangles" of _Neuroterus lenticularis_,[10] Oliv., generally
reputed to be fungoid growths, until the discovery of their true nature
by Frederick Smith,[11] and the succulent "cherry-galls" of _Dryophanta
scutellaris_, Oliv. The "marble" or "Devonshire woody galls" of
oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are
produced by _Cynips Kollari_,[12] already alluded to. They were first
introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near
Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in
several parts of Scotland.[13] They contain about 17% of tannin.[14] On
account of their regular form they have been used, threaded on wire, for
making ornamental baskets. The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah
galls,[15] produced on a species of oak by _Cynips insana_, Westw., have
been regarded by many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (_mala
insana_), or apples of Sodom (_poma sodomitica_), alluded to by Josephus
and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (_Bibl. Researches
in Palestine_, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular
fruit called by the Arabs _'Osher_, produced by the _Asclepias gigantea_
or _procera_ of botanists. What in California are known as "flea seeds"
are oak-galls made by a species of _Cynips_; in August they become
detached from the leaves that bear them, and are caused to jump by the
spasmodic movements of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.[16]
Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey, or Levant
galls of commerce (Ger. _Gallapfel_, _levantische Gallen_; Fr. _noix de
Galle_), are produced on _Quercus infectoria_, a variety of _Q.
Lusitanica_, Webb, by _Cynips_ (_Diplolepis_, Latr.) _tinctoria_, L., or
_C. gallae tinctoriae_ Oliv. Aleppo galls (_gallae halepenses_) are
brittle, hard, spherical bodies, 2/5-4/5 in. in diameter, ridged and
warty on the upper half, and light brown to dark greyish-yellow within.
What are termed "blue," "black," or "green" galls contain the insect;
the inferior "white" galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so
compact, heavy or astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig.
1.). Less valued are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence
the name "Tarablous galls"). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according
to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of
nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe for
various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on analysis from 26
(H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (see Vinen, _loc. cit._), with
gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre, water, and minute quantities
of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free sugar and, in the cells around the
inner shelly chamber, calcium oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by
Theophrastus, Dioscorides (i. 146), and other ancient writers, including
Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be
produced "in a single night." Their insect origin appears to have been
entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times, though
Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is produced in
certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes oak-apples as "an
exudation of plants joined with putrefaction." Pomet[17] thought that
gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a similar opinion obtains among
the modern Chinese, who apply to them the term _Mu-shih-tsze_, or
"fruits for the foodless."[18] Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for
their astringent properties, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 5) recommends
them as a remedy in affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the
mouth and some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts are
used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments _unguentum
gallae_ and _unguentum gallae cum opio_, and of the tinctura gallae, and
also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid (q.v.). They have from
very early times been resorted to as a means of staining the hair of a
dark colour, and they are the base of the tattooing dye of the Somali
women.[19]
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_a_, Aleppo "blue" gall; _b_, ditto in section,
showing central cavity for grub; _c_, Aleppo "white" gall, perforated by
insect; _d_, the same in section (natural size).]
The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the _Cynipidae_ proper,
certain species of the genus _Eurytoma_ (_Isosoma_, Walsh) and family
_Chalcididae_, e.g. _E. hordei_, the "joint-worm" of the United States,
which produces galls on the stalks of wheat;[20] also various members of
the family _Tenthredinidae_, or saw-flies. The larvae of the latter
usually vacate their galls, to spin their cocoons in the earth, or, as
in the case of _Athalia abdominalis_, Klg., of the clematis, may emerge
from their shelter to feed for some days on the leaves of the
gall-bearing plant.
The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-gnats
(_Cecidomyidae_), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies usually
covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the back. Some of
them build cocoons within their galls, others descend to the ground or
become pupae. The true willow-galls are the work either of these or of
saw-flies. Their galls are to be met with on a great variety of plants
of widely distinct genera, e.g. the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak,[21]
grape-vine,[22] alder, gooseberry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle,
fennel, meadowsweet,[23] common cabbage and cereals. In the northern
United States, in May, "legions of these delicate minute flies fill the
air at twilight, hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong
north-west wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the
farmer."[24] Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family
_Trypetidae_, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the
family _Mycetophilidae_, such as the species _Sciara tilicola_,[25] Low,
the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of the young
shoots and leaves of the lime.
Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects of the
families _Tingidae_, _Psyllidae_, _Coccidae_ and _Aphidae_. _Coccus
pinicorticis_ causes the growth of patches of white flocculent and downy
matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the white pine in
America.[26] The galls of examples of the last family are common objects
on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of the poplar. An American Aphid of
the genus _Pemphigus_ produces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped
excrescences on the young branches of the hickory.
The Chinese galls of commerce (_Woo-pei-tsze_) are stated to be
produced by _Aphis Chinensis_, Bell, on _Rhus semialata_, Murr. (_R.
Bucki-amela_, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N. India,
China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly pyriform,
tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered externally
with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like matter, and
insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect takes place on
the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, probably when,
after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for several generations,
male winged insects are developed. The galls are gathered before the
frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill the insects.[27]
Chinese galls examined by Viedt[28] yielded 72% of tannin, and less
mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls are
produced by Aphides on species of _Pistacia_.
M.J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the
Aphis of Pistachio galls, _Anopleura lentisci_, is hatched an apterous
insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young Aphides
(emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots
of certain grasses (_Bromus sterilis_ and _Hordeum vulgare_), and by
budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous
insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). These
last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and on it deposit
their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals,
the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders,
thus recommencing the biological cycle (see _Compt. rend._, Nov. 18,
1878, p. 782, quoted in _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._, 1879, p. 174).
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_a_, Chinese gall (abt. 1/2 natural size); _b_,
ditto broken, showing thin-walled cavity; _c_, Japanese gall (natural
size).]
Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers there are,
among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-weevils), and species
of the exotic _Sagridae_ and _Lamiadae_ and an American beetle,
_Saperda inornata_ (_Cerambycidae_), which forms the pseudo-galls of
_Salix longifolia_ and _Populus angulata_, or cottonwood. Among the
Lepidoptera are gall-forming species belonging to the _Tineidae_,
_Aegeriidae_, _Tortricidae_ and _Pterophoridae_. The larva of a New
Zealand moth, _Morova subfasciata_, Walk. (_Cacoecia gallicolens_), of
the family _Drepanulidae_, causes the stem of a creeping plant, on the
pith of which it apparently subsists, to swell up into a fusiform
gall.[29]
Mite-galls, or _acarocecidia_, are abnormal growths of the leaves of
plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus _Phytoptus_
(gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of thickened
portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on the upper surface,
so that the lower is drawn up into the interior, producing a bursiform
cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore, pear, plum, ash, alder, vine,
mulberry and many other plants; and formerly, e.g. the gall known as
_Erineum quercinum_, on the leaves of _Quercus Cerris_, were taken for
cryptogamic structures. The lime-leaf "nail-galls" of _Phytoptus tiliae_
closely resemble the "trumpet-galls" formed on American vines by a
species of _Cecidomyia_.[30] Certain minute Nematoid worms, as
_Anguillula scandens_, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise
to galls.
Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls usually
contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are termed guest-flies
or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of _Cynips_ and its allies are inhabited
by members of other cynipideous genera, as _Synergus_, _Amblynotus_ and
_Synophrus_; and the pine-cone-like gall of _Salix strobiloides_, as
Walsh has shown,[30] is made by a large species of _Cecidomyia_, which
inhabits the heart of the mass, the numerous smaller cecidomyidous
larvae in its outer part being mere inquilines. In many instances the
lodgers are not of the same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some
saw-flies, for example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and
some gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford
harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the
case of the Curculio beetle _Conotrachelius nenuphar_, Hbst., of which
one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and another lives
in the "black knot" of the plum-tree, regarded by Walsh as probably a
true cecidomyidous gall. The same authority (_loc. cit._ p. 550)
mentions a willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with
food and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so
that altogether some twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are
dependent for their existence on what to the common observer appears to
be nothing but "an unmeaning mass of leaves." Among the numerous insects
parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are hymenopterous flies of the
family _Proctotrypidae_, and of the family _Chalcididae_, e.g.
_Callimome regius_, the larva of which preys on the larvae of both
_Cynips glutinosa_ and its lodger _Synergus facialis_. The oak-apple
often contains the larvae of _Braconidae_ and _Ichneumonidae_, which Von
Schlechtendal (_loc. sup. cit._ p. 33) considers to be parasites not on
the owner of the gall, _Andricus terminalis_, but on inquilinous
_Tortricidae_. Birds are to be included among the enemies of
gall-insects. Oak-galls, for example, are broken open by the titmouse in
order to obtain the grub within, and the "button-galls" of _Neuroterus
numismatis_, Oliv., are eaten by pheasants.
A great variety of deformations and growths produced by insects and
mites as well as by fungi have been described. They are in some cases
very slight, and in others form remarkably large and definite
structures. The whole are now included under the term Cecidia; a prefix
gives the name of the organism to which the attacks are due, e.g.
Phytoptocecidia are the galls formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls
are those that arise when only one member of a plant is involved;
compound galls are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most
remarkable galls recently discovered we may mention those found on
Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia. They are
remarkable for their variety, and are due to small scale-insects of the
peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As regards the mode of production of
galls, the most important distinction is between galls that result from
the introduction of an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the
plant, and those that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in
the latter case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to
enclose its producers. The form and nature of the gall are the result of
the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been known, and
is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be produced when the
tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or prior to, the actual
development of the tissue. Little more than this is known. The power
that gall-producers possess of influencing by direct interference the
growth of the cells of the plant that affords them the means of
subsistence is an art that appears to be widely spread among animals,
but is at the same time one of which we have little knowledge. The views
of Adler as to the alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies
have been fully confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct
observation that the galls and the insects produced from them in one
generation are entirely different from the next generation; and it has
also been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate
generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is supposed
that these remarkable phenomena have gradually been evoked by difference
in the nutrition of the alternating generations. When two different
generations are produced in one year on the same kind of tree it is
clear the properties of the sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse
so that the two generations are adapted to different conditions. In some
cases the alternating generations are produced on different species of
trees, and even on different parts of the two species.
On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further--J.T.C.
Ratzeburg, _Die Forst-Insecten_, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844);
T.W. Harris, _Insects injurious to Vegetation_ (Boston, U.S., 2nd ed.,
1852); C.L. Koch, _Die Pflanzenlause Aphiden_ (Nuremberg, 1854); T.
Hartig, _Die Familien der Blattwespen und Holzwespen_ (Berlin, 1860);
Walsh, "On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and Dipterous,
inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow," _Proc. Ent. Soc.
Philadelphia_, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867), pp.
223-288; T.A. Marshall, "On some British Cynipidae," _Ent. Month.
Mag._ iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; H.W. Kidd and Albert Muller, "A List of
Gall-bearing British Plants," _ib._ v. pp. 118 and 216; G.L. Mayr,
_Die mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen in Wort und Bild_ (Vienna,
1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in the
_Entomologist_, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, "Die
Einmiethler der mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen," _Verhandl. d.
zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxii. pp. 669-726; and "Die europaischen
Torymiden," _ib._ xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in _Cistula
entomologica_, i., London, 1869-1876); F. Low, "Beitrage zur Kenntnis
der Gallmucken," _ib._ pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.E. von Bergenstamm
and P. Low, "Synopsis Cecidomyidarum," _ib._ xxvi. pp. 1-104; Perris,
_Ann. Soc. Entom. de France_, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; R.
Osten-Sacken, "On the North American Cecidomyidae," _Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; E.L. Taschenberg,
_Entomologie fur Gartner und Gartenfreunde_ (Leipzig, 1871); J.W.H.
Traill, "Scottish Galls," _Scottish Naturalist_, i. (1871), pp. 123,
&c.; Albert Muller, "British Gall Insects," _The Entomologist's Annual
for 1872_, pp. 1-22; B. Altum, _Forstzoologie_, iii. "Insecten," pp.
250 seq. (Berlin, 1874); J.H. Kaltenbach, _Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der
Classe der Insecten_ (Stuttgart, 1874); A. d'Arbois de Jubainville and
J. Vesque, _Les Maladies des plantes cultivees_, pp. 98-105 (Paris,
1878). (F. H. B.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Quoted in _Zoological Record_, iv. (1867), p. 192.
[2] P. Cameron, _Scottish Naturalist_, ii. pp. 11-15.
[3] _Entomologist_, vii. p. 47.
[4] See in _Proc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873_, p. xvi.
[5] See A. Muller, _Gardener's Chronicle_ (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518;
and E.A. Fitch, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 129.
[6] _Entomologist_, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340.
[7] _Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxi. p. 799.
[8] Darwin, _Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication_,
ii. p. 282.
[9] "Recherches pour servir a l'histoire des galles," _Ann. des sci.
nat._ xix. pp. 293 sqq.
[10] According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place
between _N. lenticularis_ and _Spathegaster baccarum_ (see E.A.
Ormerod, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 34).
[11] See Westwood, _Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects_, ii.
(1840) p. 130.
[12] For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see
_Entomologist_, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.
[13] _Scottish Naturalist_, i. (1871) p. 116, &c.
[14] Vinen, _Journ. de pharm. et de chim._ xxx. (1856) p. 290;
"English Ink-Galls," _Pharm. Journ._ 2nd ser. iv. p. 520.
[15] See Pereira, _Materia Medica_, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; _Pharm.
Journ._ 1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.
[16] See R.H. Stretch and C.D. Gibbes, _Proc. California Acad. of
Sciences_, iv. pp. 265 and 266.
[17] _A Complete History of Drugs_ (translation), p. 169 (London,
1748).
[18] F. Porter Smith, _Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of
China_, p. 100 (1871).
[19] R.F. Burton, _First Footsteps in E. Africa_, p. 178 (1856).
[20] A.S. Packard, jun., _Guide to the Study of Insects_, p. 205
(Salem, 1870).
[21] On the Cecidomyids of _Quercus Cerris_, see Fitch,
_Entomologist_, xi. p. 14.
[22] See, on _Cecidomyia oenephila_, Von Haimhoffen, _Verhandl. d.
zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxv. pp. 801-810.
[23] See _Entomologist's Month. Mag._ iv. (1868) p. 233; and for
figure and description, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 13.
[24] A.S. Packard, jun., _Our Common Insects_, p. 203 (Salem, U.S.
1873). On the Hessian fly, _Cecidomyia destructor_, Say, the May
brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of
barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch, _The Hessian Fly_ (Albany,
1847), reprinted from _Trans. New York State Agric. Soc._ vol. vi.
[25] J. Winnertz, _Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen_, p.
164 (Vienna, 1867).
[26] Asa Fitch, _First and Second Rep. on the Noxious ... Insects of
the State of New York_, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).
[27] See E. Doubleday, _Pharm. Journ._ 1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and
Pereira, _ib._ vol. iii. p. 377.
[28] _Dingler's Polyt. Journ._ ccxvi. p. 453.
[29] For figure and description see _Zoology of the "Erebus" and
"Terror,"_ ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875).
[30] On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Low, "Beitrage zur
Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (_Phytoptus_, Duj.)," _Verhandl. d.
zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and
"Uber Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend," _ib._ pp.
495-508; Andrew Murray, _Economic Entomology, Aptera_, pp. 331-374
(1876); and F.A.W. Thomas, _Altere und neue Beobachtungen uber
Phytopto-Cecidien_ (Halle, 1877).
GALLUPPI, PASQUALE (1770-1846), Italian philosopher, was born on the 2nd
of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He was of good family, and after
studying at the university of Naples he entered the public service, and
was for many years employed in the office of the administration of
finances. At the age of sixty, having become widely known by his
writings on philosophy, he was called to the chair of logic and
metaphysics in the university of Naples, which he held till his death in
November 1846. His most important works are: _Lettere filosofiche_
(1827), in which he traces his philosophical development; _Elementi di
filosofia_ (1832); _Saggio filosofico sulla critica della conoscenza_
(1819-1832); _Sull' analisi e sulla sintesi_ (1807); _Lezioni di logica
e di metafisica_ (1832-1836); _Filosofia della volonta_ (1832-1842,
incomplete); _Storia della filosofia_ (i., 1842); _Considerazioni
filosofiche sull' idealismo trascendentale_ (1841), a memoir on the
system of Fichte.
On his philosophical views see L. Ferri, _Essai sur l'histoire de la
philosophie en Italie au XIX^e siecle_, i. (1869); V. Botta in
Ueberweg's _Hist. of Philosophy_, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti,
"Philosophy in Italy," in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci, _Pasquale
Galluppi. Studio critico_ (Florence, 1890).
GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.), Roman poet, orator and politician,
was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (_Frejus_) in Gaul. At an
early age he removed to Rome, where he was taught by the same master as
Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil, who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.)
to him, was in great measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the
restoration of his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause
of Octavianus, and as a reward for his services was made praefect of
Egypt (Suetonius, _Augustus_, 66). His conduct in this position
afterwards brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having been
deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he put an end to
his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a high reputation among
his contemporaries as a man of intellect, and Ovid (_Tristia_, iv. 10)
considered him the first of the elegiac poets of Rome. He wrote four
books of elegies chiefly on his mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for
Cytheris, a notorious actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion
of Chalcis (q.v.); he also translated some of this author's works into
Latin. Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems
attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590 and printed
in A. Riese's _Anthologia Latina_, 1869) are generally regarded as a
forgery.
See C. Volker, _De C. Galli vita et scriptis_ (1840-1844); A. Nicolas,
_De la vie et des ouvrages de C. Gallus_ (1851), an exhaustive
monograph. An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the
Egyptian exploits; see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen
Litteratur_, and Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909).
GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS, praefect of Egypt 26-24 B.C. By order of Augustus
he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix, with disastrous results. The
troops suffered greatly from disease, heat, want of water and the
obstinate resistance of the inhabitants. The treachery of a foreign
guide also added to his difficulties. After six months Gallus was
obliged to return to Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his
force. He was a friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of
the expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29; Pliny,
_Nat. Hist._ vi. 32; C. Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the
Empire_, ch. 34; H. Kruger, _Der Feldzug des A. G. nach dem glucklichen
Arabien_, 1862). He has been identified with the Aelius Gallus
frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies are stated to have been used
with success in an Arabian expedition.
GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS, governor of Syria during the reign of Nero. When
the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the outrages of the Roman
procurators, had seized the fortress of Masada and treacherously
murdered the garrison of the palace of Herod, Gallus set out from
Antioch to restore order. On the 17th of November A.D. 66 he arrived
before Jerusalem. Having gained possession of the northern suburb, he
attacked the temple mount; but, after five days' fighting, just when
(according to Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably
withdrew his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by the
Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in making good his
escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater part of his army and a
large amount of war material. Soon after his return Gallus died (before
the spring of 67), and was succeeded in the governorship by Licinius
Mucianus, the prosecution of the war being entrusted to Vespasian.
See Tacitus, _Hist._ v. 10, 13; Suetonius, _Vespasian_, 4; Josephus,
_Bell. Jud._ ii. 14-20; E. Schurer, _Hist. of the Jewish People_, div.
i. vol. ii. p. 212 (Eng. tr., 1890).
GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general, statesman and orator. Under
Lucius Aemilius Paulus, his intimate friend, he commanded the 2nd legion
in the campaign against Perseus, king of Macedonia, and gained great
reputation for having predicted an eclipse of the moon on the night
before the battle of Pydna (168 B.C.). On his return from Macedonia he
was elected consul (166), and in the same year reduced the Ligurians to
submission. In 164 he was sent as ambassador to Greece and Asia, where
he held a meeting at Sardis to investigate the charges brought against
Eumenes of Pergamum by the representatives of various cities of Asia
Minor. Gallus was a man of great learning, an excellent Greek scholar,
and in his later years devoted himself to the study of astronomy, on
which subject he is quoted as an authority by Pliny.
See Livy xliv. 37, _Epit_. 46; Polybius xxxi. 9, 10; Cicero, _Brutus_,
20, _De officiis_, i. 6, _De senectute_, 14; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii.
9.
GALOIS, EVARISTE (1811-1832), French mathematician, was born on the 25th
of October 1811, and killed in a duel on the 31st of May 1832. An
obituary notice by his friend Auguste Chevalier appeared in the _Revue
encyclopedique_ (1832); and his collected works are published, _Journal
de Liouville_ (1846), pp. 381-444, about fifty of these pages being
occupied by researches on the resolubility of algebraic equations by
radicals. This branch of algebra he notably enriched, and to him is also
due the notion of a group of substitutions (see EQUATION: _Theory of
Equations_; also GROUPS, THEORY OF).
His collected works, with an introduction by C.F. Picard, were
published in 1897 at Paris.
GALSTON, a police burgh and manufacturing town of Ayrshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 4876. It is situated on the Irvine, 5 m. E. by S. of
Kilmarnock, with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. The
manufactures include blankets, lace, muslin, hosiery and
paper-millboard, and coal is worked in the vicinity. About 1 m. to the
north, amid the "bonnie woods and braes," is Loudoun Castle, a seat of
the earl of Loudoun.
GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH (1817-1893), Canadian statesman, was the
youngest son of John Galt the author. Born in London on the 6th of
September 1817, he emigrated to Canada in 1835, and settled in
Sherbrooke, in the province of Quebec, where he entered the service of
the British American Land Company, of which he rose to be chief
commissioner. Later he was one of the contractors for extending the
Grand Trunk railway westward from Toronto. He entered public life in
1849 as Liberal member for the county of Sherbrooke, but opposed the
chief measure of his party, the Rebellion Losses Bill, and in the same
year signed a manifesto in favour of union with the United States,
believing that in no other way could Protestant and Anglo-Saxon
ascendancy over the Roman Catholic French majority in his native
province be maintained. In the same year he retired from parliament but
re-entered it in 1853, and was till 1872 the chief representative of the
English-speaking Protestants of Quebec province. On the fall of the
Brown-Dorion administration in 1858 he was called on to form a ministry,
but declined the task, and became finance minister under Sir John
Macdonald and Sir George Cartier on condition that the federation of the
British North American provinces should become a part of their
programme. From 1858 to 1862 and 1864 to 1867 he was finance minister,
and did much to reduce the somewhat chaotic finances of Canada into
order. To him are due the introduction of the decimal system of currency
and the adoption of a system of protection to Canadian manufactures. To
his diplomacy was due the coalition in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown and
Cartier, which carried the federation of the British North American
provinces, and throughout the three years of negotiation which followed
his was one of the chief influences. He became finance minister in the
first Dominion ministry, but suddenly and mysteriously resigned on the
4th of November 1867. After his retirement he gave to the administration
of Sir John Macdonald a support which grew more and more fitful, and
advocated independence as the final destiny of Canada. In 1871 he was
again offered the ministry of finance on condition of abandoning these
views, but declined. In 1877 he was the Canadian nominee on the
Anglo-American fisheries commission at Halifax, and rendered brilliant
service. In 1880 he was appointed Canadian high commissioner to Great
Britain, but retired in 1883 in favour of Sir Charles Tupper. During
this period he advocated imperial federation. He was Canadian delegate
at the Paris Monetary Conference of 1881, and to the International
Exhibition of Fisheries in 1883. From this date till his death on the
19th of September 1893 he lived in retirement. No Canadian statesman
has had sounder or more abundant ideas, but a certain intellectual
fickleness made him always a somewhat untrustworthy colleague in
political life. (W. L. G.)
GALT, JOHN (1779-1839), Scottish novelist, was born at Irvine, Ayrshire,
on the 2nd of May 1779. He received his early education at Irvine and
Greenock, and read largely from one of the public libraries while
serving as a clerk in a mercantile office. In 1804 he went to settle in
London, where he published anonymously a poem on the _Battle of Largs_.
After unsuccessful attempts to succeed in business Galt entered at
Lincoln's Inn, but was never called to the bar. He obtained a commission
from a British firm to go abroad to find out whether the Berlin and
Milan decrees could be evaded. He met Byron and Sir John Hobhouse at
Gibraltar, travelled with Byron to Malta, and met him again at Athens.
He was afterwards employed by the Glasgow merchant Kirkman Finlay on
similar business at Gibraltar, and in 1814 visited France and Holland.
His early works are the _Life and Administration of Wolsey_, _Voyages
and Travels_, _Letters from the Levant_, the _Life of Benjamin West_,
_Historical Pictures_ and _The Wandering Jew_; and he induced Colburn to
publish a periodical containing dramatic pieces rejected by London
managers. These were afterwards edited by Galt as the _New British
Theatre_, which included some plays of his own. He first showed his real
power as a writer of fiction in _The Ayrshire Legatees_, which appeared
in _Blackwood's Magazine_ in 1820. This was followed in 1821 by his
masterpiece--_The Annals of the Parish_; and, at short intervals, _Sir
Andrew Wylie_, _The Entail_, _The Steam-Boat_ and _The Provost_ were
published. These humorous studies of Scottish character are all in his
happiest manner. His next works were _Ringan Gilhaize_ (1823), a story
of the Covenanters; _The Spaewife_ (1823), which relates to the times of
James I. of Scotland; _Rothelan_ (1824), a novel founded on the reign of
Edward III.; _The Omen_ (1825), which was favourably criticized by Sir
Walter Scott; and _The Last of the Lairds_, another picture of Scottish
life.
In 1826 he went to America as secretary to the Canada Land Company. He
carried out extensive schemes of colonization, and opened up a road
through what was then forest country between Lakes Huron and Erie. In
1827 he founded Guelph in upper Canada, passing on his way the township
of Galt on the Grand river, named after him by the Hon. William Dixon.
But all this work proved financially unprofitable to Galt. In 1829 he
returned to England commercially a ruined man, and devoted himself with
great ardour to literary pursuits, of which the first fruit was _Lawrie
Todd_--one of his best novels. Then came _Southennan_, a tale of
Scottish life in the times of Queen Mary. In 1830 he was appointed
editor of the _Courier_ newspaper--a post he soon relinquished. His
untiring industry was seen in the publication, in rapid succession, of a
_Life of Byron_, _Lives of the Players_, _Bogle Corbet_, _Stanley
Buxton_, _The Member_, _The Radical_, _Eben Erskine_, _The Stolen
Child_, his _Autobiography_, and a collection of tales entitled _Stories
of the Study_. In 1834 appeared his _Literary Life and Miscellanies_,
dedicated by permission to William IV., who sent the author a present of
L200. As soon as this work was published Galt retired to Greenock, where
he continued his literary labours till his death on the 11th of April
1839.
Galt, like almost all voluminous writers, was exceedingly unequal. His
masterpieces are _The Ayrshire Legatees_, _The Annals of the Parish_,
_Sir Andrew Wylie_, _The Entail_, _The Provost_ and _Lawrie Todd_. _The
Ayrshire Legatees_ gives, in the form of a number of exceedingly
diverting letters, the adventures of the Rev. Dr Pringle and his family
in London. The letters are made the excuse for endless tea-parties and
meetings of kirk-session in the rural parish of Garnock. _The Annals of
the Parish_ are told by the Rev. Micah Balwhidder, Galt's finest
character. This work (which, be it remembered, existed in MS. before
_Waverley_ was published) is a splendid picture of the old-fashioned
Scottish pastor and the life of a country parish; and, in rich humour,
genuine pathos and truth to nature it is unsurpassed even by Scott. It
is a fine specimen of the homely graces of the Scottish dialect, and
preserves much vigorous Doric phraseology fast passing out of use even
in country districts. In this novel Mr Galt used, for the first time,
the term "Utilitarian," which afterwards became so intimately associated
with the doctrines of John Stuart Mill and Bentham (see _Annals of the
Parish_, chap. xxxv., and a note by Mill in _Utilitarianism_, chap.
ii.). In _Sir Andrew Wylie_ the hero entered London as a poor lad, but
achieved remarkable success by his shrewd business qualities. The
character is somewhat exaggerated, but excessively amusing. _The Entail_
was read thrice by Byron and Scott, and is the best of Galt's longer
novels. Leddy Grippy is a wonderful creation, and was considered by
Byron equal to any female character in literature since Shakespeare's
time. _The Provost_, in which Provost Pawkie tells his own story,
portrays inimitably the jobbery, bickerings and self-seeking of
municipal dignitaries in a quaint Scottish burgh. In _Lawrie Todd_ Galt,
by giving us the Scot in America, accomplished a feat which Sir Walter
never attempted. This novel exhibits more variety of style and a greater
love of nature than his other books. The life of a settler is depicted
with unerring pencil, and with an enthusiasm and imaginative power much
more poetical than any of the author's professed poems.
The best of Galt's novels were reprinted in Blackwood's _Standard
Novels_, to volume i. of which his friend Dr Moir prefixed a memoir.
GALT, a town in Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada, 23 m. N.N.W. of
Hamilton, on the Grand river and on the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific
railways. Pop. (1881) 5187; (1901) 7866. It is named after John Galt,
the author. It has excellent water privileges which furnish power for
flour-mills and for manufactures of edge tools, castings, machinery,
paper and other industries.
GALTON, SIR FRANCIS (1822- ), English anthropologist, son of S.T.
Galton, of Duddeston, Warwickshire, was born on the 16th of February
1822. His grandfather was the poet-naturalist Erasmus Darwin, and
Charles Darwin was his cousin. After attending King Edward VI.'s grammar
school, Birmingham, he studied at Birmingham hospital, and afterwards at
King's College, London, with the intention of making medicine his
profession; but after taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge,
in 1843 he changed his mind. The years 1845-1846 he spent in travelling
in the Sudan, and in 1850 he made an exploration, with Dr John Anderson,
of Damaraland and the Ovampo country in south-west Africa, starting from
Walfisch Bay. These tracts had practically never been traversed before,
and on the appearance of the published account of his journey and
experiences under the title of _Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical
South Africa_ (1853) Galton was awarded the gold medal of the Royal
Geographical Society. His _Art of Travel; or, Shifts and Contrivances in
Wild Countries_ was first published in 1855. In 1860 he visited the
north of Spain, and published the fruits of his observations of the
country and the people in the first of a series of volumes, which he
edited, entitled _Vacation Tourists_. He then turned to meteorology, the
result of his investigations appearing in _Meteorographica_, published
in 1863. This work was the first serious attempt to chart the weather on
an extensive scale, and in it also the author first established the
existence and theory of anti-cyclones. Galton was a member of the
meteorological committee (1868), and of the Meteorological Council which
succeeded it, for over thirty years. But his name is most closely
associated with studies in anthropology and especially in heredity. In
1869 appeared his _Hereditary Genius, its Laws and Consequences_, a work
which excited much interest in scientific and medical circles. This was
followed by _English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture_,
published in 1874; _Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development_,
issued in 1883; _Life-History Album_ (1884); _Record of Family
Faculties_ (1884) (tabular forms and directions for entering data, with
a preface); and _Natural Inheritance_ (1889). The idea that systematic
efforts should be made to improve the breed of mankind by checking the
birth-rate of the unfit and furthering the productivity of the fit was
first put forward by him In 1865; he mooted it again in 1884, using the
term "eugenics" for the first time in _Human Faculty_, and in 1904 he
endowed a research fellowship in the university of London for the
promotion of knowledge of that subject, which was defined as "the study
of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial
qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally." Galton
was the author of memoirs on various anthropometric subjects; he
originated the process of composite portraiture, and paid much attention
to finger-prints and their employment for the identification of
criminals, his publications on this subject including _Finger Prints_
(1892), _Decipherment of Blurred Finger Prints_ (1893) and _Finger Print
Directories_ (1895). From the Royal Society, of which he was elected a
fellow in 1860, he received a royal medal in 1886 and the Darwin medal
in 1902, and honorary degrees were bestowed on him by Oxford (1894) and
Cambridge (1895). In 1908 he published _Memories of My Life_, and in
1909 he received a knighthood.
GALUPPI, BALDASSARE (1706-1785), Italian musical composer, was born on
the 18th of October 1706 on the island of Burano near Venice, from which
he was often known by the nickname of Buranello. His father, a barber,
and violinist at the local theatre, was his first teacher. His first
opera, composed at the age of sixteen, being hissed off the stage, he
determined to study seriously, and entered the Conservatorio degli
Incurabili at Venice, as a pupil of Antonio Lotti. After successfully
producing two operas in collaboration with a fellow-pupil, G.B.
Pescetti, in 1728 and 1729, he entered upon a busy career as a composer
of operas for Venetian theatres, writing sometimes as many as five in a
year. He visited London in 1741, and arranged a _pasticcio_, _Alexander
in Persia_, for the Haymarket. Burney considered his influence on
English music to have been very powerful. In 1740 he became
_vice-maestro di cappella_ at St Mark's and _maestro_ in 1762. In 1749
he began writing comic operas to libretti by Goldoni, which enjoyed an
enormous popularity. He was invited to Russia by Catherine II. in 1766,
where his operas made a favourable impression, and his influence was
also felt in Russian church music. He returned to Venice in 1768, where
he had held the post of director of the Conservatorio degli Incurabili
since 1762. He died on the 3rd of January 1785.
Galuppi's best works are his comic operas, of which _Il Filosofo di
Campagna_ (1754), known in England as _The Guardian Trick'd_ (Dublin,
1762) was the most popular. His melody is attractive rather than
original, but his workmanship in harmony and orchestration is generally
superior to that of his contemporaries. He seems to have been the first
to extend the concerted finales of Leo and Logroscino into a chain of
several separate movements, working up to a climax, but in this respect
he is much inferior to Sarti and Mozart.
Browning's poem, "A Toccata of Galuppi," does not refer to any known
composition, but more probably to an imaginary extemporization on the
harpsichord, such as was of frequent occurrence in the musical
gatherings of Galuppi's day.
See also Alfred Wotquerme, _Baldassare Galuppi, etude bibliographique
sur ses oeuvres dramatiques_ (Brussels, 1902). Many of his autograph
scores are in the library of the Brussels conservatoire.
(E. J. D.)
GALVANI, LUIGI (1737-1798), Italian physiologist, after whom galvanism
received its name, was born at Bologna on the 9th of September 1737. It
was his wish in early life to enter the church, but by his parents he
was educated for a medical career. At the university of Bologna, in
which city he practised, he was in 1762 appointed public lecturer in
anatomy, and soon gained repute as a skilled though not eloquent
teacher, and, chiefly from his researches on the organs of hearing and
genito-urinary tract of birds, as a comparative anatomist. His
celebrated theory of animal electricity he enunciated in a treatise, "De
viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius," published in the
7th volume of the memoirs of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna in
1791, and separately at Modena in the following year, and elsewhere
subsequently. The statement has frequently been repeated that, in 1786,
Galvani had noticed that the leg of a skinned frog, on being
accidentally touched by a scalpel which had lain near an electrical
machine, was thrown into violent convulsions; and that it was thus that
his attention was first directed to the relations of animal functions to
electricity. From documents in the possession of the Institute of
Bologna, however, it appears that twenty years previous to the
publication of his _Commentary_ Galvani was already engaged in
investigations as to the action of electricity upon the muscles of
frogs. The observation that the suspension of certain of these animals
on an iron railing by copper hooks caused twitching in the muscles of
their legs led him to the invention of his metallic arc, the first
experiment with which is described in the third part of the
_Commentary_, with the date September 20, 1786. The arc he constructed
of two different metals, which, placed in contact the one with a frog's
nerve and the other with a muscle, caused contraction of the latter. In
Galvani's view the motions of the muscle were the result of the union,
by means of the metallic arc, of its exterior or negative electrical
charge with positive electricity which proceeded along the nerve from
its inner substance. Volta, on the other hand, attributed them solely to
the effect of electricity having its source in the junction of the two
dissimilar metals of the arc, and regarded the nerve and muscle simply
as conductors. On Galvani's refusal, from religious scruples, to take
the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic in 1797, he was removed
from his professorship. Deprived thus of the means of livelihood, he
retired to the house of his brother Giacomo, where he soon fell into a
feverish decline. The republican government, in consideration of his
great scientific fame, eventually, but too late, determined to reinstate
him in his chair, and he died at Bologna on the 4th of December 1798.
