the reins of government. Pray what is the first reform you would
introduce?--The Master replied: I would begin by defining terms and
making them exact.[4]--Oh, indeed! exclaimed Tzu Lu. But how can
you possibly put tilings straight by such a circuitous route?--The
Master said: How unmannerly you are, Yu! In matters which he does not
understand, the wise man will always reserve his judgment. If terms are
not correctly defined, words will not harmonise with things. If words
do not harmonise with things, public business will remain undone. If
public business remains undone, order and harmony will not flourish.
If order and harmony do not flourish, law and justice will not attain
their ends. If law and justice do not attain their ends, the people
will be unable to move hand or foot. The wise man, therefore, frames
his definitions to regulate his speech, and his speech to regulate his
actions. He is never reckless in his choice of words.
Fan Ch‘ih asked to be taught the art of husbandry. The Master said:
Any farmer can teach you that better than I can. He then asked to be
taught gardening. The Master said: Any gardener will teach you that
better than I can. Fan Ch‘ih having gone out, the Master said: What a
small-minded man is Fan Hsü! If the ruler is addicted to modesty and
self-control, his people will not permit themselves to be irreverent.
If the ruler loves justice and duty, his people will not venture to be
unruly. If the ruler loves sincerity and good faith, the people will
not be slow to respond. Such being his qualities, the people will flock
to him from all quarters, with their babes strapped to their backs.
What need for him to know the art of husbandry?[5]
The Master said: If the ruler is personally upright, his subjects will
do their duty unbidden; if he is not personally upright, they will not
obey, whatever his bidding.
When the Master went to Wei, Jan Yu drove his carriage. The Master
said: What an abundant population!--Jan Yu said: Now that the people
are so abundant, what is the next thing to be done?--Enrich them, said
Confucius.--And having enriched them, what then?--Teach them, was the
reply.
The Master said: If a country had none but good rulers for a hundred
years, crime might be stamped out and the death-penalty abolished. How
true this saying is!
If a kingly sovereign were to appear, by the end of one generation
natural goodness would prevail.
If a man can reform his own heart, what should hinder him from taking
part in government? But if he cannot reform his own heart, what has he
to do with reforming others?
Duke Ting[6] asked if there was a single sentence by which a country
might be made to flourish. Confucius answered: No single sentence can
be expected to have such a virtue as this. But there is the common
saying: "To be a good king is difficult; to be a good minister is not
easy." He who realises the difficulty of being a good king--has he not
almost succeeded in making his country prosper by a single sentence?
--Is there a single sentence, continued the Duke, by which a country
can be ruined?--Confucius answered: No such power can reside in any
single sentence. But there is a saying: "I have no joy in kingly rule,
I rejoice only because none can oppose my will." Now if the king's will
is good, and none opposes it, all may be well; but if it is not good,
and yet none opposes it, has he not almost succeeded in ruining his
country be a single sentence?
The Duke of Shê[7] asked about the conditions of good government. The
Master said: Government is good when it makes happy those who live
under it and attracts those who live far away.
Tzü Hsia, when governor of Chü-fu,[8] asked for advice on government.
The Master said: Do not try to do things in a hurry. Do not be intent
on small gains. What is done quickly is not done thoroughly; and if
small gains are considered, great things remain unaccomplished.
Tzŭ Lu asked about the service due to a prince. The Master said: Use no
deceit, but if you oppose him, oppose him openly.
The Master said: If the ruler cherishes the principle of self-control,
the people will be docile to his commands.[9]
Shun[10] was one who did nothing, yet governed well. For what, in
effect, did he do? Religiously self-observant, he sat gravely on his
throne, and that is all.[11]
In serving your prince, make the actual service your first care, and
only put the emolument second.
