Chapter XII. The mounting of such as these, by processes of taxidermy,

differs from all previously described in this chapter. When of

excessive size and weight, they may be "set up" with wood and iron

(see Chapter VII.), or if smaller--say, up to 5 cwt.--may be managed

by being cut underneath along the stomach, from head to tail, and

mounted by two short iron rods being screwed into a beam of wood, or

bar of iron fitted into the body, now filled out with hay, straw, or,

better still, clean shavings, supplemented by tow here and there.

When all is sewn up, and the mouth--if open--modelled by any of the

methods described in Chapter XII, the short iron rods protruding from

each end of the fish must be let into metal sockets (iron gas pipes

will often do) screwed into iron feet, supporting all clear from the

floor of the museum or room they are to be exhibited in.

============================================

CHAPTER IX.

SKINNING, PRESERVING, AND MOUNTING REPTILES.

THE chief requirement in preserving reptiles is a fine and delicate

hand, in order to deal successfully with these mostly thin-skinned

objects. I will now take one of the easiest reptiles as our first

study, viz, the common snake.

Formerly, by the old method of skinning, the bodies of all snakes were

removed through an incision made along the skin of the stomach. This

was a mistake, for the smaller snakes may be skinned through the

mouth, in this wise: Open the jaws of the snake to their fullest

extent, taking care, if a venomous one, not to scratch the fingers

with the fangs, which, in the adder or viper, lie folded backward

along the roof of the mouth. If the fangs are not required to be

shown, the safest plan will be to cut them away with a pointed pair of

scissors.

Holding the snake by the back of the neck with the left hand, push the

pointed knife or scissors into the mouth towards the back of the head,

feeling at the same time with the point of the knife for the first

joint of the cervical vertebrae, having found which proceed to

dislocate it with the point of the knife, gently feeling your way, and

cutting downward toward the right hand, the thumb of which presses

against the snake's head at the under jaw. Feel round with the point

of the knife or scissors up toward the outer skin, gradually working

the flesh away. Cut away the under jaw, inside the skin, from its

attachment to the flesh, pushing the point of your scissors or knife

at the same time as far as you can get it down inside the skin.

This all requires time and patience, lest you push the point of the

knife or scissors through the skin, and also as you will not at the

first trial succeed in detaching the head from the body.

The knife or scissors must then be run a little way down the back, to

detach the skin. The neck being now entirely free, lay the knife down,

and endeavour to push the broken or cut part of the neck up through

the mouth; seize the end with your right-hand fingers and gradually

slide the skin down with your left hand, turning it inside out until

the vent is reached, which carefully cut away; beyond this the skin,

instead of coming off easily, holds most tenaciously to the flesh, and

the knife again comes into play to free it all around.

Near the extreme tip of the tail it will be almost impossible to get

the flesh out, you must therefore skin as far as you can, and then

make a small incision underneath, lay back the skin on each side, and

cut the flesh away. This operation will bring the outside of that part

inside. Return, it, and neatly sew up the cut from the inside, trim

away all flesh from the skull bone, take out the eyes, put a stitch in

the vent, and anoint the whole of the skin with the preservative.

To return the skin, push a small round stick down and pull the skin

back on it; when nearing the tail, the stick may be removed and the

fingers used to gradually work this end through, or tie a small piece

of wool to form a knot on the end of a piece of doubled thread, and

push it through by a long fine needle from the inside to the out, at

the same time allowing the needle to come through, by doubling up the

skin. You may reach the needle with your fingers, or by long pliers,

or even shake it down by its own weight, then by pulling gently you

return the skin effectually.

To stuff the snake insert a funnel in the mouth, and fill the skin

through this with fine dry sand, or dry plaster of Paris, taking great

care to shake the sand well down, and fill in every part in a regular

and natural manner. On nearing the head, push a piece of wool in the

mouth to prevent the sand from running back, and then adjust the

snake to the position you require, leaving the head to be modelled

last with clay, putty, or plaster, then remove the wool and make up

the throat and inside of the mouth. The natural tongue should be left

in, and displayed with fine entomological pins pushed in the hollow

underneath, and, if shown open-mouthed, the fangs must be dropped,

and the head raised, as in the attitude of striking.