A quarto edition of his works was published at Bologna in 1841-1842,
by the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of that city, under the
title _Opere edite ed inedite del professore Luigi Galvani_.
GALVANIZED IRON, sheet iron having its surface covered with a thin
coating of zinc. In spite of the name, galvanic action has often no part
in the production of galvanized iron, which is prepared by dipping the
iron, properly cleaned and pickled in acid, in a bath of molten zinc.
The hotter the zinc the thinner the coating, but as a high temperature
of the bath is attended with certain objections, it is a common practice
to use a moderate temperature and clear off the excess of zinc by
passing the plates between rollers. In Norwood and Rogers's process a
thin coating of tin is applied to the iron before it is dipped in the
zinc, by putting the plates between layers of granulated tin in a wooden
tank containing a dilute solution of stannous chloride, when tin is
deposited on them by galvanic action. In "cold galvanizing" the zinc is
deposited electrolytically from a bath, preferably kept neutral or
slightly acid, containing a 10% solution of crystallized zinc sulphate,
ZnSO4.7H2O. The resulting surface is usually duller and less lustrous
than that obtained by the use of molten zinc. Another method of forming
a coating of zinc, known as "sherardizing," was invented by Sherard
Cowper-Coles, who found that metals embedded in zinc dust (a product
obtained in zinc manufacture and consisting of metallic zinc mixed with
a certain amount of zinc oxide) and heated to temperatures well below
the melting point of zinc, become coated with a layer of that metal. In
carrying out the process the articles are placed in an air-tight vessel
with the zinc dust, which must be dry, and subjected to a heat of
250-330 deg. C., the time for which the heating is continued depending
on the thickness of the deposit required and varying from one-half to
several hours. If an air-tight receptacle is not available, a small
percentage of powdered carbon is added to the zinc-dust, to prevent
increase in the amount of oxide, which, if present in excess, tends to
make the deposit dull.
Galvanized iron by its zinc surface is protected from corrosion by the
weather, though the protection is not very efficient in the presence of
acid or sulphurous fumes, and accordingly it is extensively employed for
roofing, especially in the form of corrugated sheets. The iron wire used
for wire-netting, telegraphic purposes, &c., is commonly galvanized, as
also are bolts, nuts, chains and other fittings on ships.
GALVANOMETER, an instrument for detecting or measuring electric
currents. The term is generally applied to instruments which indicate
electric current in scale divisions or arbitrary units, as opposed to
instruments called amperemeters (q.v.), which show directly on a dial
the value of the current in amperes. Galvanometers may be divided into
direct current and alternating current instruments, according as they
are intended to measure one or other of these two classes of currents
(see ELECTROKINETICS).
_Direct Current Galvanometers_.--The principle on which one type of
direct current galvanometer, called a movable needle galvanometer,
depends for its action is that a small magnet when suspended in the
centre of a coil of wire tends to set its magnetic axis in the
direction of the magnetic field of the coil at that point due to the
current passing through it. In the other type, or movable coil
galvanometer, the coil is suspended and the magnet fixed; hence the
coil tends to set itself with its axis parallel to the lines of force
of the magnet. The movable system must be constrained in some way to
take up and retain a definite position when no current is passing by
means which are called the "control."
Movable needle galvanometer.
Mirror galvanometers.
In its simple and original form the movable needle galvanometer
consisted of a horizontal magnetic needle suspended within a coil of
insulated wire by silk fibres or pivoted on a point like a compass
needle. The direction of such a needle is controlled by the direction
of the terrestrial magnetic force within the coil. If the needle is so
placed that its axis is parallel to the plane of the coil, then when
an electric current passes through the coil it is deflected and places
itself at an angle to the axis of the coil determined by the strength
of the current and of the controlling field. In the early forms of
movable needle galvanometer the needle was either a comparatively
large magnet several inches in length, or else a smaller magnet was
employed carrying a long pointer which moved over a scale of degrees
so as to indicate the deflexion. A method of measuring the deflexion
by means of a mirror scale and telescope was introduced by K.F. Gauss
and W. Weber. The magnet had a mirror attached to it, and a telescope
having cross wires in the focus was used to observe the scale
divisions of a fixed scale seen reflected in the mirror. Lord Kelvin
(Professor W. Thomson) made the important improvement of reducing the
size of the needle and attaching it to the back of a very small
mirror, the two being suspended by a single fibre of cocoon silk. The
mirror was made of silvered microscopic glass about 1/4 in. in
diameter, and the magnetic needle or needles consisted of short
fragments of watchspring cemented to its back. A ray of light being
thrown on the mirror from a lamp the deflexions of the needle were
observed by watching the movements of a spot of light reflected from
it upon a fixed scale. This form of mirror galvanometer was first
devised in connexion with submarine cable signalling, but soon became
an indispensable instrument in the physical laboratory.
Astatic galvanometers.
In course of time both the original form of single needle galvanometer
and mirror galvanometer were improved by introducing the astatic
principle and weakening the external controlling magnetic field. If
two magnetic needles of equal size and moment are attached rigidly to
one stem parallel to each other but with poles placed in opposite
directions an astatic system results; that is, if the needles are so
suspended as to be free to move in a horizontal plane, and if they are
made exactly equal in magnetic strength, the system will have no
directive power. If one needle is slightly weaker than the other, the
suspended system will set itself with some axis parallel to the lines
of force of a field in which it is placed. In a form of astatic needle
galvanometer devised by Professor A. Broca of Paris, the pair of
magnetized needles are suspended vertically and parallel to each other
with poles in opposite directions. The upper poles are included in one
coil and the lower poles within another coil, so connected that the
current circulates in the right direction in each coil to displace the
pairs of poles in the same direction. By this mode of arrangement a
greater magnetic moment can be secured, together with more perfect
astaticity and freedom from disturbance by external fields. The
earth's magnetic field can be weakened by means of a controlling
magnet arranged to create in the space in the interior of the
galvanometer coils an extremely feeble controlling magnetic field. In
instruments having a coil for each needle and designed so that the
current in both coils passes so as to turn both needles in the same
direction, the controlling magnet is so adjusted that the normal
position of the needles is with the magnetic axis parallel to the
plane of the coil. An astatic magnetic system used in conjunction with
a mirror galvanometer gives a highly sensitive form of instrument
(fig. 1); it is, however, easily disturbed by stray magnetic fields
caused by neighbouring magnets or currents through conductors, and
therefore is not suitable for use in many places.
Movable coil galvanometer.
This fact led to the introduction of the movable coil galvanometer
which was first devised by Lord Kelvin as a telegraphic signalling
instrument but subsequently modified by A. d'Arsonval and others into
a laboratory galvanometer (fig. 2). In this instrument a permanent
magnet, generally of the horseshoe shape, is employed to create a
strong magnetic field, in which a light movable coil is suspended. The
suspension is bifilar, consisting of two fine wires which are
connected to the ends of the coil and serve to lead the current in and
out. If such a coil is placed with its plane parallel to the lines of
force of the permanent magnet, then when a current is passing through
it it displaces itself in the field, so as to set with its axis more
nearly parallel to the lines of force of the field. The movable coil
may carry a pointer or a mirror; in the latter form it is well
represented by several much used laboratory instruments. The movable
coil galvanometer has the great advantage that it is not easily
disturbed by the magnetic fields caused by neighbouring magnets or
electric currents, and thus is especially useful in the electrical
workshop and factory.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Kelvin Astatic Mirror Galvanometer. Elliott
square pattern.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Movable Coil Galvanometer.]
Construction and use.
In the practical construction of the suspended needle fixed coil
galvanometer great care must be taken with the insulation of the wire
of the coil. This wire is generally silk-covered, wound on a frame,
the whole being thoroughly saturated with paraffin wax. In some cases
two wires are wound on in parallel, constituting a "differential
galvanometer." When properly adjusted this instrument can be used for
the exact comparison of electric currents by a null method, because if
an electric current is passed through one wire and creates certain
deflexions of the needle, the current which annuls this deflexion when
passed through the other wire must be equal to the first current. In
the construction of a movable coil galvanometer, it is usual to
intensify the magnetic field by inserting a fixed soft iron core in
the interior of the movable coil. If the current to be measured is too
large to be passed entirely through the galvanometer, a portion is
allowed to flow through a circuit connecting the two terminals of the
instrument. This circuit is called a _shunt_ and is generally arranged
so as to take 0.9, 0.99, or 0.999 of the total current, leaving 0.1,
0.01 or 0.001 to flow through the galvanometer. W.E. Ayrton and T.
Mather have designed a universal shunt box or resistance which can be
applied to any galvanometer and by which a known fraction of any
current can be sent through the galvanometer when we know its
resistance (see _Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lond_., 1894, 23, p. 314). A
galvanometer can be calibrated, or the meaning of its deflexion
determined, by passing through it an electric current of known value
and observing the deflexion of the needle or coil. The known current
can be provided in the following manner:--a single secondary cell of
any kind can have its electromotive force measured by the
potentiometer (q.v.), and compared with that of a standard voltaic
cell. If the secondary cell is connected with the galvanometer through
a known high resistance R, and if the galvanometer is shunted, that
is, has its terminals connected by another resistance S, then if the
resistance of the galvanometer itself is denoted by G, the whole
resistance of the shunted galvanometer and high resistance has a value
represented by R + GS/(G + S), and therefore the current through the
galvanometer produced by an electromotive force E of the cell is
represented by
SE
-------------.
R(G + S) + GS
Suppose this current produces a deflexion of the needle or coil or
spot of light equal to X scale divisions, we can then alter the value
of the resistances R and S, and so determine the relation between the
deflexion and the current. By the sensitiveness of the galvanometer
is meant the deflexion produced by a known electromotive force put
upon its terminals or a known current sent through it. It is usual to
specify the sensitiveness of a mirror galvanometer by requiring a
certain deflexion, measured in millimetres, of a spot of light thrown
on the scale placed at one metre from the mirror, when an
electromotive force of one-millionth of a volt (microvolt) is applied
to the terminals of the galvanometer; it may be otherwise expressed by
stating the deflexion produced under the same conditions when a
current of one microampere is passed through the coil. In modern
mirror galvanometers a deflexion of 1 mm. of the spot of light upon a
scale at 1 metre distance can be produced by a current as small as one
hundred millionth (10^-8) or even one ten thousand millionth (10^-10)
of an ampere. It is easy to produce considerable sensitiveness in the
galvanometer, but for practical purposes it must always be controlled
by the condition that the zero remains fixed, that is to say, the
galvanometer needle or coil must come back to exactly the same
position when no current is passing through the instrument. Other
important qualifications of a galvanometer are its time-period and its
dead-beatness. For certain purposes the needle or coil should return
as quickly as possible to the zero position and with either no, or
very few, oscillations. If the latter condition is fulfilled the
galvanometer is said to be "dead-beat." On the other hand, for some
purposes the galvanometer is required with the opposite quality, that
is to say, there must be as little retardation as possible to the
needle or coil when set in motion under an impulsive blow. Such a
galvanometer is called "ballistic." The quality of a galvanometer in
this respect is best estimated by taking the logarithmic decrement of
the oscillations when the movable system is set swinging. This last
term is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of one swing to the next
succeeding swing, and a galvanometer of which the logarithmic
decrement is large, is said to be highly damped. For many purposes,
such as for resistance measurement, it is desirable to have a
galvanometer which is highly damped; this result can be obtained by
affixing to the needles either light pieces of mica, when it is a
movable needle galvanometer, or by winding the coil on a silver frame
when it is a movable coil galvanometer. On the other hand, for the
comparison of capacities of condensers and for other purposes, a
galvanometer is required which is as little damped as possible, and
for this purpose the coil must have the smallest possible frictional
resistance to its motion through the air. In this case the moment of
inertia of the movable system must be decreased or the control
strengthened.
The Einthoven string galvanometer is another form of sensitive
instrument for the measurement of small direct currents. It consists
of a fine wire or silvered quartz fibre stretched in a strong magnetic
field. When a current passes through the wire it is displaced across
the field and the displacement is observed with a microscope.
Tangent galvanometer.
For the measurement of large currents a "tangent galvanometer" is
employed (fig. 3). Two fixed circular coils are placed apart at a
distance equal to the radius of either coil, so that a current passing
through them creates in the central region between them a nearly
uniform magnetic field. At the centre of the coils is suspended a
small magnetic needle the length of which should not be greater than
1/10 the radius of either coil. The normal position of the needle is
at right angles to the line joining the centre of the coils. If a
current is passed through the coils, the needle will be deflected, and
the tangent of the angle of its deflexion will be nearly proportional
to the current passing through the coil, provided that the controlling
field is uniform in strength and direction, and that the length of the
magnetic needle is so short that the space in which it rotates is a
practically uniform magnetic field.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Helmholtz Tangent Galvanometer.]
_Alternating Current Galvanometers._--For the detection of small
alternating currents a magnetic needle or movable coil galvanometer is
of no utility. We can, however, construct an instrument suitable for
the purpose by suspending within a coil of insulated wire a small
needle of soft iron placed with its axis at an angle of 45 deg. to the
axis of the coil. When an alternating current passes through the coil
the soft iron needle tends to set itself in the direction of the axis
of the coil, and if it is suspended by a quartz fibre or metallic wire
so as to afford a control, it can become a metrical instrument.
Another arrangement, devised by J.A. Fleming in 1887, consists of a
silver or copper disk suspended within a coil, the plane of the disk
being held at 45 deg. to that of the coil. When an alternating current
is passed through the coil, induced currents are set up in the disk
and the mutual action causes the disk to endeavour to set itself so
that these currents are a minimum. This metal disk galvanometer has
been made sufficiently sensitive to detect the feeble oscillatory
electric currents set up in the receiving wire of a wireless telegraph
apparatus. The Duddell thermal ammeter is another very sensitive form
of alternating current galvanometer. In it the current to be detected
or measured is passed through a high resistance wire or strip of
metal leaf mounted on glass, over which is suspended a closed loop of
bismuth and antimony, forming a thermoelectric couple. This loop is
suspended by a quartz fibre in a strong magnetic field, and one
junction of the couple is held just over the resistance wire and as
near it as possible without touching. When an alternating current
passes through the resistance it creates heat which in turn acts on
the thermo-junction and generates a continuous current in the loop,
thus deflecting it in the magnetic field. The sensitiveness of such a
thermal ammeter can be made sufficiently great to detect a current of
a few microamperes.
References.--J.A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory
and Testing Room_, vol. i. (London, 1901); W.E. Ayrton, T. Mather and
W.E. Sumpner, "On Galvanometers," _Proc. Phys. Soc. London_ (1890),
10, 393; H.R. Kempe, _A Handbook of Electrical Testing_ (London,
1906); A. Gray, _Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism_,
vol. ii. part ii. (London, 1893). Useful information is also contained
in the catalogues of all the principal electrical instrument
makers--Messrs. Elliott Bros., Nalder, The Cambridge Scientific
Instrument Company, Pitkin, Hartmann and Braun, Queen and others.
(J. A. F.)
GALVESTON, a city and port of entry and the county-seat of Galveston
county, Texas, U.S.A., on the Gulf of Mexico, near the N.E. extremity of
Galveston Island and at the entrance to Galveston Bay. It is about 48 m.
S.E. of Houston and 310 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 29,084; (1900)
37,789, (6339 were foreign-born and 8291 negroes); (1910) 36,981; land
area (1906) 7.8 sq. m. It is served by the Galveston, Houston &
Henderson, the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio, the Gulf, Colorado &
Santa Fe, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the International & Great
Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, and by numerous
steamship lines to Gulf ports in the United States and Mexico, and to
Cuba, South America, Europe and the Atlantic ports of the United States.
Galveston Island is a low, sandy strip of land about 28 m. long and
1-1/2 to 3-1/2 m. wide, lying from 2 to 3 m. off the mainland. The city,
which extends across the island from Gulf to Bay, faces and has its
harbour on the latter. The island was connected with the mainland before
the 1900 storm by a road bridge and several railway bridges, which, a
short distance W. of the city, crossed the narrow strip of water
separating the West Bay from Galveston Bay proper; the bridge least
harmed (a single-track railway bridge) was repaired immediately and was
for a time the city's only connexion with the mainland, but in 1908
bonds were issued for building a concrete causeway, accommodating four
railway tracks, one interurban car track, and a roadway for vehicles and
pedestrians. An enormous sea-wall (completed in 1904 at a cost of
$2,091,000) was constructed on the eastern and Gulf sides of the city,
about 5 m. long, 17 ft. above mean low tide (1.5 ft. above the
high-water mark of the storm of 1900 and 7.5 ft. above the previous
high-water mark, that of September 1875), 16 ft. wide at the base and 5
ft. at the top, weighing 20 tons to the lineal foot, and with a granite
rip-rap apron extending out 27 ft. on the Gulf side. The entire grade of
the city was raised from 1 to 15 ft. above the old level. Between the
sea-wall and the sea there is a splendid beach, the entire length of
which is nearly 30 m. Among the principal buildings are the city hall,
the court-house, the masonic temple, the Federal custom-house and
post-office, the Y.M.C.A. building and the public library. The United
States government maintains a marine hospital, a live-saving station, an
immigrant landing station, and the state and the Federal government
separate quarantine stations. In addition to the Ball public high
school, Galveston is the seat of St Mary's University (1854), the Sacred
Heart and Ursuline academies, and the Cathedral school, all under Roman
Catholic control.