The head of the Chi clan was on the point of attacking the small
principality of Chuan-yü. Jan Yu and Chi Lu came to see Confucius,
and said: Our lord is going to have trouble with Chuan-yü.--Confucius
said: Is it not you, Ch‘iu, who are to blame in this? The ancient
kings long ago made Chuan-yü the centre of the worship of the Eastern
Mêng mountain, and moreover it is situated within the territory of
Lu. Its ruler has independent priestly functions.[12] What right have
you to attack it?--Jan Yu replied: It is the will of our master;
we, his ministers, have neither of us any wish to act thus.--Ch‘iu,
said Confucius, Chou Jên[13] had a saying: "If you are capable of
displaying energy, hold office; if not, resign." Of what use is that
minister likely to be, who does not sustain his master in the presence
of danger, or support him when about to fall? Besides, what you say
is wrong. If a tiger or a wild buffalo escapes from its cage, if a
tortoise-shell or jade ornament is smashed in its casket, whose fault
is it, pray?--Jan Yu replied: But Chuan-yü is strongly fortified, and
close to our own town of Pi. If we do not take it now, it will cause
trouble to our descendants in a later generation.--Confucius rejoined:
Ch‘iu, an honest man hates your hypocrite who will not openly avow his
greed, but tries instead to excuse it. I have heard that the ruler of
a state or of a clan is troubled not by the smallness of its numbers
but by the absence of even-handed justice; not by poverty but by the
presence of discontent; for where there is justice there will be no
poverty; where there is harmony there will be no lack in numbers;
where there is content there will be no revolution. This being the
case then, if outlying communities resist your authority, cultivate
the arts of refinement and goodness in order to attract them; and
when you have attracted them, make them happy and contented. Now you
two, Yu and Ch‘iu, are aiding and abetting your master; here is an
outlying community which resists your authority, and you are unable
to attract it. Partition and collapse are imminent in your own State,
and you are unable to preserve it intact. And yet you are planning
military aggression within the borders of your country! Verily I fear
that Chi-sun's [14]troubles will come, not from Chuan-yü, but from the
interior of his own palace.
When the Master came to Wu-ch‘êng, he heard the sound of singing and
stringed instruments. He was pleased, but said with a smile: Is it
necessary to take a pole-axe to kill a fowl?--Tzŭ Yu replied: Some
time ago, Sir, I heard you say that the study of true principles made
the ruler beneficent and men of the lower class easy to govern.--My
children, said the Master, Yen is right. What I said was only in
jest.[15]
Tzŭ Chang asked Confucius, saying: What are the essentials of good
government?--The Master said: Esteem the five excellent, and banish the
four evil things; then you will become fit to govern.--Tzŭ Chang asked:
What are the five excellent things?--The Master replied: The wise and
good ruler is benevolent without expending treasure; he lays burdens
on the people without causing them to grumble; he has desires without
being covetous; he is serene without being proud; he is awe-inspiring
without being ferocious.--He is benevolent without expending treasure:
what does that mean?--The Master replied: He simply follows the course
which naturally brings benefit to the people.[16] Is he not thus
benevolent without expending treasure? In imposing burdens, he chooses
the right time and the right means, and nobody can grumble. His desire
is for goodness, and he achieves it; how should he be covetous? The
wise and good ruler never allows himself to be negligent, whether he is
dealing with many men or with few, with small matters or with great.
Is this not serenity without pride? He has his cap and robe properly
adjusted, and throws a noble dignity into his looks, so that his
gravity inspires onlookers with respect. Is he not thus awe-inspiring
without being ferocious?--Tzŭ Chang then asked: What are the four evil
things?--The Master said: Cruelty:--leaving the people in their native
ignorance, yet punishing their wrong-doing with death. Oppression:--
requiring the immediate completion of tasks imposed without previous
warning. Ruthlessness:--giving vague orders, and then insisting on
punctual fulfilment. Peddling husbandry:--stinginess in conferring the
proper rewards on deserving men.[17]
[1] _Ai_ was the honorary epithet of the Duke of Lu who was reigning
during the last years of Confucius' life.
[2] Chi K‘ang Tzu succeeded to the headship of the great Chi family in
491, when Chi Huan died, by whom he was advised to recall Confucius
from his long wanderings. The sage, however, did not return until eight
years later.
[3] The point of the original lies partly in the fact that the Chinese
words for "govern" and "straight" are similar in form and identical in
sound.
[4] The hidden meaning of this saying is made clear by the context
to be found in Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien's biography of Confucius. The Prince of
Wei at this time was the young man mentioned on p. 128 as holding the
throne against his own father. By so doing he had in some sort inverted
the relationship which should have subsisted between them, and each was
in a false position, the father being deprived of his proper parental
dignity, and the son no longer "doing his duty as a son" (see p. 41).
