[Illustration: BOILING WATER IN A PAPER CASE.]
[Illustration: DRAWING A SLIP OF PAPER FROM BENEATH A COIN.]
[Illustration: THE TALKING HEAD.]
POPULAR
SCIENTIFIC RECREATIONS
IN
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, ASTRONOMY,
GEOLOGY, CHEMISTRY,
ETC., ETC., ETC.
_Translated and Enlarged from “Les Récréations Scientifiques”_
OF
GASTON TISSANDIER.
(_Editor of “La Nature.”_)
PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED.
London:
WARD, LOCK, AND CO., WARWICK HOUSE,
SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C.
NEW YORK: 10, BOND STREET.
PREFACE.
A learned mathematician of the seventeenth century, Ozanam by name, a
member of the Academy of Sciences and author of several distinguished
works, did not think it derogatory to his dignity to write, under the
title of “Mathematical and Physical Recreations,” a book designed for
the amusement of youth, in which science lends itself to every pastime,
even jugglery and tricks of legerdemain.
“_Jeux d’esprit_” says Ozanam, “are for all seasons and all ages; they
instruct the young, they amuse the old, they are welcomed by the rich,
and are not above the reach of the poor.”
The object of the book now presented to the reader is also to instruct
while it amuses, but we have not thought proper to make use, as Ozanam
did, of any physical feats, so called _amusing_. Such do not constitute
experiments, and are but ingenious deceptions, intended to disguise
the true mode of operation, and we have not desired to make use of or
popularise such methods. We wish, on the contrary, that every game we
describe, every pastime or amusement of which we give the exposition,
should be rigorously based on the scientific method, and looked upon
as a genuine exercise in physics, chemistry, mechanics, or natural
science. It does not appear to us desirable to teach deception, even in
play.
Science in the open air, in the fields, in the sunshine, is our first
study; we point out how, in the country, it is possible, pleasantly and
unceasingly, to occupy one’s leisure in observing nature, in capturing
insects or aquatic animals, or in noting atmospheric phenomena.
We next teach a complete course of physics without any apparatus, and
point out the methods for studying the different phenomena of heat,
light, optics, and electricity, by means of a simple water-bottle,
tumbler, stick of sealing-wax, and other ordinary objects, such as
everyone has at hand. A series of chemical experiments, performed by
means of some phials and inexpensive appliances, completes that part of
the book relating to the physical sciences.
Another kind of recreation, both intelligent and useful, consists
in collecting the ingenious inventions which are constantly being
supplied to our requirements by the applied sciences, and learning how
to use them. We have collected a number of mechanical inventions and
appliances, with which most ingenious and skilful people will wish to
supply themselves, from Edison’s electric pen, or the chromograph,
which will produce a large number of copies of a letter, drawing, etc.,
to the more complicated, but not less valuable contrivances, for making
science useful in the house.
Having described some scientific toys for the young, we have
endeavoured to point out those interesting to persons of riper years,
and have grouped together curious systems of locomotion, and ingenious
mechanical appliances, such as small steam-boats, ice-boats, swimming
apparatus, etc., under proper heads.
In addition to the foregoing subjects, we have included some of the
experimental details of Chemical Science, with illustrations. We have
added a chapter upon Aërial Navigation and Ballooning, with anecdotes
of some of our celebrated aëronauts. We have also enlarged upon Light,
Sound, Heat, Physical Geography, Mineralogy, Geology, Electrical
Appliances, the Electric Light, and most of the latest adaptations of
electricity.
It will be seen, therefore, that the present work is not only
intended for the young; everyone, it is hoped, will find in it
something interesting and also profitable, which, if not desired for
self-instruction, may at any rate be turned to account as a means of
teaching others that science, which is universal, can, when rightly
apprehended, preside even over our pleasures and amusements.
THE EDITOR.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.—INTRODUCTORY.