The government of the municipality was long vested in a council of ward
aldermen, controlled by a "machine," which was proved corrupt in 1894 by
an investigation undertaken at the personal expense of the mayor; it
gave place in 1895 to a city council of aldermen at large, which by 1901
had proved its inefficiency especially in the crisis following the storm
of the preceding year. Government then seemed a business question and
was practically undertaken by the city's commercial experts, the
Deepwater commission, whose previous aim had been harbour improvement,
and who now drew up a charter providing for government by a board of
five appointed by the governor of the state. A compromise measure making
three members appointees of the governor and two elected by the voters
of the city was in force for a time but was declared unconstitutional. A
third charter was adopted providing for five commissioners, chosen by
the people, dividing among themselves the posts of mayor-president and
commissioners of finance and revenue, of water-works and sewerage, of
streets and public property, and of police and fire protection, each
commissioner being held individually responsible for the management of
his department. These are business departments carefully systematized by
their heads. The legislative power is vested in the commission as a
whole, over whose meetings the mayor-president presides; he has a vote
like every other commissioner, and has no veto power. The success of
this commission government has been remarkable: in 1901-1908 the city,
without issuing bonds except for grade raising, paid off a large debt,
raised the salaries of city employees, paid its running expenses in
cash, planned and began public improvements and sanitary reforms, and
did much for the abolition of gambling and the regulation of other vice.
The Galveston Plan and similar schemes of government have been adopted
in many other American cities.
Galveston's manufactories, the products of which in 1900 were valued at
$5,016,360, a decrease of 12.4% from 1890 (value of products under
"factory system," $3,675,323 in 1900; $2,996,654 in 1905, a decrease of
18.5%), include cotton-seed oil refineries, flour and feed mills, lumber
mills, wooden-ware factories, breweries, cement works, creosoting works,
ship-yards and ice factories. There are extensive cotton warehouses,
coal and grain elevators, and large wholesale supply depots. The Gulf
Fisheries Company has its fleet's headquarters and large packing-houses
at Galveston. It is as a commercial port that Galveston is chiefly
important. In 1907 it was the second port in the United States in the
value of its exports (domestic and foreign, $196,627,382, or 10.22% of
the total), being surpassed only by New York City; and was the first of
the Gulf ports (having 45.43% of the total value), New Orleans being
second with $164,998,540. Galveston's imports in 1907 were valued at
$7,669,458. Galveston is the greatest cotton-exporting port in the
Union, its exports of cotton in 1907 being valued at $163,564,445. Other
exports of great value are cotton seed products (oil and cake,
$10,188,594 in 1907), Indian corn ($3,457,279 in 1907), wheat
($9,443,901 in 1906), lumber and flour. The electric lighting and
water-supply systems are owned and operated by the municipality.
The harbour of Galveston seems to have been named about 1782 by Spanish
explorers in honour either of Jose de Galvez, Marquis of Sonora, or his
nephew Bernardo, governor of Louisiana; and in the early days of the
19th century was the principal rendezvous of a powerful band of
buccaneers and pirates, of whom, for many years, the notorious Jean
Lafitte was chief. After much difficulty these were finally dispersed
about 1820 by the United States authorities, and in 1837 the first
settlement from the United States was made on the site of the present
city. The town was incorporated by the legislature of the Republic of
Texas in 1839. On the 8th of October 1862 the city was taken by a
Federal naval force under Commander William B. Renshaw (1816-1863).
After a sharp engagement a Confederate force under General John B.
Magruder (1810-1871) retook the city on the 1st of January 1863, one of
the Federal ships, the "Harriet Lane," falling into Confederate hands,
and another, the "Westfield," being blown up with Commander Renshaw on
board. Thereafter Galveston remained in Confederate hands, although
rigidly blockaded by the Federal navy, until the close of the war. On
the 8th of September 1900 the city was seriously damaged by a West
Indian hurricane, which, blowing steadily for eighteen hours, reached a
velocity of 135 m. an hour. The waters of the Gulf were piled up in
enormous waves that swept across a large part of the city, destroying or
badly damaging more than 8000 buildings, entailing a loss of about 5000
lives, and a property loss estimated at about $17,000,000. Liberal
contributions came from all over the country, and the state partially
remitted the city's taxes for 17 years. The city was rapidly rebuilt on
a more substantial plan.
GALWAY, a county in the west of Ireland, in the province of Connaught,
bounded N. by Mayo and Roscommon; E. by Roscommon, King's County and
Tipperary; S. by Clare and Galway Bay; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The
area is 1,519,699 acres or about 2375 sq. m., the county being second in
size to Cork among the Irish counties.
The county is naturally divided by Lough Corrib into two great
divisions. The eastern, which comprehends all the county except the four
western baronies, rests on a limestone base, and is, generally speaking,
a level champaign country, but contains large quantities of wet bog. Its
southern portion is partly a continuation of the Golden Vale of
Limerick, celebrated for its fertility, and partly occupied by the
Slievebaughty Mountains. The northern portion of the division contains
rich pasture and tillage ground, beautifully diversified with hill and
dale. Some of the intermediate country is comparatively uncultivated,
but forms excellent pasturage for sheep. The western division of the
county has a substratum of granite, and is barren, rugged and
mountainous. It is divided into the three districts of Connemara,
Jar-Connaught and Joyce's Country; the name of Connemara is, however,
often applied to the whole district. Its highest mountains are the grand
and picturesque group of Bunnabeola, or the Twelve Bens or Pins, which
occupy a space of about 25 sq. m., the highest elevation being 2695 ft.
Much of this district is a gently sloping plain, from 100 to 300 ft.
above sea-level. Joyce's Country, farther north, is an elevated tract,
with flat-topped hills 1300 to 2000 ft. high, and deep narrow valleys
lying between them.
Galway possesses the advantage of a very extended line of sea-coast,
indented by numerous harbours, which, however, are rarely used except by
a few coasting and fishing vessels. At the boundary with the county Mayo
in the north is Killary Harbour which separates the two counties. The
first bay on the western coast capable of accommodating large ships is
Ballynakill, sheltered by Freaghillaun or Heath Island. Next in
succession is Cleggan Bay. Off these inlets lie the islands of
Inishbofin and Inishark, with others. Streamstown is a narrow inlet,
within which are the inhabited islands of Omey, Inishturk and Turbot.
Ardbear harbour is divided into two inlets, the northern terminating at
the town of Clifden, with excellent anchorage; the southern inlet has
also good anchorage within the bar, and has a good salmon fishery.
Mannin Bay, though large, is much exposed and little frequented by
shipping. From Slyne Head the coast turns eastward to Roundstone Bay,
which has its entrance protected by the islands of Inishnee and
Inishlacken. Next in order is Bertraghboy Bay, studded with islets and
rocks, but deep and sheltered. Kilkieran Bay, the largest on this coast,
has a most productive kelp shore of nearly 100 m.; its mouth is but 3 m.
broad. Between Gorumna Island and the mainland is Greatman's Bay and
close to it Costello Bay, the most eastern of those in Connemara. The
whole of the coast from Greatman's Bay eastward is comprehended in the
Bay of Galway, the entrance of which is protected by the three limestone
islands of Aran, Inishmore (or Aranmore), Inishmann and Inisheer.
The rivers are few, and, except the Shannon, of small size. The Suck,
which forms the eastern boundary of the county, rises in Roscommon, and
passing by Ballinasloe, unites with the Shannon at Shannonbridge. The
Shannon forms the south-eastern boundary of the county, and passing
Shannon Harbour, Banagher, Meelick and Portumna, swells into the great
expanse of water called Lough Derg, which skirts the county as far as
the village of Mount Shannon. The Claregalway flows southward through
the centre of the county, and enters Lough Corrib some 4 m. above the
town of Galway. The Ballynahinch, considered one of the best
salmon-fishing rivers in Connaught, rises in the Twelve Pins, passes
through Ballynahinch Lake, and after a short but rapid course falls into
Bertraghboy Bay. Lakes are numerous. Lough Corrib extends from Galway
town northwards over 30,000 acres, with a shore of 50 m. in extent. The
lake is studded with many islands, some of them thickly inhabited. The
district west of Lough Corrib contains a vast number of lakes, about
twenty-five of them more than a mile in length. Lough Rea, by the town
of the same name, is more remarkable for scenic beauty than for extent.
Besides these perennial lakes, there are several low tracts, called
turloughs, which are covered with water during a great part of the year.
Loughs Mask and Corrib are connected by a salmon ladder, and contain
large trout. Galway, with the Screab Waters, draining into Camus Bay, a
branch of Kilkieran Bay, with Recess and the Ballynahinch waters, are
the best fishing centres. On account of its scenic beauty, both coastal
and inland, together with its facilities for sport, county Galway is
frequented by summer visitors. Though for long the remoter parts were
difficult of access, as in the case of Donegal, Mayo, Clare and the
western counties generally, the Galway and Clifden railway assisted
private enterprise to open up the country. The western mountains, broken
by deep landlocked and island-sheltered bays, as well as by the
innumerable small loughs of the Connemara districts, afford scenes
varying from gentle slopes occasionally well wooded along the water's
edge to wild, bare moorlands among the heights, while the summits are
usually bold and rocky cones. Several small fishing villages have
acquired the dignity of watering-places from the erection of hotels,
which have also been planted in previously untenanted situations of high
scenic attractions; among these may be mentioned Leenane at the head of
Killary harbour, Renvyle House at its entrance, Letterfrack on
Ballynakill Bay, Streamstown and Clifden, and Cashel on Bertraghboy Bay.
Inland are Recess, near Lough Derryclare, and Ballynahinch, on the lough
of that name, both on the railway, at the foot of the Twelve Pins.
_Geology_.--The east of this county lies in the Carboniferous
Limestone plain, with domes of Old Red Sandstone rising near Dunmore
and Mount Bellew. As Galway town is neared, the grey rock appears
freely on the surface, and Lough Corrib spreads itself over almost
level land. Its west branches, however, run up into "Dalradian" hills,
which rise abruptly on the threshold of Connemara. A broad mass of
ice-worn gneiss and granite lies between Lough Corrib and Galway Bay,
cut off so sharply at the sea as to suggest the presence of an
east-and-west line of fracture. The Twelve Bens owe their supremacy to
the quartzites, which are here well bedded and associated with
limestone and mica-schist. Silurian conglomerates and sandstones, with
andesitic lavas, overlie the Dalradians, with marked unconformity,
south of Leenane and round Lough Nafooey. The surfaces of the hard
rocks admirably record the action of ice throughout the county. There
is black Carboniferous marble at Menlough near Galway; and the
well-known "Connemara Marble" is a banded serpentinous crystalline
limestone in the Dalradians at Recess, Ballynahinch and Streamstown.
Compact red granite is worked at Shantallow, and the region west of
Galway contains many handsome porphyritic red varieties.
_Climate and Industries_.--The climate is mild and healthy but
variable, and violent winds from the west are not uncommon. Frost or
snow seldom remains long on the western coast, and cattle of every
description continue unhoused during the winter. The eastern part of
the county produces the best wheat. Oats are frequently sown after
potatoes in moorish soils less adapted for wheat. The flat shores of
the bays afford large supplies of seaweed for manure. Limestone,
gravel and marl are to be had in most other parts. When a sufficient
quantity of manure for potatoes cannot be had, the usual practice is
to pare and burn the surface. In many places on the seashore fine
early potatoes are raised in deep sea-sand manured with seaweed, and
the crop is succeeded by barley. Those parts of the eastern district
less fitted for grain are employed in pasturage. Heathy sheep-walks
occupy a very large tract between Monivea and Galway. An extensive
range from Athenry, stretching to Galway Bay at Kinvarra, is also
chiefly occupied by sheep. Over half the total acreage of the county
is pasture-land, and cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are extensively
reared. The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as one to
four; and owing to the nature of the country fully one-third of the
total area is quite barren.
Manufactures are not carried on beyond the demand caused by the
domestic consumption of the people. Coarse friezes, flannels and
blankets are made in all parts and sold largely in Galway and
Loughrea. Connemara has been long celebrated for its hand-knit woollen
stockings. Coarse linen, of a narrow breadth, called bandle linen, is
also made for home consumption. There is a linen-weaving factory at
Oughterard. The manufacture of kelp, formerly a great source of profit
on the western shores, is still carried on to some extent. Feathers
and sea-fowls' eggs are brought in great quantities from the islands
of Aran, the produce of the puffins and other sea-fowl that frequent
the cliffs. Fishing affords occupation to many of the inhabitants, the
industry having as its centres the ports of Galway and Clifden.
The Midland Great Western main line enters the county at Ballinasloe,
and runs by Athenry to Galway, with an extension to Oughterard (Lough
Corrib) and Clifden. The Great Southern & Western line from Sligo to
Limerick traverses the county from N. to S., by way of Tuam, Athenry
and Gort.
_Population and Administration._--The population of county Galway
(211,227 in 1891; 192,549 in 1901) decreased by more than half in the
last seventy years of the 19th century, and the decrease continues, as
emigration is heavy. About 97% of the population are Roman Catholics,
and a somewhat less percentage are rural. The Erse tongue is maintained
by many in this remote county. The chief towns are Galway (pop. 13,426),
Tuam (3012), Ballinasloe (4904) and Loughrea (2815), with the smaller
towns of Portumna, Gort, Clifden, Athenry, Headford, Oughterard and
Eyrecourt. The county is divided into four parliamentary divisions
(returning one member each); north, south, east and Connemara, while the
town of Galway returns one member. There are eighteen baronies. Assizes
are held at Galway, quarter-sessions at Galway, Ballinasloe, Clifden,
Gort, Loughrea, Oughterard, Portumna and Tuam. The county comprises
parts of the Protestant dioceses of Tuam and of Killaloe; and of the
Roman Catholic dioceses of Elphin, Galway, Clonfert and Killaloe.
_History._--The history of county Galway is exceedingly obscure, and
nearly every one of its striking physical features carries its legend
with it. For centuries local septs struggled together for mastery
undeterred by outside influence. The wreck of part of the Spanish Armada
on this coast in 1588 left survivors whose influence is still to be
traced. The formation of Galway into a county was effected about 1579 by
Sir Henry Sydney, lord deputy of Ireland. In the county at Aughrim
(q.v.) the decisive battle of the English Revolution was fought in 1691.
Among the antiquities are several round towers. The only perfect one is
at Kilmacduagh, a very fine example 112 ft. high, leaning considerably
out of the perpendicular. Raths or encampments are numerous and several
cromlechs are to be seen in good preservation. The ruins of monastic
buildings are also numerous. That of Knockmoy, about 6 m. from Tuam,
said to have been founded in 1180 by Cathal O'Connor, was adorned with
rude fresco paintings, still discernible, which were considered valuable
as being the best authentic representations existing of ancient Irish
costumes. Ancient castles and square towers of the Anglo-Norman settlers
are frequently met with; some have been kept in repair, but the greater
number are in ruins. The castle of Tuam, built in 1161 by Roderick
O'Connor, king of Ireland, at the period of the English invasion, is
said to have been the first building of this description of stone and
mortar in Ireland. The remains of a round castle, a form of building
very uncommon in the military architecture of the country, are to be
seen between Gort and Kilmacduagh. The extraordinary cyclopean and
monastic ruins on the Aran Islands (q.v.) must be mentioned; and the
town of Galway, Athenry, and the neighbourhood of Ballinasloe all show
interesting remains. The small church of Clonfert, in the south of the
county, with a fine Romanesque doorway, is a cathedral, the diocese of
which was united with Kilfenora, Kilmacduagh and Killaloe in 1833.
GALWAY, a seaport, parliamentary borough and the county town of county
Galway, Ireland, on the north shore of Galway Bay, and on the main line
of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
13,426. Some of the streets are very narrow, and contain curious
specimens of old buildings, chiefly in antique Spanish style, being
square, with a central court, and a gateway opening into the street. The
most noteworthy of these is the pile known as Lynch's Castle. This
residence takes its name from the family of whom James Lynch
Fitzstephen, mayor of Galway in 1493, was a member; whose severity as a
magistrate is exemplified in the story that he executed his own son, and
thus gave origin (according to one of several theories) to the familiar
term of Lynch law. The principal streets are broad and contain good
shops. St Nicholas church is a fine cruciform building founded in 1320,
and containing monuments, and a bell, one of a peal, which appears to
have been brought from Cavron in France, but how this happened is not
known. The church was made collegiate in 1484, and Edward VI. created
the Royal College of Galway in connexion with it; but the old college
buildings no longer serve this purpose, and the church ceased to be
collegiate in 1840. There are remains of a Franciscan friary founded in
1296. St Augustine's church (Roman Catholic) is modern (1859). The town
is the seat of a Roman Catholic diocese. There are grammar, model and
industrial schools, the first with exhibitions to Trinity College,
Dublin; but the principal educational establishment is University
College, a quadrangular building in Tudor Gothic style, of grey
limestone. It was founded as Queen's College, with other colleges of the
same name at Belfast and Cork, under an act of 1845, and its name was
changed when it was granted a new charter pursuant to the Irish
Universities Act 1908. The harbour comprises an extensive line of quays,
and is connected for inland navigation with Lough Corrib. The shipping
trade is considerable, but as a trans-Atlantic port Galway was exploited
unsuccessfully. The fisheries, both sea and salmon, are important. The
chief exports are wool, agricultural produce and black marble, which is
polished in local mills. Other industrial establishments include
corn-mills, iron-foundries, distilleries, and brush and bag factories.