Confucius then is administering a veiled rebuke to the young ruler, for
in saying that the first reform necessary is the correct definition
of names, he implies in effect that the terms "father" and "son,"
among others, should be made to resume their proper significance. An
alternative rendering of _chêng ming_ as "rectification of the written
character," though backed by the great authority of M. Chavannes, can
only be described as feeble and far-fetched, and has been ably confuted
by Herr Franke in the _T'oung Pao_ for July, 1906.
[5] Confucius is of course merely insisting on the principle of
division of labour, and not by any means depreciating the value of
husbandry or other useful arts. It is not the ruler's business to make
himself proficient in these, because the task of governing and setting
an example to the governed will claim all his attention. Compare
Plato's disapproval of πολυπραγμοσύνη, and Confucius' remarks on his
own skill in various arts (p. 88).
[6] The weak ruler of the Lu State (510-494 B.C.), who lost the
services of Confucius by his infatuation in accepting the insidious
gift of eighty beautiful singing-girls from the Ch‘i State. See
Introduction, p. 16.
[7] Shê was a district of the Ch‘u State, which Confucius visited in
488 B.C. The following anecdote, told by T‘an Kung, is a striking
illustration of the above saying. Travelling with his disciples,
the Master came across a woman weeping and wailing beside a grave,
and inquired the cause of her grief. "Alas!" she replied. "My
father-in-law was killed here by a tiger; after that, my husband; and
now my son has perished by the same death."--"But why, then, do you
not go elsewhere?"--"The government here is not harsh," answered the
woman.--"There!" cried the Master, turning to his disciples, "remember
that. Bad government is worse than a tiger."
[8] A small city in Lu.
[9] Legge translates: "When rulers love to observe the rules of
propriety (!), the people respond readily to the calls on them for
service." All the other translators seem likewise to have missed the
point, which is elsewhere insisted on by Confucius--that no man is fit
to govern others who cannot govern himself. On the meaning of _li_, see
Introduction, pp. 30 _seqq._, and note on p. 60.
[10] A legendary Emperor.
[11] This saying might have come straight from the mouth of a Taoist
philosopher. Nor is it the only place where Confucius seems to advocate
quietism. Cf. p. 108.
[12] Literally, "a minister of the altars to the spirits of the land
and grain"; i.e. a direct vassal of the Emperor, and responsible only
to him.
[13] An ancient historiographer, of whom very little is known.
[14] The head of the Chi clan mentioned above.
[15] Wu‘Chêng means "Martial city," so called from its impregnable
position. Tzŭ Yu, when appointed governor, had succeeded in weaning the
people from their warlike propensities, and in introducing the milder
arts of peace. This is what made the Master glad, though he could not
help being amused at the application of the loftiest principles to such
a tiny community. About ancient Chinese music we know unfortunately
next to nothing, but it seems to have played as important a part under
the Chou dynasty as in Plato's ideal State.
[16] That is to say, the ruler will always keep the welfare of his
people in view, but without indulging in indiscriminate largess. The
ever-increasing doles of money and corn with which the Roman Emperors
were obliged to buy the favour of the populace would thus have fallen
under the condemnation of Confucius.
[17] The "four evil things" really turn out to be reducible to two,
namely (1) Cruelty--covering the first three; and (2) Meanness.
INDIVIDUAL VIRTUE
The Master said: Is he not a princely man[1]--he who is never vexed
that others know him not?
True virtue[2] rarely goes with artful speech and insinuating looks.
At home, a young man should show the qualities of a son; abroad, those
of a younger brother. He should be circumspect but truthful. He should
have charity in his heart for all men, but associate only with the
virtuous. After thus regulating his conduct, his surplus energy should
be devoted to literary culture.
In the matter of food and lodging, the nobler type of man does not seek
mere repletion and comfort. He is earnest in his affairs and cautious
in his speech, and frequents virtuous company for his own improvement.