PAGE
Science and Recreation—The Book of Nature—The Senses—Natural
History—Natural Philosophy—Matter—Objects—Properties of Matter 1
CHAPTER II.—OPEN-AIR SCIENCE.
Science in the Open Air—Aphides—Evaporation by Leaves—An Aquarium—The
Cataleptic Fowl—Needle Points and Thorns—Microscopic Aquarium—Cape
Grisnez—Crystals—Ice on the Gas Lamps 6
CHAPTER III.—PHYSICS.
Physics—The Meaning of Physics—Forces of
Nature—Gravity—Cohesion—Chemical Attraction—Centre of
Gravity—Experiments—Automaton Tumblers 22
CHAPTER IV.—PHYSICS (_Continued_).
Some Properties of Solid Bodies—Inertia—Motion—Friction—The
Pendulum—Equilibrium 35
CHAPTER V.—GASES.
Gases and Liquids—Pressure of the Air—Experiments 44
CHAPTER VI.—WATER.
About Water—Hydrostatics and Hydraulics—Law of Archimedes—The Bramah
Press—The Syphon 59
CHAPTER VII.—HEAT.
Heat—What it is—Theory of Heat—The Thermometer—Expansion by
Heat—Ebullition and Distillation 72
CHAPTER VIII.—HEAT (_Continued_).
Specific Heat—Fusion—Latent Heat—Conduction and Convection of
Heat—Calorescence 88
CHAPTER IX.—LIGHT.
Light and its Sources—What is Light?—Velocity of Light—Reflection and
Refraction—Relative Value of Lights 93
CHAPTER X.—LIGHT (_Continued_).
Vision and Optical Illusions—The Eye Described—Accommodation of the
Eye—Chromatic Aberration—Spinning Tops 102
CHAPTER XI.—OPTICS.
Optical Illusions—Zollner’s Designs—The Thaumatrope—Phenokistoscope—The
Zootrope—The Praxinoscope—The Dazzling Top 116
CHAPTER XII.—OPTICS (_Continued_).
Optical Illusions Continued—Experiments—The Talking Head—Ghost
Illusions 129
CHAPTER XIII.—OPTICS (_Continued_).
Vision—The Eye—The Stereoscope—Spectrum Analysis—The Spectroscope—The
Telescope and Microscope—Photography—Dissolving Views—Luminous
Paint 140
CHAPTER XIV.—SPECTRAL ILLUSIONS.
A Spectre Visible—Curious Illusions—Ghosts 161
CHAPTER XV.—ACOUSTICS.
The Ear and Hearing—Physiology of Hearing and Sound—Sound as Compared
with Light—What is Sound?—Velocity of Sound—Conductibility—The
Harmonograph 166
CHAPTER XVI.—ACOUSTICS (_Continued_).
The Topophone—The Megaphone—The Autophone—The Audiphone—The
Telephone—The Phonograph—The Microphone 180
CHAPTER XVII.—ACOUSTICS (_Continued_).
The Tuning-Fork—The Syren—Sound Figures—Singing Flames 193
CHAPTER XVIII.—ELECTRICITY.
Derivation of Electricity—Sealing Wax Experiment—The
Electrophorus—Leyden Jar—Positive and Negative—The
Electroscope—Electric Machines 197
CHAPTER XIX.
Velocity of Electricity—Experiments—The Electric Egg—Force of the
Electric Spark 212
CHAPTER XX.—GALVANISM.
Galvani’s Discovery—The Frogs Electrified—Experiments—Volta’s
Pile—The Test—Its Usefulness—Faraday’s “Researches.” 217
CHAPTER XXI.—MAGNETISM.
The Loadstone—Magnetic Curves—The Magnetic Needle—The Mariner’s
Compass—Magneto-Electricity 254
CHAPTER XXII.—APPLIED ELECTRICITY.
Sundry Electrical Appliances—Mr. Edison’s Inventions—The Electric
Light—The Gyroscope—A New Electrophorus—Electric Toys 262
CHAPTER XXIII.—AERONAUTICS.