Large snakes, such as rock snakes or boas, must be cut on the old

system, viz, under the belly and skinned out, working up and down, as

the muscles have so firm an attachment that the slipping-out process

cannot be resorted to, but each inch will have to be laboriously cut

away from the skin.

Sawdust, mixed with a little sand, will be found very useful for

stuffing the larger snakes, as the weight of so large a quantity of

sand, or plaster, is too great to successfully manipulate.

A few hints as to snakes and snake bites may not be out of place here.

To distinguish the only venomous snake found in the British Isles is

an easy matter, if you have the opportunity of examination. In the

first place, the viper appears to have a more spade-like and flatter

head than the common snake, and has a black cross from near the neck

running up to the centre of the head, where it terminates in a black,

oval-shaped spot. But the greatest distinction, perhaps, is that a

decided pattern runs down the centre of the back, appearing as a chain

of obtusely-shaped diamond markings, joined together, and somewhat

confused in places.

Again, it has in the upper jaw two fangs or poison teeth, which in

rest lie folded back; on pulling them down with a needle, or by the

crooked awl, they appear as fleshy lobes, out of the apex of which is

thrust a little glittering point like a small fish bone. This small

bone or fang is hollow, and through it the poison is ejected by a

process too complex to describe in the pages of this work.

The slow-worm, common snake, and the one other rarer species found in

Britain, have merely the ordinary holding teeth, and are all perfectly

harmless. Should anyone be so unfortunate as to be bitten or scratched

by a viper's fang, a speedy application of liquor ammoniae fort

(strong ammonia) to the wound, with the further application of a

ligature above the bitten part will be found of benefit, and perhaps

avert serious consequences until surgical aid is obtained. Ipecacuanha

has been recommended, powdered and applied as a poultice, with an

internal administration at the time also, of the same drug, but that

requires medical knowledge as to the extent and frequency of the

doses.

To skin frogs, they must be plunged for an hour or so into the

hardening solution, No. 15, and then skinned out from the mouth. This

requires a finer hand and greater patience even than skinning a snake,

as they must be carefully cut all around the mouth, and the body drawn

out to the tips of the toes. They may then be filled with sand or

plaster. Various comic scenes may be made by skilfully grouping frogs,

but if required to stand on their hind legs, etc, they will have to be

wired, by pushing fine wires or stout "needle points" through a small

piece of board into the sole of the foot, to run a little distance up

the legs. A drop or two of strong glue, or shellac, may then be placed

under each foot, which should be tied down until the glue sets hard.

Tortoises and turtles may be skinned out, by having the skin of the

legs, tail, and head, cut away all round from their attachments to the

under shell or plastron. The joints of the limbs should then be cut

away from the inside, and the tortoise or turtle laid on its back, in

which position the separated limbs hang down, remaining only attached

by their top skin (now underneath), to the upper part of the shell or

carapace. This exposes the whole of the remaining skin and flesh,

which must be cut and scraped out with knives, or with the

under-cutting tool. The limbs are then skinned out, preserved and

stuffed, and their proper bottom edges, when in position, pushed back

and attached by needle points to the plastron.

Lizards, "horned toads," and chameleons may be cut underneath and

filled out with sand or plaster.

In all cases where sand is used it may, after the animal is thoroughly

dry, be shaken out if desired; but if the reptile is not very large,

it is better to leave it in.

Dry plaster will, in nearly all cases, be found the best medium for

filling out the skins of reptiles; with this I have succeeded in

giving characteristic and life-like attitudes to moderately-sized

alligators, etc.

Very large saurians may be mounted by either of the methods referred

to in the closing sentences of the last two chapters.

CHAPTER X.

DRESSING AND SOFTENING SKINS OR FURS AS LEATHER.

THE art of tanning is, as I before observed (vide Chapter I.), of the

highest antiquity, as systems which are now in vogue must have been

known--if even in a modified form--to the ancients. We may roughly

divide the operation of tanning into two distinct classes: One which

deals with skins without the preservation of the fur, and which turns

the skin so operated upon into the material known as leather; and the

other in which we seek to preserve the fur or hair in its normal

position, at the same time dressing or rendering soft the actual skin

itself. [Footnote: Some time during 1874, Mr. Joseph Tussaud read a

paper before the Society of Arts, in which he described an ingenious

method of removing the fur of any animal to an artificial "backing" of

india-rubber or flannel, whilst the original skin was utilised as

leather.]