The borough, which returned two members to parliament until 1885, now
returns one.
Galway is divided into the old and new towns, while a suburb known as
the Claddagh is inhabited by fishermen. This is a curious collection of
small cottages, where communal government by a locally elected mayor
long prevailed, together with peculiar laws and customs, strictly
exclusive inter-marriage, and a high moral and religious standard.
Specimens of the distinctive Claddagh ring, for example, were worn and
treasured as venerated heirlooms. These customs, with the distinctive
dress of the women, died out but slowly, and even to-day their vestiges
remain.
The environs of Galway are pleasant, with several handsome residences.
The most interesting point in the vicinity is Roscam, with its round
tower, ruined church and other remains. Salthill, with golf links, is a
waterside residential suburb.
Little is known of the history of Galway until after the arrival of the
English, at which time it was under the protection of O'Flaherty, who
possessed the adjoining district to the west. On the extinction of the
native dynasty of the O'Connors, the town fell into the hands of the De
Burgos, the head of a branch of which, under the name of M'William
Eighter, long governed it by magistrates of his own appointment. After
it had been secured by walls, which began to be built about 1270 and are
still in part traceable, it became the residence of a number of
enterprising settlers, through whom it attained a position of much
commercial celebrity. Of these settlers the principal families, fourteen
in number, were known as the tribes of Galway. They were of Norman,
Saxon or Welsh descent, and became so exclusive in their relationships
that dispensations were frequently requisite for the canonical legality
of marriages among them. The town rapidly increased from this period in
wealth and commercial rank, far surpassing in this respect the rival
city of Limerick. Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation with
liberal privileges, which was confirmed by his successor. It had the
right of coinage by act of parliament, but there is no evidence to show
that it exercised the privilege. Another charter, granted in 1545,
extended the jurisdiction of the port to the islands of Aran, permitted
the exportation of all kinds of goods except linens and woollens, and
confirmed all the former privileges. Large numbers of Cromwell's
soldiers are said to have settled in the town; and there are many traces
of Spanish blood among the population. Its municipal privileges were
extended by a charter from James I., whereby the town, and a district of
two miles round in every direction, were formed into a distinct county,
with exclusive jurisdiction and a right of choosing its own magistrates.
During the civil wars of 1641 the town took part with the Irish, and was
surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote; after
which the ancient inhabitants were mostly driven out, and their property
was given to adventurers and soldiers, chiefly from England. On the
accession of James II. the old inhabitants entertained sanguine hopes of
recovering their former rights. But the successes of King William soon
put an end to their expectations; and the town, after undergoing
another siege, again capitulated to the force brought against it by
General Ginkell.
GAMA, VASCO DA (c. 1460-1524), Portuguese navigator and discoverer of
the sea-route to India, was born at Sines, a small seaport in the
province of Alemtejo. Of da Gama's early history little is known. His
descent, according to the _Nobiliario_ of Antonio de Lima, was derived
from a noble family which is mentioned in the year 1166; but the line
cannot be traced without interruption farther back than the year 1280,
to one Alvaro da Gama, from whom was descended Estevao da Gama, civil
governor of Sines, whose third son Vasco was born probably about the
year 1460. In that year died Prince Henry the Navigator, to whose
intelligence and foresight must be traced back all the fame that
Portugal gained on the seas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Explorers
sent out at his instigation discovered the Azores and unknown regions on
the African coast, whence continually came reports of a great monarch,
"who lived east of Benin, 350 leagues in the interior, and who held both
temporal and spiritual dominion over all the neighbouring kings," a
story which tallied so remarkably with the accounts of "Prester John"
which had been brought to the Peninsula by Abyssinian priests, that John
II. of Portugal steadfastly resolved that both by sea and by land the
attempt should be made to reach the country of this potentate. For this
purpose Pedro de Covilham and Affonso de Payva were despatched eastward
by land; while Bartholomeu Diaz (q.v.), in command of two vessels, was
sent westward by sea (see ABYSSINIA, 14). That there was in truth an
ocean highway to the East was proved by Diaz, who returned in December
1488 with the report that when sailing southward he was carried far to
the east by a succession of fierce storms, past--as he discovered only
on his return voyage--what he ascertained to be the southern extremity
of the African continent. The condition of John's health and concerns of
state, however, prevented the fitting out of the intended expedition;
and it was not till nine years later, when Emanuel I. had succeeded to
the throne, that the preparations for this great voyage were
completed--hastened, doubtless, by Columbus's discovery of America in
the meanwhile.
For the supreme command of this expedition the king selected Vasco da
Gama, who had in his youth fought in the wars against Castile, and in
his riper years gained distinction as an intrepid mariner. The fleet,
consisting of four vessels specially built for this mission, sailed down
the Tagus on the 9th of July 1497, after prayers and confession made by
the officers and crews in a small chapel on the site where now stands
the church of S. Maria de Belem (see LISBON), afterwards built to
commemorate the event. Four months later the flotilla cast anchor in St
Helena Bay, South Africa, rounded the Cape in safety, and in the
beginning of the next year reached Malindi, on the east coast of Africa.
Thence, steering eastward, under the direction of a pilot obtained from
Indian merchants met with at this port, da Gama arrived at Calicut, on
the Malabar coast, on the 20th May 1498, and set up, according to the
custom of his country, a marble pillar as a mark of conquest and a proof
of his discovery of India. His reception by the zamorin, or Hindu ruler
of Calicut, would have in all probability been favourable enough, had it
not been for the jealousy of the Mahommedan traders who, fearing for
their gains, so incited the Hindus against the new-comers that da Gama
was unable to establish a Portuguese factory. Having seen enough of
India to assure him of its great resources, he returned to Portugal in
September 1499. The king received him with every mark of distinction,
granted him the use of the prefix _Dom_, thus elevating him to the rank
of an untitled noble, and conferred on him pensions and other property.
In prosecution of da Gama's discoveries another fleet of thirteen ships
was immediately sent out to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral, who, in
sailing too far westward, by accident discovered Brazil, and on reaching
his destination established a factory at Calicut. The natives, again
instigated by the Mahommedan merchants, rose up in arms and murdered all
whom Cabral had left behind. To avenge this outrage a powerful armament
of ten ships was fitted out at Lisbon, the command of which was at first
given to Cabral, but was afterwards transferred to da Gama, who
received the title admiral of India (January 1502). A few weeks later
the fleet sailed, and on reaching Calicut da Gama immediately bombarded
the town, treating its inhabitants with a savagery too horrible to
describe. From Calicut he proceeded in November to Cochin, "doing all
the harm he could on the way to all that he found at sea," and having
made favourable trading terms with it and with other towns on the coast,
he returned to Lisbon in September 1503, with richly laden ships. He and
his captains were welcomed with great rejoicings and he received
additional privileges and revenues.
Soon after his return da Gama retired to his residence in Evora,
possibly from pique at not obtaining so high rewards as he expected, but
more probably in order to enjoy the wealth and position which he had
acquired; for he was now one of the richest men in the kingdom. He had
married, probably in 1500, a lady of good family, named Catherina de
Ataide, by whom he had six sons. According to Correa, he continued to
advise King Emanuel I. on matters connected with India and maritime
policy up to 1505, and there are extant twelve documents dated 1507-1522
which prove that he continued to enjoy the royal favour. The most
important of these is a grant dated December 1519 by which Vasco da Gama
was created count of Vidigueira, with the extraordinary privileges of
civil and criminal jurisdiction and ecclesiastical patronage. During
this time the Portuguese conquests increased in the East, and were
presided over by successive viceroys. The fifth of these was so
unfortunate that da Gama was recalled from his seclusion by Emanuel's
successor, John III., and nominated viceroy of India, an honour which in
April 1524 he left Lisbon to assume. Arriving at Goa during September of
the same year, he immediately set himself to correct with vigour the
many abuses which had crept in under the rule of his predecessors. He
was not destined, however, to prosecute far the reforms he had
inaugurated, for, on the Christmas-eve following his arrival, he died at
Cochin after a short illness, and was buried in the Franciscan monastery
there. In 1538 his body was conveyed to Portugal and entombed in the
town of Vidigueira. In 1880 what were supposed on insufficient evidence
to have been his remains were transferred to the church of Santa Maria
de Belem. His voyage had the immediate result of enriching Portugal, and
raising her to one of the foremost places among the nations of Europe,
and eventually the far greater one of bringing to pass the colonization
of the East by opening its commerce to the Western world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Vasco da Gama's First Voyage_, by Dr E. Ravenstein
(London, Hakluyt Society, 1898), is a translation with notes, &c., of
the anonymous _Roteiro_ (Journal or Itinerary), written by one of
Vasco da Gama's subordinates who sailed on board the "S. Raphael,"
which was commanded by the admiral's brother Paulo da Gama. This is
the most important of the original authorities; five accounts of the
voyage in letters contemporary with it are appended to the Hakluyt
Society's translation. See also J. de Barros, _Decadas da India_
(Lisbon, 1778-1788, written c. 1540); F.L. de Castanheda, _Historia do
descobrimento da India_ (Coimbra, 1551, largely based on the
_Roteiro_); _The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama and his Viceroyalty_,
by Gaspar Correa (Hakluyt Society, 1869), chiefly valuable for the
events of 1524; _The Lusiads_ of Camoens, the central incident in
which is Vasco da Gama's first voyage; _Calcoen_ (i.e. _Calicut_), _a
Dutch Narrative of the Second Voyage of Vasco da Gama_, written by
some unknown seaman of the expedition, printed at Antwerp about 1504,
reprinted in facsimile, with introduction and translation, by J. Ph.
Berjeau (London, 1874); Thome Lopes, narrative (1502) in vol. i. of
Ramusio.
GAMALIEL ([Hebrew: Gamliel]). This name, which in Old Testament times
figures only as that of a prince of the tribe of Manasseh (_vide_ Num.
i. 10, &c.), was hereditary among the descendants of Hillel. Six persons
bearing the name are known.
1. GAMALIEL I., a grandson of Hillel, and like him designated Ha-Zaqen
(the Elder), by which is apparently indicated that he was numbered among
the Sanhedrin, the high council of Jerusalem. According to the tradition
of the schools of Palestine Gamaliel succeeded his grandfather and his
father (of the latter nothing is known but his name, Simeon) as _Nasi_,
or president of the Sanhedrin. Even if this tradition does not
correspond with historic fact, it is at any rate certain that Gamaliel
took a leading position in the Sanhedrin, and enjoyed the highest
repute as an authority on the subject of knowledge of the Law and in the
interpretation of the Scriptures. He was the first to whose name was
prefixed the title Rabban (Master, Teacher). It is related in the Acts
of the Apostles (v. 34 et seq.) that his voice was uplifted in the
Sanhedrin in favour of the disciples of Jesus who were threatened with
death, and on this occasion he is designated as a Pharisee and as being
"had in reputation among all the people" ([Greek: nomodidaskalos timios
panti to lao]). In the Mishna (_Gittin_ iv. 1-3) he is spoken of as the
author of certain legal ordinances affecting the welfare of the
community (the expression in the original is "_tiqqun ha-'olam_," i.e.
improvement of the world) and regulating certain questions as to
conjugal rights. In the tradition was also preserved the text of the
epistles regarding the insertion of the intercalary month, which he sent
to the inhabitants of Galilee and the Darom (i.e. southern Palestine)
and to the Jews of the Dispersion (Sanhedrin 11b and elsewhere). He
figures in two anecdotes as the religious adviser of the king and queen,
i.e. Agrippa I. and his wife Cypris (Pesahim 88 b). His function as a
teacher is proved by the fact that the Apostle Paul boasts of having sat
at the feet of Gamaliel (Acts. xxii. 3). Of his teaching, beyond the
saying preserved in Aboth i. 16, which enjoins the duty of study and of
scrupulousness in the observance of religious ordinances, only a very
remarkable characterization of the different natures of the scholars
remains (Aboth di R. Nathan, ch. xl.). His renown in later days is
summed up in the words (Mishna, end of Sotah): "When Rabban Gamaliel the
Elder died, regard for the Torah (the study of the Law) ceased, and
purity and piety died." As Gamaliel I. is the only Jewish scribe whose
name is mentioned in the New Testament he became a subject of Christian
legend, and a monk of the 12th century (Hermann the Premonstratensian)
relates how he met Jews in Worms studying Gamaliel's commentary on the
Old Testament, thereby most probably meaning the Talmud.
2. GAMALIEL II., the son of Simon ben Gamaliel, one of Jerusalem's
foremost men in the war against the Romans (_vide_ Josephus, _Bellum
Jud_. iv. 3, 9, _Vita_ 38), and grandson of Gamaliel I. To distinguish
him from the latter he is also called Gamaliel of Jabneh. In Jabneh
(Jamnia), where during the siege of Jerusalem the scribes of the school
of Hillel had taken refuge by permission of Vespasian, a new centre of
Judaism arose under the leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a
school whose members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of
Jerusalem. Gamaliel II. became Johanan ben Zakkai's successor, and
rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration of
Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the destruction
of the Temple and by the entire loss of its political autonomy. He put
an end to the division which had arisen between the spiritual leaders of
Palestinian Judaism by the separation of the scribes into the two
schools called respectively after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to
enforce his own authority as the president of the chief legal assembly
of Judaism with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he
himself said, not for his own honour nor for that of his family, but in
order that disunion should not prevail in Israel. Gamaliel's position
was recognized by the Roman government also. Towards the end of
Domitian's reign (c. A.D. 95) he went to Rome in company with the most
prominent members of the school of Jabneh, in order to avert a danger
threatening the Jews from the action of the terrible emperor. Many
interesting particulars have been given regarding the journey of these
learned men to Rome and their sojourn there. The impression made by the
capital of the world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an
overpowering one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins.
In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend Judaism in
polemical discussions with pagans, and also with professed Christians.
In an anecdote regarding a suit which Gamaliel was prosecuting before a
Christian judge, a converted Jew, he appeals to the Gospel and to the
words of Jesus in Matt. v. 17 (Shabbath 116 a, b). Gamaliel devoted
special attention to the regulation of the rite of prayer, which after
the cessation of sacrificial worship had become all-important. He gave
the principal prayer, consisting of eighteen benedictions, its final
revision, and declared it every Israelite's duty to recite it three
times daily. He was on friendly terms with many who were not Jews, and
was so warmly devoted to his slave Tabi that when the latter died he
mourned for him as for a beloved member of his own family. He loved
discussing the sense of single portions of the Bible with other
scholars, and made many fine expositions of the text. With the words of
Deut. xiii. 18 he associated the lesson: "So long as thou thyself art
merciful, God will also be merciful to thee." Gamaliel died before the
insurrections under Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Palestine. At
his funeral obsequies the celebrated proselyte Aquila (Akylas Onkelos),
reviving an ancient custom, burned costly materials to the value of
seventy minae. Gamaliel himself had given directions that his body was
to be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this he wished to
check the extravagance which had become associated with arrangements for
the disposal of the dead, and his end was attained; for his example
became the rule, and it also became the custom to commemorate him in the
words of consolation addressed to the mourners (Kethub. 8 b). Gamaliel's
son, Simon, long after his father's death, and after the persecutions
under Hadrian, inherited his office, which thenceforward his descendants
handed on from father to son.
3. GAMALIEL III., son of Jehuda I. the redactor of the Mishna, and his
successor as _Nasi_ (patriarch). The redaction of the Mishna was
completed under him, and some of his sayings are incorporated therein
(Aboth ii. 2-4). One of these runs as follows: "Beware of those in
power, for they permit men to approach them only for their own uses;
they behave as friends when it is for their advantage, but they do not
stand by a man when he is in need." Evidently this was directed against
the self-seeking of the Roman government. Gamaliel III. lived during the
first half of the 3rd century.
4. GAMALIEL IV., grandson of the above, patriarch in the latter half of
the 3rd century: about him very little is known.
5. GAMALIEL V., son and successor of the patriarch Hillel II.: beyond
his name nothing is known of him. He lived in the latter half of the 4th
century. He is the patriarch Gamaliel whom Jerome mentions in his letter
to Pamachius, written in 393.
6. GAMALIEL VI., grandson of the above, the last of the patriarchs, died
in 425. With him expired the office, which had already been robbed of
its privileges by a decree of the emperors Honorius and Theodosius II.
(dated the 17th of October 415). Gamaliel VI. was also a physician, and
a celebrated remedy of his is mentioned by his contemporary Marcellus
(_De Medicamentis_, liber 21). (W. Ba.)
GAMBETTA, LEON (1838-1882), French statesman, was born at Cahors on the
2nd of April 1838. His father, a Genoese, who had established himself as
a grocer and had married a Frenchwoman named Massabie, is said to have
been his son's prototype in vigour and fluency of speech. In his
sixteenth year young Gambetta lost by an accident the sight of his left
eye, which eventually had to be removed. Notwithstanding this privation,
he highly distinguished himself at the public school of Cahors, and in
1857 proceeded to Paris to study law. His southern vehemence gave him
great influence among the students of the Quartier Latin, and he was
soon known as an inveterate enemy of the imperial government. He was
called to the bar in 1859, but, although contributing to a Liberal
review, edited by Challemel Lacour, did not make much way until, on the
17th of November 1868, he was selected to defend the journalist
Delescluze, prosecuted for having promoted the erection of a monument to
the representative Baudin, who was killed in resisting the _coup d'etat_
of 1851. Gambetta seized his opportunity and assailed both the _coup
d'etat_ and the government with an eloquence of invective which made him
immediately famous.