Pressure of Air in Bodies—Early Attempts to fly in the Air—Discovery
of Hydrogen—The Montgolfier Balloons—First Experiments in Paris—Noted
Ascents 293
CHAPTER XXIV.—CHEMISTRY.
What Chemistry is—The Elements—Metallic and Non-Metallic—Atomic
Weight—Acids—Alkalis—Bases—Salts—Chemical Combination and Study 307
CHAPTER XXV.—CHEMISTRY (_Continued_).
Chemistry without a Laboratory 313
CHAPTER XXVI.—CHEMISTRY (_Continued_).
Chemistry and Alchemy—Chemical Combinations—The Atmospheric Air 336
CHAPTER XXVII.—THE ELEMENTS.
Non-Metallic Elements 348
CHAPTER XXVIII.—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS (_Continued_).
Chlorine—Bromine—Iodine—Fluorine—Carbon—Sulphur—Phosphorus—Silicon—
Boron—Tellurium—Arsenic 366
CHAPTER XXIX.—THE METALS.
What Metals are—Characteristics and General Properties of
Metals—Classification—Specific Gravity—Descriptions 386
CHAPTER XXX.—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Radicals—Acids—Bases—Neutrals 410
CHAPTER XXXI.—MINERALOGY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
The Minerals—Characteristics—Crystals and their Forms—Descriptions of
Minerals 424
CHAPTER XXXII.—NEW LOCOMOTIVE APPLIANCES.
The Kite—The Aerophane—Ice Yachts—Sailing Trucks—Water Velocipedes 448
CHAPTER XXXIII.—ASTRONOMY.
Introductory—History of Astronomy—Nomenclature 466
CHAPTER XXXIV.—ANGLES AND MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES.
The Quadrant—Transit Instrument—Clocks—Stellar Time—Solar Time—“Mean
Time” 474
CHAPTER XXXV.—THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
Gravitation—The Planets—Size and Measurement of the
Planets—Satellites—Falling Stars—Comets—Aerolites 486
CHAPTER XXXVI.—THE SUN.
Motion of the Sun—The Seasons—Character of the Sun—Sun-Spots—Zodiacal
Light 496
CHAPTER XXXVII.—THE EARTH.
Form of the Earth—Motion of the Globe—Rate and Manner of
Progression—Latitude and Longitude—The Seasons 504
CHAPTER XXXVIII.—THE MOON.
What is it Like?—Moon Superstitions—Description of the
Moon—Phases—Tides—Eclipses 510
CHAPTER XXXIX.—THE STARS.
The Planets and Asteroids 521
CHAPTER XL.—THE FIXED STARS.
Fixed-Stars—Magnitude of the Stars—Constellations—Descriptions
of the Zodiacal Constellations—Northern and Southern Star
Groups—Distance of Stars 535
CHAPTER XLI.—THE STARS (_Continued_).
Double and Multiple Stars—Coloured and Variable Stars—Clusters,
Groups, and Nebulæ—The Galaxy, or Milky Way—How to Find out the
Principal Stars 546
CHAPTER XLII.—NEW ASTRONOMICAL APPLIANCES.
A Celestial Indicator—Astronomical or Cosmographical Clock—A Simple
Globe—A Solar Chronometer 557
CHAPTER XLIII.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY.
Geography and Geology—The Earth’s Crust—Origin of the Earth—Denudation
and Excavation by Water—Rocks, Gravel, and Sand—Classes of Rocks 564
CHAPTER XLIV.—GEOLOGY.
Crust of the Earth—Geological Systems—Eozoic, Primary, Secondary,
Tertiary, Pre-Historic Formations 573
CHAPTER XLV.—GEOLOGY (_Continued_).
The Mesozoic System—The Triassic, Oolitic, and Cretaceous
Formations—The Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene—The Glacial
Period—Pre-Historic Man 584
CHAPTER XLVI.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Igneous Rocks—Land and Water—Springs, Wells, and Geysers—Snow and
Ice—Their Effects 601
CHAPTER XLVII.—THE SEA AND THE SKY.