The first process--the making of leather--does not lie within the

scope of this work; suffice it to say, that the hair or fur is first

removed by lime, etc, and that after the skin is scraped it is treated

variously with oak bark, valonia, sumach, divi-divi, etc.; it is a long

and tedious process, and certainly does not lie within the province of

a taxidermist to attempt; and though it is possible for a tanner to

preserve the fur with the skin, yet the attempt is undesirable, by

reason of the false or unnatural colour it permanently gives the

fur--totally destroying the character of a light one, and heightening

or lowering, as the case may be, the tint of a dark fur. [Footnote:

Technical works on Tanning are "Tanning, Currying, and Leather-dressing,"

by F. Dussance: "The Arts of Tanning, Currying, and Leather-dressing,"

from the French of J. de Fontenelle and F. Malepeyre.]

To obviate all these difficulties and disagreeable effects, a totally

distinct method of dressing skins has been devised, which is called

"white leather dressing." Before I describe this, however, it may be

as well to say that no liquid, powder, or combination of liquids or

powders, is known into which a skin can be plunged, and--without the

aid of manual labour--come out as leather. I mention this to correct a

popular error, many people supposing that labour has no part in the

preparation of "white leather." To those who are not prepared to work

hard, and very hard indeed, I say, Do not waste your time in reading

this chapter.

The usual and time-honoured method of dressing skins, say a rabbit's

skin, is--directly it is removed from the animal--to nail it on a

board, and rub it in with alum four parts, and common salt one part,

or plunge it in a warm solution of the same for a day or so, taking it

out, nailing it on a board, letting it dry, rubbing it down with

pumice stone, and plunging it again and again, and repeating the

drying and pumice-stoning process until the skin becomes pliable. This

is rather an uncertain process, for if well steeped the hair or fur is

constantly damp, or dripping even, in humid weather, and if alum alone

is used, though killing much of the dampness, it renders a fine thin

skin of a parchment-like texture.

However, as anything is better than a damp skin, I have used a mixture

of four parts of burnt alum to one part of saltpetre (see Formula No.

9) for small skins, finally rubbing down and dressing the skin with

lard, into which a little essence of musk has been stirred, and

kneading the skin with the hands in bran to remove the superflous

grease.

This, and all other such processes where alum is used, must, however,

give way to the following, which I have used for certain skins for

years, and for which I was originally indebted to a correspondent in

the English Mechanic; his formula was: "Mix bran and soft water

sufficient to cover the skins, let this stand four hours covered,

before being used, then immerse the skins, keeping them well covered

for twenty-four hours (less in India), then take out, wash clean, and

carefully scrape off all the flesh. To one gallon of water (hot) add

one pound of alum and a quarter of a pound of salt. When dissolved and

the mixture is cool enough to bear the hand, immerse the skins for

twenty-four hours, take out and dry in the shade, and well rub with

the hand.

Stir the liquor, and again immerse for twenty-four hours; dry, and

hand-rub as before, and then put the skins for twenty-four hours into

warm oatmeal and water, stirring occasionally. Dry in the shade, and

when the skin is nearly dry, hand-rub till quite dry."

The only thing I have found necessary to guard against in this is,

that the skins must be perfectly fresh before being put in the bran

and water, otherwise it will be necessary to rub them in with the salt

and alum first. Another improvement is, to tear up the fibre with a

little instrument I have invented, or rather adapted (see Fig. 35),

which is simply a "hog scraper," ground up sharp all round, and then

filed up into short rounded teeth where shown; this will be found of

incalculable service in tearing off the hard upper skin or dried flesh

and blood, which locks up as it were the true skin, and which must be

got at before the pelt will become at all flexible.

Fig. 35--Scraper with which to dress skins.