He may be called one truly bent on the study of virtue.[3]
Mêng I Tzŭ[4] asked for a definition of filial piety. The Master said:
It consists in there being no falling off.[5]--Fan Ch‘ih was driving
the Master's carriage some time after, when the latter told him,
saying: Mêng I Tzŭ asked me about filial piety, and I answered that it
consisted in there being no falling off.--Fan Ch'ih said: What did you
mean?--The Master replied: That parents should be served in the proper
spirit while living, buried with the proper rites after death, and
worshipped thereafter with the proper sacrifices.
Mêng Wu Po[6] asked for a definition of filial piety. The Master said:
There is filial piety when parents are spared all anxiety about their
children except when they happen to fall sick.[7]
Tzŭ Yu put a question on the subject of filial piety. The Master said:
The filial piety of to-day reduces itself to the mere question of
maintenance. Yet this is something in which even our dogs and horses
have a share.[8] Without the feeling of reverence, what is there to
distinguish the two cases?
Tzŭ Hsia also asked about filial piety. The Master said: It can hardly
be gauged from mere outward acts.[9] When there is work to be done,
to relieve one's elders of the toil; or when there is wine and food,
to cause them to partake thereof--is _this_ to be reckoned filial
piety?[10]
Tzŭ Kung inquired about the higher type of man. The Master replied: The
higher type of man is one who acts before he speaks, and professes only
what he practises.
The Master said: The higher type of man is catholic in his sympathy
and free from party bias; the lower type of man is biassed and
un-sympathetic.
A man without charity in his heart--what has he to do with ceremonies?
A man without charity in his heart--what has he to do with music?[11]
Lin Fang inquired as to the prime essential in ceremonial observances.
The Master said: Ah, that is a great question indeed! In all rites,
simplicity is better than extravagance; in mourning for the dead,
heartfelt sorrow is better than punctiliousness.
The Master said: The true gentleman is never contentious. If a spirit
of rivalry is anywhere unavoidable, it is at a shooting-match. Yet
even here he courteously salutes his opponents before taking up
his position, and again when, having lost, he retires to drink the
forfeit-cup. So that even when competing he remains a true gentleman.
It is the spirit of charity which makes a locality good to dwell in. He
who selects a neighbourhood without regard to this quality cannot be
considered wise.
Only he who has the spirit of goodness within him is really able either
to love or to hate.
The princely man never for a single instant quits the path of virtue;
in times of storm and stress he remains in it as fast as ever.
The nobler sort of man in his progress through the world has neither
narrow predilections nor obstinate antipathies. What he follows is the
line of duty.
The nobler sort of man is proficient in the knowledge of his duty; the
inferior man is proficient only in money-making.
In serving his father and mother, a son may use gentle remonstrance;
if he sees that they pay no heed, he should not desist, but merely
increase in deference; if his pains are thrown away, he must show no
resentment.
While one's parents are alive, one should not travel to a distance; if
one must travel, it should be in a fixed direction.[12]
The age of one's parents should always be kept in mind--on the one
hand, as a subject for rejoicing; on the other, as a cause for alarm.
The wise man will be slow to speak but quick to act.
Tzŭ Chang asked, saying: The Prime Minister Tzŭ Wên[13] held office
three times, but showed no joy; he lost it three times, but testified
no concern. When he ceased to be Prime Minister, he was careful to
explain the political situation to his successor. What is your opinion
of him?--
The Master said: He was loyal and conscientious.[14]--Had he not the
highest degree of moral virtue?--That I do not know; how can one judge
of his moral virtue?--Tzŭ Chang continued: When Ts‘ui Tzŭ[15] slew
the Prince of Ch‘i, Ch‘ên Wên Tzŭ, though the possessor of ten teams
of war-horses, forsook his wealth and turned his back on the country.
Having come to another state, he said: "Here they are as bad as our own
minister Ts‘ui Tzŭ," and departed. And he repeated this proceeding each
time that he came to a new state.[16] What is your opinion of him?--The
Master said: He was pure and incorruptible.--Had he not the highest
degree of virtue?--I cannot say; how is one to judge?
The Master said: When the solid outweighs the ornamental, we have
boorishness; when the ornamental outweighs the solid, we have
superficial smartness. Only from a proper blending of the two will the
higher type of man emerge. All men are born good. He who loses his
goodness and yet lives is lucky to escape.