The Sea—Salt Water—Waves and their Effects—Under Water—The Floor of the
Ocean 610
CHAPTER XLVIII.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. METEOROLOGY.
The Atmosphere—Winds and Air Currents—Wind Pressure—Storms—Rain–clouds—
Water-Spouts—Atmospherical Phenomena 628
CHAPTER XLIX.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. METEOROLOGY (_Continued_).
Atmospheric Phenomena—Thunder and Lightning—Aurora Borealis—The
Rainbow—Mock-Suns and Mock-Moons—Halos—Fata Morgana—Reflection and
Refraction—Mirage—Spectre of the Brocken 642
CHAPTER L.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CLIMATOLOGY.
Weather; Climate, and Temperature—Isothermal Lines—Isobars, Weather
Forecasts, and Signs of the Sky 651
CHAPTER LI.—BIOLOGY. PART I.: BOTANY.
Plants and Animals—Structure of Plants—Flowering Plants—The Stem—The
Leaves—Forms of Leaves 658
CHAPTER LII.—FLOWERING PLANTS.
Organs of Increase and Reproduction—The Flower—The Calyx—The
Corolla—The Stamen—The Pistil 675
CHAPTER LIII.—FLOWERING PLANTS (_Continued_).
The Floral Axis—Inflorescence—Fruit—Seed—Nutrition of Plants—Absorbtion
of Constituents 679
CHAPTER LIV.—ZOOLOGY.
Classification of Animals—Vertebrates and
Invertebrates—Protozoa—Hydrozoa—Actinozoa 700
CHAPTER LV.—ECHINODERMATA—ANNULOSA—ENTOZOA—INSECTA.
Sea-Urchins—Star-Fishes—Feathery Stars—Sea-Cucumbers—Worms—Leeches—
Rotifers—Tape Worms—Insects 712
CHAPTER LVI.—THE ANALYSIS OF CHANCE AND MATHEMATICAL GAMES.
Magic Squares—The Sixteen Puzzle—Solitaire—Equivalents 726
CHAPTER LVII.—GAMES (_Continued_).
The Magic Top—The Gyroscope and Scientific Games 740
CHAPTER LVIII.—SCIENCE AT HOME.
Scientific Objects for the Household 747
CHAPTER LIX.—DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
Science and Domestic Economy 757
CHAPTER LX.—CURIOUS INVENTIONS.
Some Curious Modes of Transit 770
SCIENTIFIC RECREATIONS.
CHAPTER I.—INTRODUCTORY.
SCIENCE AND RECREATION—THE BOOK OF NATURE—THE SENSES—NATURAL
HISTORY—NATURAL PHILOSOPHY—MATTER—OBJECTS—PROPERTIES OF MATTER.
It may at the first glance appear paradoxical to combine Science and
Recreation, but we hope to show that true scientific recreation is
anything but the dry bones of learning. To those who study science
with us, we will point out first how easy and pleasant it is to watch
the sky and the plants and Nature generally in the open air. Then we
will carry our readers along with us, and by means of illustrations
and diagrams instruct them pleasantly in the _reasons for_ things.
“How?” and “Why?” will be questions fully answered. Not only will the
usual scientific courses be touched upon, but we will show how Science
is applied to Domestic Economy. We will have Chemistry put before us
without needing a laboratory, and we will experiment in Physics without
elaborate apparatus. We will have, in short, a complete Encyclopædia of
Science free from dryness and technicalities—an amusing volume suited
to old and young who wish to find out what is going on around them in
their daily life in earth and sea and sky.
Bernard Palissy used to say that he wished “no other book than the
earth and the sky,” and that “it was given to all to read this
wonderful book.”