Often a thorough wetting of the skin will considerably facilitate this

operation. Constant scraping and hard hand-rubbing, similar to a

washerwoman's "rubbing" of clothes, is necessary. In the cases of some

skins which are obstinate, thick, or have been simply sun-dried, as

are many tigers' and leopards' skins sent from India, it will be found

necessary to fix them over a sloping board or on the edge of a table,

and to use a spokeshave, or currier's thinning knife, to thin them

down--perhaps an eighth of an inch all over--then tear the fibre up

with the scraper, grease them with lard, to which has been added

essence of musk, and punch them for several hours or several days with

a "dolly" in a tub half full of bran or hard-wood sawdust; finally

covering them with plaster of Paris, or powdered whiting, to absorb

the grease; scraping off the old plaster or whiting, and adding fresh

from time to time, until the skin is freed of fat and perfectly

pliant. [Footnote: Professional workmen often knead the lard into

skins by the medium of their feet and hands--not too clean an

operation!]

To afterwards clean the fur, dress it down with a "scratch-card" (to

be procured of any ironmonger)--steel wire woven on cloth in such a

manner that short ends protrude like a wire brush.

Very fat skins, such as dogs' skins, may, if perfectly fresh, be

nailed out and gone over with a saturated solution of borax, or a

solution of one part borax to one-eighth part saltpetre, and left to

dry in the shade for three months, after which they may be scraped,

and their natural fat will, after all superfluity has been removed

with plaster, etc, be found to have sufficiently imbued the under or

proper skin to render the final greasing unnecessary.

The two foregoing processes seem to have been modified with some

success by Mr. R. Backhouse, of Stockton-on-Tees, whose process is

spoken of in the Field of June 3rd, 1882, as follows:

"The skin, which should be removed from the animal as soon as possible

after it has been killed, is stretched and tacked on to a board, the

flesh side being outwards. This is at once covered with lard carefully

spread over the entire surface, no portion being allowed to escape. As

the moisture dries out of the skin, the lard enters the pores and

supplies its place, and in about a week's time (the lard being

carefully renewed when requisite) the skin will have altered its

character, in consequence of being penetrated by the grease. It is

then removed and washed thoroughly in warm water and soap until the

external grease is removed. During the drying it is necessary to pull

and stretch the skin in all directions, so that its texture opens, and

it becomes white, owing to the admission of air into the pores; this

stretching is accompanied, or rather preceded, by careful scraping or

currying with a sharp knife or razor, to remove the fleshy matters and

render the skin thinner. With the larger number of skins the process

is successful; but some few go bad, apparently from not absorbing the

lard with sufficient rapidity."..

Possibly the species of mammals treated may have something to do with

this, the skins of carnivorous animals bearing exposure better than

those of the rodentia--hares, rabbits, squirrels, etc, and

insectivora--bats, shrew-mice, and moles--indeed, the latter animals

must be skinned almost as soon as they are dead, or the skin turns

"green" and goes bad in a very short time. No doubt the vegetable and

insect food consumed by these cause fermentation after death, with the

resultant putrefaction of the bowels and the thin coverings of the

latter.

I would here point out, however, that small skins--cats', rabbits',

etc.--will be perfectly preserved if stretched out whilst fresh, cured

with the chloride of lime preservative (No. 4), and then finally

treated with lard and essence of musk, and finished off by either of

the preceding methods to render them clean and supple. A correspondent

who had treated some cats' skins by this method writes to say he has

"succeeded in curing some cats' skins in an admirable manner" by

following these instructions.

A very convenient mixture of borax and another natural salt has been

brought out by Mr. Robottom, of Birmingham (see Chapter I). I have

given his preparation a long and patient investigation, and can

recommend it for small skins, while its convenient form, cleanliness,

and low price, place it within the reach of all amateurs.

Equal parts of salt, alum, and Glauber's salts, mixed with half a part

of saltpetre, the whole rubbed in several times a day, has been

recommended, but I have not tried it.

A mixture of sulphur and arsenic with soft soap is sometimes used to

dress skins with, and if left on for about a year certainly renders

them very pliant, after the removal of the grease.

The North American Indians, I believe, smoke their deer skins, etc. and

after working them, use brains to dress them with.