In May 1869 he was returned to the Assembly, both by the first
circumscription of Paris and by Marseilles, defeating Hippolyte Carnot
for the former constituency and Thiers and Lesseps for the latter. He
elected to sit for Marseilles, and lost no opportunity of attacking the
Empire in the Assembly. He was at first opposed to the war with
Germany, but when satisfied that it had been forced upon France he did
not, like some of his colleagues, refuse to vote supplies, but took the
patriotic line of supporting the flag. When the news of the disaster at
Sedan reached Paris, Gambetta called for strong measures. He himself
proclaimed the fall of the emperor at the _corps legislatif_, and the
establishment of a republic at the hotel de ville. He was one of the
first members of the new government of national defence, becoming
minister of the interior. He advised his colleagues to leave Paris and
conduct the government from some provincial city. This advice was
rejected from dread of another revolution in Paris, and a delegation to
organize resistance in the provinces was despatched to Tours, but when
this was seen to be inefficient Gambetta himself (7th October) quitted
Paris in a balloon, and upon arriving at Tours took the supreme
direction of affairs as minister of the interior and of war. Aided by M.
de Freycinet, then a young officer of engineers, as his assistant
secretary of war, he displayed prodigies of energy and intelligence. He
speedily organized an army, which might possibly have effected the
relief of Paris if Metz had held out, but the surrender of Bazaine
brought the army of the crown prince into the field, and success was
impossible. After the defeats of the French near Orleans early in
December the seat of government had to be transferred to Bordeaux, and
when Paris surrendered at the end of January, Gambetta, though resisting
and protesting, was compelled to submit to the capitulation concluded
with Prince Bismarck. He immediately resigned his office. Elected by
nine departments to the National Assembly meeting at Bordeaux (on the
1st of March 1871) he chose to sit for Strassburg, which by the terms of
the treaty about to be submitted to the Assembly for ratification was to
be ceded to Prussia, and when the treaty was adopted he resigned in
protest and retired to Spain.
He returned to France in June, was elected by three departments in July,
and commenced an agitation for the definitive establishment of the
Republic. On the 5th of November 1871 he established a journal, _La
Republique francaise_, which soon became the most influential in France.
His orations at public meetings were more effective than those delivered
in the Assembly, especially that made at Bordeaux on his return, and
that at Grenoble on the 26th of November 1872, in which he spoke of
political power having passed to les _nouvelles couches sociales_. When
Thiers, however, fell from power in May 1873, and a Royalist was placed
at the head of the government in the person of Marshal MacMahon,
Gambetta gave proof of his statesmanship by unceasingly urging his
friends to a moderate course, and by his tact and parliamentary
dexterity, no less than by his eloquence, he was mainly instrumental in
the voting of the constitution in February 1875. This policy he
continued during the early days of the now consolidated Republic, and
gave it the appropriate name of "opportunism." It was not until the 4th
of May 1877, when the peril from reactionary intrigues was notorious,
and the clerical party had begun a campaign for the restoration of the
temporal power of the pope, that he delivered his famous speech
denouncing "clericalism" as "the enemy." On the 16th of May Marshal
MacMahon, in order to support the clerical reactionaries, perpetrated
his parliamentary _coup d'etat_, and on the 15th of August Gambetta, in
a speech at Lille, gave him the alternative se _soumettre ou se
demettre_. He then undertook a political campaign to rouse the
republican party throughout France, which culminated in a speech at
Romans (September 18, 1878) formulating its programme. MacMahon, equally
unwilling to resign or to provoke civil war, had no choice but to
dismiss his advisers and form a moderate republican ministry under the
premiership of Dufaure.
When the resignation of the Dufaure cabinet brought about the abdication
of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta declined to become a candidate for the
presidency, but gave his support to Grevy; nor did he attempt to form a
ministry, but accepted the office of president of the chamber of
deputies (January 1879). This position, which he filled with much
ability, did not prevent his occasionally descending from the
presidential chair to make speeches, one of which, advocating an amnesty
to the communards, was especially memorable. Although he really
directed the policy of the various ministries, he evidently thought that
the time was not ripe for asserting openly his own claims to direct the
policy of the Republic, and seemed inclined to observe a neutral
attitude as far as possible; but events hurried him on, and early in
1881 he placed himself at the head of a movement for restoring _scrutin
de liste_, or the system by which deputies are returned by the entire
department which they represent, so that each elector votes for several
representatives at once, in place of _scrutin d'arrondissement_, the
system of small constituencies, giving one member to each district and
one vote to each elector. A bill to re-establish _scrutin de liste_ was
passed by the Assembly on 19th May 1881, but rejected by the Senate on
the 19th of June.
But this personal rebuff could not alter the fact that in the country
his was the name which was on the lips of the voters at the election.
His supporters were in a large majority, and on the reassembling of the
chamber, the Ferry cabinet quickly resigned. Gambetta was unwillingly
entrusted by Grevy on the 14th of November 1881 with the formation of a
ministry--known as _Le Grand Ministere_. He now experienced the Nemesis
of his over-cautious system of abstinence from office for fear of
compromising his popularity. Every one suspected him of aiming at a
dictatorship; attacks, not the less formidable for their injustice, were
directed against him from all sides, and his cabinet fell on the 26th of
January 1882, after an existence of only sixty-six days. Had he remained
in office his declarations leave no doubt that he would have cultivated
the British alliance and cooperated with Great Britain in Egypt; and
when the Freycinet administration, which succeeded, shrank from that
enterprise only to see it undertaken with signal success by England
alone, Gambetta's foresight was quickly justified. His fortunes were
presenting a most interesting problem when, on the 31st of December
1882, at his house in Ville d'Avray, near Sevres, he died by a shot from
a revolver which accidentally went off. Then all France awoke to a sense
of her obligation to him, and his public funeral on the 6th of January
1883 evoked one of the most overwhelming displays of national sentiment
ever witnessed on a similar occasion.
Gambetta rendered France three inestimable services: by preserving her
self-respect through the gallantry of the resistance he organized during
the German War, by his tact in persuading extreme partisans to accept a
moderate Republic, and by his energy in overcoming the usurpation
attempted by the advisers of Marshal MacMahon. His death, at the early
age of forty-four, cut short a career which had given promise of still
greater things, for he had real statesmanship in his conceptions of the
future of his country, and he had an eloquence which would have been
potent in the education of his supporters. The romance of his life was
his connexion with Leonie Leon (d. 1906), the full details of which were
not known to the public till her death. This lady, with whom Gambetta
fell in love in 1871, was the daughter of a French artillery officer.
She became his mistress, and the _liaison_ lasted till he died. Gambetta
himself constantly urged her to marry him during this period, but she
always refused, fearing to compromise his career; she remained, however,
his confidante and intimate adviser in all his political plans. It is
understood that at last she had just consented to become his wife, and
the date of the marriage had been fixed, when the accident which caused
his death occurred in her presence. Contradictory accounts have indeed
been given as to this fatal episode, but that it was accidental, and not
suicide, is certain. On Gambetta the influence of Leonie was absorbing,
both as lover and as politician, and the correspondence which has been
published shows how much he depended upon her. But in various matters of
detail the serious student of political history must be cautious in
accepting her later recollections, some of which have been embodied in
the writings of M. Francis Laur, such as that an actual interview took
place in 1878 between Gambetta and Bismarck. That Gambetta after 1875
felt strongly that the relations between France and Germany might be
improved, and that he made it his object, by travelling incognito, to
become better acquainted with Germany and the adjoining states, may be
accepted, but M. Laur appears to have exaggerated the extent to which
any actual negotiations took place. On the other hand, the increased
knowledge of Gambetta's attitude towards European politics which later
information has supplied confirms the view that in him France lost
prematurely a master mind, whom she could ill spare. In April 1905 a
monument by Dalou to his memory at Bordeaux was unveiled by President
Loubet.
Gambetta's _Discours et plaidoyers politiques_ were published by J.
Reinach in 11 vols. (Paris, 1881-1886); his _Depeches, circulaires,
decrets_ ... in 2 vols. (Paris, 1886-1891). Many biographies have
appeared. The principal are J. Reinach, _Leon Gambetta_ (1884),
_Gambetta orateur_ (1884) and _Le Ministere Gambetta, histoire et
doctrine_ (1884); Neucastel, _Gambetta, sa vie, et ses idees
politiques_ (1885); J. Hanlon, _Gambetta_ (London, 1881); Dr Laborde,
_Leon Gambetta biographie psychologique_ (1898); P.B. Gheusi,
Gambetta, _Life and Letters_ (Eng. trans. by V.M. Montagu, 1910). See
also G. Hanotaux, _Histoire de la France contemporaine_ (1903, &c.).
F. Laur's _Le Coeur de Gambetta_ (1907, Eng. trans., 1908) contains
the correspondence with Leonie Leon; see also his articles on
"Gambetta and Bismarck" in _The Times_ of August 17 and 19, 1907, with
the correspondence arising from them. (H. Ch.)
GAMBIA, an important river of West Africa, and the only river of Africa
navigable by ocean-going boats at all seasons for over 200 m. from its
mouth. It rises in about 11 deg. 25' N. and 12 deg. 15' W., within 150
m. of the sea on the north-eastern escarpment of the Futa Jallon
highlands, the massif where also rise the head-streams of the Senegal
and some of the Niger tributaries, besides the Rio Grande and many other
rivers flowing direct to the Gulf of Guinea. The Gambia, especially in
its lower course, is very serpentine, and although the distance from the
source to the mouth of the river is little more than 300 m. in a direct
line, the total length of the stream is about 1000 m. It flows first
N.N.E., receiving many left-hand tributaries, but about 12 deg. 35' N.
takes a sharp bend N.W. and maintains this direction until it leaves the
fertile and hilly region of Bondu. The descent to the lower district is
marked by the Barraconda rapids, formed by a ledge of rock stretching
across the river. Between 30 and 50 m. above the falls the Gambia is
joined by two considerable affluents, the Nieriko from the north and the
Kuluntu or Grey river from the south. From the Barraconda rapids to the
Atlantic the Gambia has a course of about 350 m. Throughout this
distance the waters are tidal, and the river is navigable all the year
round by boats drawing 6 ft. of water. At Yarbatenda, a few miles below
Barraconda, the river has a breadth, even at the dry season, of over 300
ft., with a depth of 13 to 20 ft. From the falls to McCarthy's Island, a
distance of 200 m., the river valley, which here presents a park-like
appearance, is enclosed by low rocky hills of volcanic character. For 50
m. below the island, where the stream is about 800 yds. wide, the banks
of the river are steep and thickly wooded. They then become low and are
fringed with mangrove swamps. From Devil's Point, a sharp promontory on
the north bank--up to which place the water is salt--the river widens
considerably and enters the Atlantic, in about 13-1/2 deg. N. and 16-1/2
deg. W., by a broad estuary. Near the mouth of the river on the south
side is St Mary's Island (3-1/2 m. long by 1-1/2 broad), and opposite on
the north bank is Barra Point, the river being here contracted to 2-1/2
m. Eighteen miles lower down the distance from shore to shore is 27 m.
There is a sand-bar at the entrance to the river, but at the lowest
state of the tide there are 26 ft. of water over the bar. The Gambia is
in flood from November to June, when the Barraconda rapids are navigable
by small boats. Above the rapids the stream is navigable for 160 m.
Politically the Gambia is divided between Great Britain and
France--Britain possessing both banks of the river up to, but not
including, Yarbatenda.
The Gambia was one of the rivers passed by Hanno the Carthaginian in his
famous voyage along the west coast of Africa. It was known to Ptolemy
and the Arabian geographers, and was at one time supposed to be a mouth
of the Nile, and, later (18th century), a branch of the Niger. It was
possibly visited by Genoese navigators in 1291, and was certainly
discovered by the Portuguese c. 1446, but was first explored for any
distance from its mouth (1455) by the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto (q.v.),
who published an account of his travels at Vicenza in 1507 (_La Prima
Navigazione per l'Oceano alle terre de' Negri della Bassa Ethiopia_).
Afterwards the Gambia became a starting-place for explorers of the
interior, among them Mungo Park, who began both his journeys (1795 and
1805) from this river. It was not until 1818 that the sources of the
Gambia were reached, the discovery being made by a Frenchman, Gaspard
Mollien, who had travelled by way of the Senegal and Bondu. The middle
course of the river was explored in 1851 by R.G. MacDonnell, then
governor of the Gambia colony, and in 1881 Dr V.S. Gouldsbury also
navigated its middle course. No native craft of any kind was seen above
Barraconda. The more correct name of the river is Gambra, and it is so
called in old books of travel.
See Mungo Park's _Travels_ (London, 1799); G. Mollien, _Travels ... to
the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ..._, edited by T.E. Bowdich
(London, 1820); the account of Dr Gouldsbury's journey in the Blue
Book C 3065 (1881); also under the country heading below.
GAMBIA, the most northerly of the British West African dependencies. It
consists of a stretch of land on both sides of the lower Gambia. The
colony, with the protectorate dependent upon it, has an area of about
4000 sq. m. and a population officially estimated (1907) at 163,000. The
colony proper (including St Mary's Island, British Kommbo, the Ceded
Mile, McCarthy's Island and other islets) has an area of about 69 sq. m.
The protectorate consists of a strip of land extending ten kilometres
(about 6 m.) on each side of the river to a distance of about 200 m. in
a direct line from the sea. The land outside these limits is French.
Within the protectorate are various petty kingdoms, such as Barra, to
the north of the Gambia, and Kommbo, to the south. The breadth of the
colony near the coast is somewhat greater than it is higher up. The
greatest breadth is 39 m.
_Physical Features, Fauna and Flora._--The colony, as its name
implies, derives its character and value from the river Gambia (q.v.),
which is navigable throughout and beyond the limits of the colony,
while large ocean-going ships can always cross the bar at its mouth
and enter the port of Bathurst. Away from the swamps by the river
banks, the country is largely "bush." The region above McCarthy's
Island is hilly. Much of the land is cleared for cultivation. The
fauna includes lions, leopards, several kinds of deer, monkeys,
bush-cow and wild boar. Hippopotami are found in the upper part of the
river, and crocodiles abound in the creeks. The birds most common are
bush-fowl, bustards, guinea-fowl, quail, pigeon and sand-grouse. Bees
are very numerous in parts of the country. The flora resembles that of
West Africa generally, the mangrove being common. Mahogany and
rosewood (_Pterocarpus erinaceus_) trees are found, though not in
large numbers, and the rubber-vine and oil-palm are also comparatively
scarce. There are many varieties of fern. The cassava (manioca) and
indigo plants are indigenous.
_Climate._--The climate during the dry season (November-June) is the
best on the British West African coast, and the Gambia is then
considered fairly healthy. Measures for the extermination of the
malarial mosquito are carried on with good effect. The mean
temperature at Bathurst is 77 deg. F., the shade minimum being 56 deg.
and the solar maximum 165 deg. Upriver the variation in temperature is
even greater than at Bathurst, from 50 deg. in the morning to 100
deg.-104 deg. at 3 P.M. being common at McCarthy's Isle. The average
rainfall is about 50 in. a year, but save for showers in May and June
there is rarely any rain except between July and October. The first
instance of rain in December in twenty-six years was recorded in 1906.
The dry east wind known as the harmattan blows intermittently from
December to March.
_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants, who are both thrifty and industrious,
are almost entirely of Negro or Negroid race, the chief tribes
represented being the Mandingo (q.v.), the Jolof and the Jola. Numbers
of Fula (q.v.) are also settled in the country. Fully four-fifths of the
natives are Mahommedans. The few European residents are officials,
traders or missionaries.
_Towns and Trade._--Bathurst, pop. about 8000, the chief town of the
colony, in 13 deg. 24' N., 16 deg. 36' W., is built on St Mary's Island,
which lies at the mouth of the river near its south bank and is
connected with the mainland by a bridge across Oyster Creek. It was
founded in 1816 and is named after the 3rd earl Bathurst, secretary of
state for the colonies from 1812 to 1827. Bathurst is a fairly
well-built town, the chief material employed being red sandstone. It
lies about 12 to 14 ft. above the level of the river. The principal
buildings face the sea, and include Government House, barracks, a
well-appointed hospital, founded by Sir R.G. MacDonnell (administrator,
1847-1852), and various churches. The market-place is shaded by a fine
avenue of bombax and other wide-spreading trees. There are no other
towns of any size in the Gambia. A trading station called Georgetown is
situated on McCarthy's Island, so named after Sir Charles McCarthy, the
governor of Sierra Leone, who in 1824 was captured and beheaded by the
Ashanti at the battle of Essamako. Albreda, a small port on the north
bank of the river, of some historic interest (see below), is in the
Barra district.
_Products._--Ground-nuts (_Arachis hypogaea_), rubber, beeswax, palm
kernels, rice, cotton, and millet are the chief productions. Millet
and rice are the staple food of the people. The curing of hides, the
catching and drying of fish, boat-building, and especially the weaving
of cotton into cloths called "pagns," afford employment to a
considerable number of persons. Formerly the principal exports,
besides slaves, were gold-dust, wax and hides, the gold being obtained
from the Futa Jallon district farther inland. Between 1830 and 1840
from 1500 to 2000 oz. of gold were exported annually, but shipments
ceased soon afterwards, though small quantities of gold-dust can still
be obtained from native goldsmiths. The export of hides received a
severe check in 1892-1893 through the death of nearly all the cattle,
but after an interval of seven or eight years the industry gradually
revived. The value of hides exported increased from L520 in 1902 to
L9615 in 1907. The collection of rubber was started about 1880, but
the trade has not assumed large proportions. In 1907 the value of the
rubber exported was L4602. The export of wax, valued at L37,000 in
1843, had dwindled in 1907 to L2325. The cultivation of the
ground-nut, first exported in 1830, assumed importance by 1837, and by
1850 had become the chief industry of the colony. In 1907 the value of
the nuts was L256,685, over 11/12 of the total exports (exclusive of
specie). Nearly the whole male population is engaged in the industry
for eight months of the year. Planted in June, after the early rains,
the crop is reaped in October or November and exported to Europe (4/5
to Marseilles) for the extraction of its oil, which is usually sold as
olive oil. A feature of the industry is the appearance at the
beginning of the planting season of thousands of men from a distance,
"strange farmers," as they are called, who are housed and fed and
given farms to cultivate. In return they have to give half the produce
to the landlords. As soon as he has sold his nuts, the "strange
farmer" goes off, often not returning for years.