Better than one who knows what is right is one who is fond of what is
right; and better than one who is fond of what is right is one who
delights in what is right.
Fan Ch‘ih asked in what wisdom consisted. The Master said: Make
righteousness in human affairs your aim, treat all supernatural beings
with respect, but keep aloof from them--then you may be called wise.
Asked about moral virtue, he replied: The virtuous man thinks of
the difficult thing[17] first, and makes material advantage only a
secondary consideration. This may be said to constitute moral virtue.
The Master said: The man of knowledge finds pleasure in the sea,
the man of virtue finds pleasure in the mountains.[18] For the man
of knowledge is restless and the man of virtue is calm. The man of
knowledge is happy, and the man of virtue is long-lived.
The higher type of man, having gathered wide objective knowledge from
the branches of polite learning, will regulate the whole by the inner
rule of conduct,[19] and will thus avoid overstepping the limit.
That virtue is perfect which adheres to a constant mean. It has long
been rare amongst men.
Tzŭ Kung asked: What would you say of the man who conferred benefits
far and wide on the people and was able to be the salvation of all?
Would you pronounce him a man of moral virtue?--Of moral virtue? said
the Master. Nay, rather, of divine virtue.[20] Even Yao and Shun were
still striving to attain this height.
The man of moral virtue, wishing to stand firm himself, will lend
firmness unto others; wishing himself to be illuminated, he will
illuminate others. To be able to do to others as we would be done
by[21]--this is the true domain of moral virtue.
It has not been my lot to see a divine man; could I see a princely
man, that would satisfy me. It has not been my lot to see a thoroughly
virtuous man; could I see a man possessing honesty of soul, that would
satisfy me. Is it possible there should be honesty of soul in one who
pretends to have what he has not; who, when empty, pretends to be
overflowing; who, when in want, pretends to be in affluence?
The higher type of man is calm and serene; the inferior man is
constantly agitated and worried.
With sincerity and truth unite a desire for self-culture. Lay down
your life rather than quit the path of virtue. Enter not the state
which is tottering to its fall. Abide not in the state where sedition
is rampant. When law obtains in the Empire, let yourself be seen; when
lawlessness reigns, retire into obscurity. In a state governed on right
principles, poverty and low station are things to be ashamed of; in an
ill-governed state, riches and rank are things to be ashamed of.
The man of wisdom does not vacillate; the man of natural goodness does
not fret; the man of valour does not fear.
Yen Yüan inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master said:
The subdual of self, and reversion to the natural laws governing
conduct--this is true goodness. If a man can for the space of one day
subdue his selfishness and revert to natural laws, the whole world will
call him good. True goodness springs from a man's own heart. How can it
depend on other men?--Yen Yüan said: Kindly tell me the practical rule
to be deduced from this.--The Master replied: Do not use your eyes,
your ears, your power of speech or your faculty of movement without
obeying the inner law of self-control.[22]--Yen Yüan said: Though I am
not quick in thought or act, I will make it my business to carry out
this precept.
Chung Kung inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master
said: When out of doors, behave as though you were entertaining a
distinguished guest; in ruling the people, behave as though you were
officiating at a solemn sacrifice; what you would not wish done to
yourself, do not unto others.[23] Then in public as in private life
you will excite no ill-will. Chung Kung said: Though I am not quick in
thought or act, I will make it my business to carry out this precept.
Ssŭ-ma Niu inquired as to the meaning of true goodness. The Master
said: The truly good man is slow of speech.[24]--Slowness of speech!
Is this what goodness consists in?--The Master said: Does not the
difficulty of deciding what it is right to _do_ necessarily imply
slowness to _speak_?
Ssŭ-ma Niu asked for a definition of the princely man. The Master said:
The princely man is one who knows neither grief nor fear.--Absence of
grief and fear! Is this the mark of a princely man?--The Master said:
If on searching his heart he finds no guilt, why should he grieve? of
what should he be afraid?
Tzŭ Chang asked how to attain exalted virtue. ... The Master said: Make
conscientiousness and truth your guiding principles, and thus pass on
to the cultivation of duty to your neighbour. This is exalted virtue.
The Master said: The nobler sort of man emphasises the good qualities
in others, and does not accentuate the bad. The inferior sort does the
reverse.