It is indeed by the study of the material world that discoveries are
accomplished. Let an attentive observer watch a ray of light passing
from the air into water, and he will see it deviate from the straight
line by refraction; let him seek the origin of a sound, and he will
discover that it results from a shock or a vibration. This is physical
science in its infancy. It is said that Newton was led to discover the
laws of universal gravitation by beholding an apple fall to the ground,
and that Montgolfier first dreamt of air-balloons while watching fogs
floating in the atmosphere. The idea of the inner chamber of the eye
may, in like manner, be developed in the mind of any observer, who,
seated beneath the shade of a tree, looks fixedly at the round form of
the sun through the openings in the leaves.
[Illustration: Luminous Cross seen at Havre, May 7th, 1877. Sketched
from Nature.]
Every one, of course, may not possess the ambition to make such
discoveries, but there is no one who cannot compel himself to learn to
enjoy the pleasure that can be derived from the observation of Nature.
It must not be imagined that in order to cultivate science it is
absolutely necessary to have laboratories and scientific work-rooms.
The book of which Palissy spoke is ever present; its pages are always
open, wherever we turn our eyes or direct our steps. So we may hope to
introduce all our friends to a pleasant and lasting acquaintance with
Dame Nature.
“But what _is_ Nature?” We are fond of admiring Nature, and the effects
of certain causes in the world, and we want to know why things are so.
Very well—so you shall; and as to the question “What is Nature?” we
will endeavour to answer you at once.
Nature is the united totality of all that the various Senses can
perceive. In fact, all that cannot be made by man is termed “Nature”;
_i.e._, God’s creation.
From the earliest ages man has sought to read the open leaves of the
Book of Nature, and even now, with all our attainments, we cannot grasp
all, or nearly all. One discovery only leads up to another. Cause and
Effect are followed up step by step till we lose ourselves in the
search. Every effect must have a cause. One thing depends upon another
in the world, and it does not need Divine revelation to tell us that.
Nothing happens by “mere chance.” “Chance!” said a Professor to us at
the University, “Chance!—Remember, there is no such thing in the world
as chance.”
Between our minds or consciousness and Nature are our Senses. We feel,
we see, we hear, we taste, we smell,—so it is only through the Senses
that we can come to any knowledge of the outer world. These attributes,
or Senses, act directly upon a certain “primary faculty” called
Consciousness, and thus we are enabled to understand what is going
on around us. The more this great existing faculty is educated and
trained, the more useful it will become. So if we accustom our minds to
observation of Nature, we shall find out certain causes and effects,
and discover Objects. Now an Object is a thing perceptible both to
feeling and sight, and an Object occupies space. Therefore there are
objects Artificial as well as Natural. The former are created by man
from one or more Natural products. Natural Objects are those such as
trees, rocks, plants, and animals. We may also class the heavenly
bodies, etc., as Objects, though we cannot touch them, but we can feel
their effects, and see them. The PHENOMENA of Nature include
those results which are perceptible by only one sense, as thunder;
light and sound may also be classed as Phenomena.
Take a familiar instance. A stone is a Natural Object. We take it
up, open our fingers, and it falls. The _motion_ of that object is a
Phenomenon. We know it falls because we see it fall, and it possesses
what we term _weight_; but we cannot tell _why_ it possesses weight.
[Professor Huxley says: “Stones do not fall to the ground in
consequence of a law of nature,” for a law is not a cause. “A law of
nature merely tells us what we may expect natural objects will do
under certain circumstances.”]
A cause of a Phenomenon being independent of human will is called a
_Force_, and the stone falls by the force of _Gravitation_, or that
natural law which compels every material object to approach every other
material object.
A single Force may produce a great number of Phenomena.
Nature being revealed to us by Objects, and by means of Phenomena, we
have got already two Branches of Science extending from such Roots;
viz., NATURAL HISTORY, the Science of Objects; and NATURAL
PHILOSOPHY, the Science of Phenomena.
Both of these Branches have been subdivided thus:
{ Zoology, referring to Animals } Biology.