Apart from the cultivation of the ground-nut, the agricultural
resources of the country are undeveloped. Large herds of cattle are
kept by the Fula, and in cattle rich natives usually invest their
wealth. Land can be hired for 2d. an acre per annum for twenty-one
years. All land lying vacant or unused, or to which the occupier is
unable to produce any title, is vested in the crown. A botanical
station was opened in 1894, and the cultivation of American and
Egyptian cotton was taken in hand in 1902. The experiment proved
discouraging. Great difficulty was experienced in getting farmers to
grow cotton for export, as unless carried on on highly scientific
lines its cultivation is not so profitable as that of the ground-nut.
The principal imports, of which over 2/3 come from Great Britain or
British colonies, are cotton goods, kola-nuts (from Sierra Leone),
tobacco, rice, sugar and spirits. In the ten years 1898 to 1907 the
average annual value of the exports was L301,000, of the imports
L316,000. There are no mines in the colony, nor any apparent mineral
wealth, except ridges of ironstone in the regions above McCarthy's
Island. Bathurst is in telegraphic communication with Europe and the
rest of Africa. There are no railways in the colony, but it is
traversed by well-made roads of a uniform width of 18 ft. The
Liverpool mail steamers call at the port every fortnight. A government
steamer runs regularly from Bathurst to McCarthy's Island, and a
smaller boat plies on the upper river. The shipping trade is chiefly
British; French and German tonnage coming next.
Surrounded on all sides, save seawards, by French territory, the
colony largely depends, economically, upon France, to which country
most of the exports go. A considerable entrepot trade is also done
with the neighbouring French colonies. The extent of French influence
is indicated by the fact that the five-franc piece, locally known as a
dollar, is largely circulated throughout the protectorate, and is
accepted as legal tender, although the currency in the colony proper
is the English coinage.
_Administration, Revenue, &c._--The Gambia is administered by a
governor, assisted by an executive and a legislative council. On the
last-named body nominated unofficial members have seats. The colony is
self-supporting and has no public debt. The revenue, which in 1906 for
the first time exceeded L60,000, is mainly derived from customs. A
company of the West African Frontier Force is maintained. Travelling
commissioners visit the five districts into which, for administrative
purposes, the protectorate is divided, and in which the native form of
government prevails. From the native law-courts appeal can be made to
the supreme court at Bathurst. There is also at Bathurst a Mahommedan
court, established in 1906, for the trial of cases involving the civil
status of Moslems.
Primary schools are maintained by the various religious denominations,
and receive grants from government. The Wesleyans have also a
secondary and a technical school. There is a privately supported
school for Mahommedans at Bathurst. The Anglicans, Wesleyans and Roman
Catholics have numerous converts.
_History._--Of the early history of the Gambia district there is scant
mention. At what period the stone circles and pillars (apparently of a
"Druidical" character), whose ruins are found at several places along
the upper Gambia, were erected is not known. Those at Lamin Koto, on the
right bank of the river opposite McCarthy's Island, are still in good
preservation, and are an object of veneration to the Mahommedans (see
_Geog. Journ._ vol. xii., 1898). The country appears to have formed
part, successively, of the states of Ghana, Melle and Songhoi. The
relations, political and commercial, of the natives were all with the
north and east; consequently no large town was founded on the banks of
the river, nor any trade carried on (before the coming of the white man)
by vessels sailing the ocean. About the 11th century the district came
under Mahommedan influence.
The Portuguese visited the Gambia in the 15th century, and in the
beginning of the 16th century were trading in the lower river. Embassies
were sent from the Portuguese stations inland to Melle to open up trade
with the interior, but about the middle of the century this
trade--apparently mostly in gold and slaves--declined. At the end of the
century the river was known as the resort of banished men and fugitives
from Portugal and Spain. It was on the initiative of Portuguese living
in England that Queen Elizabeth, in 1588, granted a patent to "certain
merchants of Exeter and others of the west parts and of London for a
trade to the river of Senega and Gambra in Guinea." This company was
granted a monopoly of trade for ten years. Its operations led to no
permanent settlement in the Gambia. In 1618 James I. granted a charter
to another company named "The Company of Adventurers of London trading
into Africa," and formed at the instigation of Sir Robert Rich,
afterwards earl of Warwick, for trade with the Gambia and the Gold
Coast. This company sought to open up trade with Timbuktu, then believed
to be a great mart for gold, which reached the lower Gambia in
considerable quantities. With this object George Thompson (a merchant
who had traded with Barbary) was sent out in the "Catherine," and
ascended the Gambia in his ship to Kassan, a Portuguese trading town,
thence continuing his journey in small boats. In his absence the
"Catherine" was seized and the crew murdered by Portuguese and
half-castes, and Thompson himself was later on murdered by natives. Two
years afterwards Richard Jobson, another agent of the Company of
Adventurers, advanced beyond the falls of Barraconda; and he was
followed, about forty years later, by Vermuyden, a Dutch merchant, who
on his return to Europe asserted that he had reached a country full of
gold.
The Company of Adventurers had built a fort near the mouth of the
Gambia. This was superseded in 1664 by a fort built by Captain
(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes on a small island 20 m. from the
mouth of the river and named Fort James, in honour of the duke of York
(James II.). This fort was built expressly to defend the British trade
against the Dutch, and from that time the British remained in permanent
occupation of one or more ports on the river. In 1723 Captain
Bartholomew Stibbs was sent out by the Royal African Company, which had
succeeded the earlier companies, to verify Vermuyden's reports of gold.
He proceeded 60 m. above the falls, but the land of gold was not found.
The French now became rivals for the trade of the Gambia, but the treaty
of Versailles in 1783 assigned the trade in the river to Britain,
reserving, however, Albreda for French trade, while it assigned the
Senegal to France, with the reservation of the right of the British to
trade at Portendic for gum. This arrangement remained in force till
1857, when an exchange of possessions was effected and the lower Gambia
became a purely British river. In the period between the signing of the
treaty of Versailles and 1885 the small territories which form the
colony proper were acquired by purchase or cession from native kings. St
Mary's Isle was acquired in 1806; McCarthy's Isle was bought in 1823;
the Ceded Mile was granted by the king of Barra in 1826; and British
Kommbo between 1840 and 1855. During this period the colony had gone
through an economic crisis by the abolition of the slave trade (1807),
which had been since 1662 its chief financial support. The beginning of
a return to prosperity came in 1816 when some British traders, obliged
to leave Senegal on the restoration of that country to France after the
Napoleonic wars, founded a settlement on St Mary's Isle. From that year
the existing colony, as distinct from trading on the river, dates. The
Gambia witnessed many administrative changes. When the slave trade was
abolished, the settlement was placed under the jurisdiction of the
governor of Sierra Leone, and was formally annexed to Sierra Leone on
the dissolution of the Royal African Company (1822). It so remained
until 1843, when the Gambia was made an independent colony, its first
governor being Henry Frowd Seagram. Afterwards (1866) the Gambia became
a portion of the officially styled "West African Settlements." In 1883
it was again made a separate government, administered as a crown colony.
Between the years last mentioned--1866-1888--the colony had suffered
from the retrograde policy adopted by parliament in respect to the West
African Settlements (_vide_ Report of the Select Committee of 1865).
In 1870 negotiations were opened between France and Great Britain on the
basis of a mutual exchange of territories in West Africa. Suspended
owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War the negotiations were
resumed in 1876. "Definite proposals were at that time formulated by
which the Gambia was to be exchanged for all posts by France between the
Rio Pongas (Pongo river, French Guinea) and the Gabun. This would have
been a comprehensive and intelligible arrangement, but so strong a
feeling in opposition to any cession of British territory was manifested
in parliament, and by various mercantile bodies, that the government of
the day was unable to press the scheme."[1] Nothing was done, however,
to secure for the Gambia a suitable _hinterland_, and in 1877 the 4th
earl of Carnarvon (then colonial secretary) warned British traders that
they proceeded beyond McCarthy's Isle at their own risk. Meantime the
French from Senegal pushed their frontier close to the British
settlements, so that when the boundaries were settled by the agreement
of the 10th of August 1889 with France, Great Britain was able to secure
only a ten-kilometre strip on either side of the river. This document
fixed the frontier of the British protectorate inland at a radius of 10
m. from the centre of the town of Yarbatenda; which town is situated at
the limit of navigability of the Gambia from the sea. By Art. 5 of the
Anglo-French convention of the 8th of April 1904, Yarbatenda was ceded
to France, with the object of giving that country a port on the river
accessible to sea-going merchantmen.
Since 1871 the colony had been self-supporting, but on the acquirement
of the protectorate it was decided, in order to balance increasing
expenditure, to impose a "hut tax" on the natives. This was done in
1895. The tax, which averages 4s. per annum for a family, met with no
opposition.
In 1892 a slave-raiding chief, named Fodi Kabba, had to be forcibly
expelled from British territory. In 1894 another slave-raider, Fodi
Silah, gave much trouble to the protectorate. An expedition under
Captain E.H. (afterwards admiral) Gamble succeeded in routing him, and
Fodi Silah took refuge in French territory, where he died. During the
expedition Captain Gamble was led into an ambush, and in this engagement
lost 15 killed and 47 wounded. In 1900 trouble again arose through the
agency of Fodi Kabba, who had fixed his residence at Medina, in French
territory. Two travelling commissioners (Mr F.C. Sitwell and Mr Silva)
were murdered in June of that year, at a place called Suankandi, and a
punitive expedition was sent out under Colonel H.E. Brake. Suankandi was
captured and, the French co-operating, Medina was also captured, Fodi
Kabba being killed on the 23rd of March 1901.
The people of the protectorate are in general peaceful and contented,
and slave trading is a thing of the past. Provision was moreover made by
an ordinance of 1906 for the extinction of slavery itself throughout the
protectorate, it being enacted that henceforth all children born of
slaves were free from birth, and that all slaves became free on the
death of their master.
See the _Annual Reports_ on the colony published by the colonial
office, London, which give the latest official information; C.P.
Lucas's _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vol. iii.,
_West Africa_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900) (this book contains valuable
bibliographical notes); and _The Gambia Colony and Protectorate_, an
official handbook (with map and considerable historical information),
by F.B. Archer, treasurer of the colony (London, 1906). Early accounts
of the country will be found in vol. ii. of Thomas Astley's _New
General Collection of Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1745-1747). See
also Major W. Gray and Surgeon Dochard, _Travels in Western Africa in
1818-1821, from the River Gambia ... to the River Niger_ (London,
1829). The flora has been the subject of a special study, A. Rancon,
_La Flore utile du bassin de la Gambie_ (Bordeaux, 1895). Most of the
books mentioned under GOLD COAST also deal with the Gambia.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Extract from a despatch of Lord Salisbury to the British
ambassador to France, dated 30th of March 1892.
GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER, BARON (1756-1833), English admiral, was born on
the 13th of October 1756 at the Bahamas, of which his father, John
Gambier, was at that time lieutenant-governor. He entered the navy in
1767 as a midshipman on board the "Yarmouth," under the command of his
uncle; and, his family interest obtaining for him rapid promotion, he
was raised in 1778 to the rank cf post-captain, and appointed to the
"Raleigh," a fine 32-gun frigate. At the peace of 1783 he was placed on
half-pay; but, on the outbreak of the war of the French Revolution, he
was appointed to the command of the 74-gun ship "Defence," under Lord
Howe; and in her he had an honourable share in the battle on the 1st of
June 1794. In recognition of his services on this occasion, Captain
Gambier received the gold medal, and was made a colonel of marines; the
following year he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral, and
appointed one of the lords of the admiralty. In this office he continued
for six years, till, in February 1801, he, a vice-admiral of 1799,
hoisted his flag on board the "Neptune," of 98 guns, as third in command
of the Channel Fleet under Admiral Cornwallis, where, however, he
remained for but a year, when he was appointed governor of Newfoundland
and commander-in-chief of the ships on that station. In May 1804 he
returned to the admiralty, and with a short intermission in 1806,
continued there during the naval administration of Lord Melville, of his
uncle, Lord Barham, and of Lord Mulgrave. In November 1805 he was raised
to the rank of admiral; and in the summer of 1807, whilst still a lord
of the admiralty, he was appointed to the command of the fleet ordered
to the Baltic, which, in concert with the army under Lord Cathcart,
reduced Copenhagen, and enforced the surrender of the Danish navy,
consisting of nineteen ships of the line, besides frigates, sloops,
gunboats, and naval stores. This service was considered by the
government as worthy of special acknowledgment; the naval and military
commanders, officers, seamen and soldiers received the thanks of both
Houses of Parliament, and Admiral Gambier was rewarded with a peerage.
In the spring of the following year he gave up his seat at the admiralty
on being appointed to the command of the Channel Fleet; and in that
capacity he witnessed the partial, and prevented the total, destruction
of the French fleet in Basque Roads, on the 12th of April 1809. It is in
connexion with this event, which might have been as memorable in the
history of the British navy as it is in the life of Lord Dundonald (see
DUNDONALD), that Lord Gambier's name is now best known. A court-martial,
assembled by order of a friendly admiralty, and presided over by a warm
partisan, "most honourably acquitted" him on the charge "that, on the
12th of April, the enemy's ships being then on fire, and the signal
having been made that they could be destroyed, he did, for a
considerable time, neglect or delay taking effectual measures for
destroying them"; but this decision was in reality nothing more than a
party statement of the fact that a commander-in-chief, a supporter of
the government, is not to be condemned or broken for not being a person
of brilliant genius or dauntless resolution. No one now doubts that the
French fleet should have been reduced to ashes, and might have been, had
Lord Gambier had the talents, the energy, or the experience of many of
his juniors. He continued to hold the command of the Channel Fleet for
the full period of three years, at the end of which time--in 1811--he
was superseded. In 1814 he acted in a civil capacity as chief
commissioner for negotiating a treaty of peace with the United States;
for his exertions in which business he was honoured with the Grand Cross
of the Bath. In 1830 he was raised to the high rank of admiral of the
fleet, and he died on the 19th of April 1833.
Lord Gambier was a man of earnest, almost morbid, religious principle,
and of undoubted courage; but the administration of the admiralty has
seldom given rise to such flagrant scandals as during the time when he
was a member of it; and through the whole war the self-esteem of the
navy suffered no such wound as during Lord Gambier's command in the Bay
of Biscay.
The so-called _Memorials, Personal and Historical, of Admiral Lord
Gambier_, by Lady Chatterton (1861), has no historical value. The life
of Lord Gambier is to be read in Marshall's _Royal Naval Biography_,
in Ralfe's _Naval Biography_, in Lord Dundonald's _Autobiography of a
Seaman_, in the Minutes of the Courts-Martial and in the general
history of the period.
GAMBIER, a village of College township, Knox county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
the Kokosing river, 5 m. E. of Mount Vernon. Pop. (1900) 751; (1910)
537. It is served by the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus railway. The
village is finely situated, and is the seat of Kenyon College and its
theological seminary, Bexley Hall (Protestant Episcopal), and of
Harcourt Place boarding school for girls (1889), also Protestant
Episcopal. The college was incorporated in 1824 as the "Theological
Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio"; but
in 1891 "Kenyon College," the name by which the institution has always
been known, became the official title. Its first exercises were held at
Worthington, Ohio, in the home of Philander Chase (1775-1852), first
Protestant Episcopal bishop in the North-west Territory, by whose
efforts the funds for its endowment had been raised in England in
1823-1824, the chief donors being Lords Kenyon and Gambier. The first
permanent building, "Old Kenyon" (still standing, and used as a
dormitory), was erected on Gambier Hill in 1827 in the midst of a
forest. In 1907-1908 the theological seminary had 18 students and the
collegiate department 119.
Some account of the founding of the college may be found in Bishop
Chase's _Reminiscences; an Autobiography, comprising a History of the
Principal Events in the Author's Life to 1847_ (2 vols., New York,
1848).
GAMBOGE (from Camboja, a name of the district whence it is obtained), a
gum-resin procured from _Garcinia Hanburii_, a dioecious tree with
leathery, laurel-like leaves, small yellow flowers, and usually
square-shaped and four-seeded fruit, a member of the natural order
Guttiferae, and indigenous to Cambodia and parts of Siam and of the
south of Cochin China, formerly comprised in Cambojan territory. The
juice, which when hardened constitutes gamboge, is contained in the bark
of the tree, chiefly in numerous ducts in its middle layer, and from
this it is procured by making incisions, bamboo joints being placed to
receive it as it exudes. Gamboge occurs in commerce in cylindrical
pieces, known as pipe or roll gamboge, and also, usually of inferior
quality, in cakes or amorphous masses. It is of a dirty orange
externally; is hard and brittle, breaks with a conchoidal and
reddish-yellow, glistening fracture, and affords a brilliant yellow
powder; is odourless, and has a taste at first slight, but subsequently
acrid; forms with water an emulsion; and consists of from 20 to 25% of
gum soluble in water, and from 70 to 75% of a resin. Its commonest
adulterants are rice-flour and pulverized bark.
Gamboge (_Cambogia_) is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, causing much
griping and irritation of the intestine. A small quantity is absorbed,
adding a yellow ingredient to the urine and acting as a mild diuretic.
Its irritant action on the skin may cause the formation of pustules. It
is less active only than croton oil and elaterium, and may be given in
doses of half to two grains, combined with some sedative such as
hyoscyamus, in apoplexy and in extreme cases of dropsy. Gamboge is used
as a pigment, and as a colouring matter for varnishes. It appears to
have been first brought into Europe by merchants from the East at the
close of the 16th century.
GAMBRINUS, a mythical Flemish king who is credited with the first
brewing of beer. His name is usually derived from that of Jan Primus,
i.e. Jan (John) I., the victorious duke of Brabant, from 1261 to 1294,
who was president of the Brussels gild of brewers; his portrait with a
foaming glass of ale in his hand had the place of honour in the
gild-hall, and this led in time, it is suggested, to the myth of the
beer-king who is usually represented outside a barrel with a tankard in
his hand.
GAME, a word which in its primary and widest significance means any
amusement or sport, often combined in the early examples with "glee,"
"play," "joy" or "solace." It is a common Teutonic word, in O. Eng.
_gamen_, in O.H.G. _gaman_, but only appears in modern usage outside
English in Dan. _gammen_ and Swed. _gamman_. The ulterior derivation is
obscure, but philologists have identified it with the Goth. _gaman_,
companion or companionship; if this be so, it is compounded of the
prefix _ga_-, with, and the root seen in "man." Apart from its primary
and general meaning the word has two specific applications, first to a
contest played as a recreation or as an exhibition of skill, in
accordance with rules and regulations; and, secondly, to those wild
animals which are the objects of the chase, and their flesh as used for
food, distinguished as such from meat, fish and poultry, and from the
flesh of deer, to which the name "venison" is given. For "game," from
the legal aspect, and the laws relating to its pursuit and capture see
GAME LAWS. The athletic contests of the ancient Greeks ([Greek: agones])
and the public shows (_ludi_) of the arena and amphitheatre of the
ancient Romans are treated below (GAMES, CLASSICAL); the various forms
of modern games, indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or
chance, are dealt with under their specific titles. A special use
("gaming" or "gambling") restricts the term to the playing of games for
money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in
horse-racing, &c. (see GAMING AND WAGERING). "Gamble," "gambler" and
"gambling" appear very late in English. The earliest quotations in the
_New English Dictionary_ for the three words are dated 1775, 1747 and
1784 respectively. They were first regarded as cant or slang words, and
implied a reproach, either as referring to cheats or sharpers, or to
those who played recklessly for extravagant stakes. The form of the
words is obscure, but is supposed to represent a local variation
_gammle_ of the M.E. _gamenian_. From this word must, of course, be
distinguished "gambol," to sport, frisk, which, as the older forms
(_gambald, gambaud_) show, is from the Fr. _gambade_, leap, jump, of a
horse, It. _gambado_, _gamba_, leg (Mod. Fr. _jambe_).
GAME LAWS. This title in English law is applied to the statutes which
regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of wild
animals (see above). The existence of these statutes is due to the rules
of the common law as to the nature of property, and the interest of the
Norman sovereigns and of feudal superiors in the pleasures of sport or
the chase. The substantial basis of the law of property is physical
possession of things and the power to deal with them as we see fit. By
the common law wild animals are regarded as _res nullius_, and as not
being the subject of private property until reduced into possession by
being killed or captured. A bird in the hand is owned: a bird in the
bush is not. Even bees do not become property until hived. "Though a
swarm lights in my tree," says Bracton, "I have no more property therein
than I have in the birds which make their nests thereon." If reclaimed
or confined they become property. If they escape, the rights of the
owner continue only while he is in pursuit of the fugitive, i.e. no
other person can in the meantime establish a right of property against
him by capturing the animal. A swarm of bees "which fly out of my hive
are mine so long as I can keep them in sight and have power to pursue
them." But the right of recapture does not entitle the owner to follow
his animals on to the lands of another, and the only case in which any
right to follow wild animals on to the lands of others is now expressly
recognized is when deer or hares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds.
This recognition merely excepts such pursuit from the law as to criminal
game trespass, and fox-hunters and those who course hares or hunt stags
are civilly liable for trespass if they pass over land without the
consent of the occupier (_Paul v. Summerhayes_, 1878, 4 Q.B.D. 9).
It is a maxim of the common law that things in which no one can claim
any property belong to the crown by its prerogative: this rule has been
applied to wild animals, and in particular to deer and what is now
called "game." The crown rights may pass to a subject by grant or
equivalent prescription. In the course of time the exclusive right to
take game, &c., on lands came to be regarded as incidental to the
ownership or occupation of the lands. This is described as the right to
game _ratione soli_. In certain districts of England which are crown
forests or chases or legal parks, or subject to rights of free warren,
the right to take deer and game is not in the owner or occupier of the
soil, but is in the crown by prerogative, or _ratione privilegii_ in the
grantee of the rights of chase, park or free warren, which are anterior
to and superior to those of the owner or occupier of the lands over
which the privilege has been granted. In all cases where these special
rights do not exist, the right to take or kill wild animals is treated
as a profit incidental to the ownership or occupation of the land on
which they are found, and there is no public right to take them on
private land or even on a highway; nor is there any method known to the
law by which the public at large or an undefined body of persons can
lawfully acquire the right to take wild animals _in alieno solo_.
In the nature of things the right to take wild animals is valuable as to
deer and the animals usually described as game, and not as to those
which are merely noxious as vermin, or simply valueless, as small birds.
Upon the rules of the common law there has been grafted much legislation
which up till the end of the 18th century was framed for the
preservation of deer and game for the recreation and amusement of
persons of fortune, and to prevent persons of inferior rank from
squandering in the pursuit of game time which their station in life
required to be more profitably employed. These enactments included the
rigorous code known as the Laws of the Forest (see FOREST LAWS), as well
as what are usually called the Game Laws.
In England the older statutes relating to game were all repealed early
in the 19th century. From the time of Richard II. (1389) to 1831, no
person might kill game unless qualified by estate or social standing, a
qualification raised from a 40s. freehold in 1389 to an interest of L100
a year in freehold or L150 in long leaseholds (1673). In 1831 this
qualification by estate was abolished as to England. But in Scotland the
right to hunt is theoretically reserved to persons who have in heritage
that unknown quantity a "plough-gate of land" (Scots Act 1621, c. 31);
and in Ireland qualifications by estate are made necessary for killing
game and keeping sporting dogs (Irish Act 1698, 8 Will. III. c. 8). In
England the game laws proper consist of the Night Poaching Acts of 1828
and 1844, the Game Act of 1831, the Poaching Prevention Act 1862, and
the Ground Game Acts of 1880 and 1906. From the fact that the right of
landowners over wild animals on their land does not amount to ownership
it follows that they cannot prosecute any one for stealing live wild
animals: and that apart from the game laws the only remedy against
poachers is by civil action for trespass. As between trespasser and
landowner the law is peculiar (_Blades_ v. _Higgs_, 1865, 11 H.L.C.
621). If A starts and kills a hare on B's land the dead hare belongs to
B (_ratione soli_) and not to A, though he has taken the hare by his own
efforts (_per industriam_). But if A hunts the hare from B's land on to
C's land and there kills it, the dead hare belongs to A and not to B or
C. It is not B's because it was not taken on his land, and it is not C's
because it was not started on his land. In other words the right of each
owner is limited to animals both started and killed on his own land, and
in the case of conflicting claims to the animal taken (made _ratione
soli_) the captor can make title (_per industriam_) against both
landowners. If he is a trespasser he is liable to civil or criminal
proceedings by both landowners, but the game is his unless forfeited
under a statute. Another peculiar result of the law is that where
trespassers (e.g. poachers) kill and carry off game or rabbits as part
of one continuous transaction they are not guilty of theft, but only of
game trespass (_R_. v. _Townley_, 1871, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 315), but it is
theft for a trespasser to pick up and carry off a pheasant killed by the
owner of the land on his own land or even a pheasant killed by an
independent gang of poachers. The young of wild animals belong (_propter
impotentiam_) to the owner of the land until they are able to fly or run
away. This right does not extend to the eggs of wild birds. But the
owner can reduce the eggs into possession by taking them up and setting
them under hens or in enclosures. And if this is done persons who take
them are thieves and not merely poachers. A game farm, like a decoy for
wild water-fowl, is treated as a trade or business; but a game preserve
in which full-grown animals fly or run wild is subject to the ordinary
incidents of the law as to animals _ferae naturae_.
The classification of wild animals for purposes of sport in England is
as follows:--
1. Beasts of forest are hart and hind (red deer), boar, wolf and all
beasts of venery.
2. Beasts of chase and park are buck and doe (fallow deer), fox,
marten and roe, or all beasts of venery and hunting.
3. Beasts of (free) warren are roe, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant,
woodcock, quail, rail and heron.
4. Game, as defined by the Night Poaching Act of 1828 and the Game Act
of 1831, is pheasant, partridge, black game, red grouse, bustard and
hare. In France game (_gibier_) includes everything eatable that runs
or flies.
5. Wild fowl not in any of the previous lists which are nevertheless
prized for sport, e.g. duck, snipe, plovers, &c.
6. Wild birds not falling within class 4 are more or less protected
against destruction by the Wild Birds Protection Acts, which were,
however, passed with quite other objects than the game laws.
As regards class 1 no subject without special authority of the crown
may kill within a forest or its purlieus or on adjacent highways,
rivers or enclosures. The right to the animals in a forest does not
depend on ownership of the land but on the royal prerogative as to the
animals, i.e. it exists not _ratione soli_ but _ratione privilegii_:
and this right is not in any way altered by the Game Act 1831. A chase
is a forest in the hands of a subject and a legal park (which is an
enclosed chase) is created by crown grant or by prescription founded
on a lost grant. The rights of the grantee are in substance the same
as those of the crown in a forest, and do not depend on ownership of
the soil. In the case of a free warren the grantee usually but not
necessarily owns some or all of the soil over which the right of
warren runs. The right of free warren depends on crown grant or
prescription founded on lost grant, and involves a right of property
over beasts and fowl of warren on all lands within the franchise. As
will appear from the list above, some game birds are not fowl of
warren, e.g. black game and red grouse (_Duke of Devonshire_ v.
_Lodge_, 1827, 7 B. & C. 39). Free warren is quite different from
ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred by the owner of
the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such warrens is protected
under the Larceny Act 1861, s. 17, as well as by the game laws. In
manors, of which none have been created since 1290, the lord by his
franchise had the sporting rights over the manor, but at the present
time this right is restricted to the commons and wastes of the manor,
the freehold whereof is in him, and does not extend to enclosed
freeholds nor as a general rule to enclosed copyholds, unless at the
time of enclosure the sporting rights were reserved to him by the
Enclosure Act or award (_Sowerby_ v. _Smith_, 1873, L.R. 8 C.P. 514).
In other words his rights exist ratione _soli_ and not _ratione
privilegii_. The Game Act 1831 gives lords of manors and privileged
persons certain rights as to appointing gamekeepers with special
powers to protect game within the district over which their rights
extend (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws in no way cut down the
special privileges as to forest, park, chase or free warren (1831, s.
9), and confirm the sporting right of lords of manors on the wastes of
the manor (1831, s. 10). As to all lands not affected by these rights,
the right to kill or take game on the land is presumably in the
occupier. On letting land the owner may, subject to the qualifications
hereinafter stated, reserve to himself the right to kill or take
"game" or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently with or in
exclusion of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in the landlord
the tenant is not only liable to forfeiture or damages for breaches of
covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on summary
conviction if without the lessor's authority he pursues, kills or
takes any "game" upon the land or gives permission to others to do so
(1831, s. 12). In effect he is made criminally liable for game
trespass on lands in his own occupation, so far as relates to game,
but is not so liable if he takes rabbits, snipe, woodcock, quails or
rails.
The net effect of the common law and the game laws is to give the
occupier of lands and the owner of sporting rights over them the
following remedies against persons who infringe their right to kill or
take wild animals on the land. A stranger who enters on the land of
another to take any wild animals is liable to the occupier for
trespass on the land and for the animals started and killed on the
land by the trespasser. He is also criminally liable for game trespass
if he has entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of "game" or
woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or rabbits. If the trespass is in
the daytime (whether on lands of the subject or in royal forests,
&c.), the penalty on conviction may not exceed 40s., unless five or
more persons go together, in which case the maximum penalty is L5. If
a single offender refuses his name or address or gives a false address
to the occupier or to the owner of the sporting rights or his
representatives, or refuses to leave the land, he may be arrested by
them, and is liable to a penalty not exceeding L5, and if five or more
concerned together in game trespass have a gun with them and use
violence, intimidation or menace, to prevent the approach of persons
entitled to take their names or order them off the land, they incur a
further penalty up to L5.
If the trespass is in search or pursuit of game _or rabbits_ in the
nighttime, the maximum penalty on a first conviction is imprisonment
with hard labour for not over three months; on a second, imprisonment,
&c., for not over six months, and the offender may be put under
sureties not to offend again for a year after a first conviction or
for two years after a second conviction. For a first or second offence
the conviction is summary, subject to appeal to quarter sessions, but
for a third offence the offender is tried on indictment and is liable
to penal servitude (3-7 years) or imprisonment with hard labour (2
years). The offenders may be arrested by the owner or occupier of the
land or their servants, and if the offenders assault or offer violence
by firearms or offensive weapons they are liable to be indicted and on
conviction punished to the same extent as in the last offence. In 1844
the above penalties were extended to persons found by night on
highways in search or pursuit of game. If three or more trespass
together on land by night to take or destroy game or rabbits, and any
of them is armed with firearms, bludgeon or other offensive weapon,
they are liable to be indicted and on conviction sentenced to penal
servitude (3-14 years) or imprisonment with hard labour (2 years). By
"day" time is meant from the beginning of the first hour before
sunrise to the end of the first hour after sunset, and by "night" from
the end of the first hour after sunset to the beginning of the first
hour before sunrise (act of 1828, s. 12; act of 1831, s. 34). The time
is reckoned by local and not by Greenwich time.
The penalties for night poaching are severe, but encounters between
the owners of sporting rights and armed gangs of poachers have often
been attended by homicide. It is to be observed that it is illegal and
severely punishable to set traps or loaded spring guns for poachers
(Offences against the Person Act 1861, s. 31), whereby any grievous
bodily harm is intended or may be caused even to a trespasser, so that
the incursions of poachers can be prevented only by personal
attendance on the scene of their activities; and it is to be observed
also that the provisions of the Game Laws above stated are, so far as
concerns private land, left to be enforced by private enterprise
without the interference of the police, with the result that in some
districts there are scenes of private nocturnal war. Even in the Night
Poaching Act 1844, which applies to highways, the arrest of offenders
is made by owners, occupiers or their gamekeepers. The police were not
given any direct authority as to poachers until the Poaching
Prevention Act 1862, under which a constable is empowered "on any
highway, street or public place, to search any person whom he may have
good cause to suspect of coming from any land where he shall have been
unlawfully in search or pursuit of 'game,' or any persons aiding or
abetting such person, and having in his possession any game unlawfully
obtained, or any gun, part of gun, or nets or engines used for the
killing or taking game; and also to stop and search any cart or other
conveyance in or upon which such constable or peace officer shall have
good cause to suspect that any such game, or any such article or
thing, is being carried by such person." If any such thing be found
the constable is to detain it, and apply for a summons against the
offender, summoning him to appear before a petty sessional court, on
conviction before which he may be fined not more than L5, and forfeits
the game, guns, &c., found in his possession. In this act "game"
includes woodcock, snipe and rabbits, and the eggs of game birds other
than bustards; and the act applies to poaching either by night or by
day. In all cases of summary conviction for poaching an appeal lies to
quarter sessions. In all cases of poaching the game, &c., taken may be
forfeited by the court which tries the poacher.
_Close Time._--On certain days, and within periods known as "close
time," it is illegal to kill deer or game. The present close times are
as follows:--
+----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
| | England. | Ireland. | Scotland. |
+----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
| Hare | None | April 21 to Aug. 11* | None |
| Red deer (male) | None | Jan. 1 to June 9 | None |
| Fallow deer | None | Sept. 29 to June 10 | None |
| Roe deer | None | None | None |
| Pheasant | Feb. 1 to Sept. 30 | Feb.1 to Sept. 30 (1845)| Feb. 1 to Sept. 30 |
| Partridge | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 (1899)| Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 |
| Black game | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20**| Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 |
| Red grouse | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 |
| Ptarmigan | None | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 |
| Bustard (wild turkey)| March 1 to Sept. 1 | Jan. 10 to Sept. 1 | None |
+----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
* Unless varied by order of lord-lieutenant.
** Except in Devon, Somerset and New Forest, where to Sept. 1.
In England and Ireland the winged game above named and hares may not
be killed on Sundays or Christmas Day. It is illegal to sell or expose
for sale hares or leverets in March, April, May, June and July. It is
illegal throughout the United Kingdom to buy or sell winged game birds
after ten days from the beginning of the close season as fixed by the
English law (1831, s. 4; 1860, s. 13). This prohibition applies to the
sale of live game, British or foreign, and to the sale of British dead
game. It is illegal to lay poison for game or rabbits except in rabbit
holes, and it is illegal to kill game by firearms at night. Wild birds
not within the list above given but of interest for sport are
protected by close times fixed under the Wild Birds Protection Acts,
which may vary in each county of each kingdom.
_Licences_.--Besides the restrictions on the right to take or kill
game which arise out of the law as to ownership or occupation of the
lands on which it is found, there are further restrictions imposed by
the laws of excise. From the time of Richard II. (1389) until 1831 the
right of persons other than gamekeepers properly deputed by the lord
of a manor to take game was made to depend on the social rank of the
person, or on the amount of his interest in land, which ranged from a
40s. freehold (in 1389) to L100 a year (1671). These restrictions were
abolished in 1831, and the right to kill game was made conditional on
the possession of a game certificate, now called a game licence in
Great Britain (act of 1831, ss. 6, 23). By s. 4 of the Game Licences