Natural History { Botany, referring to Plants }
{ Mineralogy } referring to Minerals, etc.
{ Geology }
{ Physics. Phenomena without essential change
Natural Philosophy { of the Objects.
{ Chemistry. Phenomena with change of the Objects.
{ Physiology. Phenomena of animated Objects.
These two great divisions comprehend, in their extended senses, all
that is known respecting the material world.
We have spoken of Objects. Objects occupy _Space_. What is Space?
Space is magnitude which can be conceived as extending in three
directions—_Length_, _Breadth_, and _Depth_. MATTER occupies
portions of Space, which is infinite. Matter, when finite, is termed
a body or object. The general properties of Matter are _Magnitude_,
_Form_, _Impenetrability_, _Inertia_, _Divisibility_, _Porosity_,
_Elasticity_, _Compressibility_, _Expansibility_.
Matter is present in Nature in three conditions. We find it as a SOLID,
a LIQUID, and a GAS. We shall explain the various properties of Solids,
Liquids, and Gases in their proper places (in Physics). To test the
actual existence of Matter in one or other of these forms our Senses
help us. We can touch a Solid, or taste it and see it. But touch is
the test. We have said that Matter possesses certain properties. We
will examine these briefly. The two which belong to all material bodies
are Impenetrability and Magnitude. You cannot, _strictly speaking_,
penetrate Matter. You can find the form of an object by touch or sight,
but you cannot penetrate it. You will think you can drive a nail or a
screw into a board, but you cannot; you only _displace_ the fibres of
the wood by the screw. Take water as a very common instance. Water is
Matter, for it occupies a certain space. Water is _impenetrable_, for
if you put your hand or foot into a basin full of it, it will overflow,
thus proving that you displace, and do not penetrate it. It is almost
impossible to compress water.
_Divisibility_ is another quality of Matter; and when we attempt to
show how far Matter can be divided, the brain refuses to grasp the
infinity. A pin’s head is a small object, but it is gigantic compared
to some animals, of which millions would occupy a space no larger
than the head of a pin. These tiny animals must contain organs and
veins, etc., and those veins are full of blood globules. Professor
Tyndall informs us that a drop of blood contains three millions of red
globules. So these infinitesimally small animals must have millions of
globules in their blood also. Thus we see to what an extent, far beyond
our Senses’ power to grasp, Matter can be divided.
But there is something even more astonishing than this. It is stated
that there are more animals in the milt of a single codfish than there
are men in the world; and that _one grain of sand is larger than four
millions of these animals_! each of which must be possessed of life
germs of an equal amount, which would grow up as it grew to maturity.
This carries us back again, and
“Imagination’s utmost stretch
In wonder dies away.”
Or take other interesting facts. One hundred threads of the silkworm
must be placed side by side to make up the thickness of a line (—)
about 1/25th of an inch; and metals can be drawn out to such exceeding
fineness that twelve hundred of the fine wires will occupy only the
space of one hundred silkworms’ threads, or one _millimetre_.
_Porosity_ is another attribute of Matter, for in all Matter there are
pores, or spaces, between the particles. Sometimes such openings are
plainly visible; in very “solid” bodies they are, to a great extent,
indistinguishable. But we know that the spaces exist, because we can
_compress_ the particles together.
_Inertia_ is also a general property of Matter, and the meaning of
the term is “inactivity,” or passiveness—a want of power in an object
to move, or when moving, to stop of itself. It will come to rest
apparently by itself, but the resistance of the air and the friction of
the ground, or the attraction of the earth, will really occasion the
stoppage of the object. We will speak more fully of Inertia presently.
Elasticity and Expansibility are evident in fluids and gases.
We have thus introduced our readers to some of the most evident facts
connected with Matter. The various Forces and Phenomena of attraction
will be fully considered farther on; at present we are about to show
our readers how they may first profitably study Science in the open air
for themselves, and we will give them our experience of the Book of
Nature.