The skins of mammals in the flesh may, if bloody, be washed, should

the blood be new, or combed with the scratch card (see ante) if it has

dried on the hair or fur. In old skins washing is effective when the

animal is relaxed. Freshly skinned deer and bulls' heads should always

be washed and combed, and wrung out before having the preservative

applied.

Mammals' fur is also considerably improved in tone by being well

brushed with stiff horse or carriage brushes, and afterwards wiped

down with turpentine, followed by benzoline.

When a skin is properly cleaned and finished, it may be lined with

red or black cloth, or baize, and a "pounced" border of cloth

attached. The tools for "pouncing" are to be bought at most saddlers'

or ironmongers'.

I have been asked many times what to do, if camping out abroad,

supposing you shot a tiger or a bear, and wished to preserve the skin

as a "flat." Simply lay it on the ground and slit the skin underneath,

in a straight line through the under lip to the tip of the tail, then

make four cross cuts from the median line along the inside of the

limbs down to the toes, and skin out the body by stripping it in a

careful manner, not allowing any pieces to be cut away, in case you

might change your mind and wish it mounted as a specimen.

Take out the skull, clean and preserve it, and though skinning out

the toes completely, be careful to retain the claws in their seats.

When the body is removed, "flesh" the skin, which means scraping and

cutting away all superfluous flesh and fat, then lay it out flat and

rub it well in with the burnt alum and saltpetre (Formula No. 9). In

dressing thick skins, it will be advisable to make a paste of the alum

and saltpetre by mixing it with a little water, and repeatedly rub

this mixture into those parts where the skin is thickest, such as

around the lips, eyes, ears, etc, taking care that not a wrinkle in any

part escapes a thorough dressing, otherwise it will assuredly "sweat,"

and the hair come off in such places.

The skin may now be rolled or folded together for travelling, but the

next day, when settled in camp, it must be dressed again--twice will

be quite sufficient for any but the thickest or most greasy skins;

after that it must be exposed day by day to the sun and air, taking

care meanwhile to guard it against all possible enemies. Treated in

this manner, it has no "nature" in it, but is "as stiff as a board;"

before this happens, however, it will be advisable to roll it, unless

you have plenty of space at disposal on the floor of a travelling

waggon, etc, in which case it may be folded to fit. A folded skin is,

however, worse to treat, subsequently, than a rolled one.

Valuable skins should be, when practicable, sprinkled with insect

powder, turpentine, or pepper, and sewn up in sacking until they can

be tanned, or made into soft leather, by any one of the processes

previously described. If time is no object the skin may, after the

first rubbing-in of the preservative, be stretched by the

old-fashioned method of "pegging out," or by the more efficient

professional "frame," made of four bars of wood, to which the specimen

is "laced," or sometimes made of bars of wood and stout sacking,

adjustable by means of wood screws, which open the bars and stretch

the attached skin in a proper manner to the required size.

When alum, etc, cannot be obtained, recourse must be had to common

salt, which is generally procurable in any part of the world; a strong

--almost a saturated--solution with water must be made of this in a

tub, and the skin placed in it. If possible, change the liquor after a

few days and add fresh; head the tub up tightly and the skin will keep

many years. I received the skin of a polar bear, sent from the Arctic

Regions to Leicester for the Town Museum, simply flayed and pickled in

this manner, and after a lapse of two years it was examined, and found

to be perfectly sweet and firm--quite fit for mounting when

opportunity served.

Of course, these salted subjects are terrible nuisances either to

mount or to treat as flat skins, having to go through many processes

to rid them of the salt which pervades them. The first process is

thorough washing and steeping in water, constantly changed; after that

experience alone determines the treatment to be pursued. If alum were

mixed with rough salt in the proportion of two parts of the former to

one of the latter, the solution would become more astringent in its

operation. A pickle made of oatmeal, saltpetre, and boiling vinegar

has been recommended, but I have not yet tried it.

I think I have now put the would-be tanner and currier in a fair way

to do some of the dirtiest work imaginable, and if after a fair trial

he does not cry, "Hold, enough!" and hand all future leather-dressing

over to the professionals, I shall indeed think him "hard to kill."

In conclusion, I can only reiterate to those who wish to do skins well

by any of the foregoing methods, that nothing can be done without hard

work.

CHAPTER XI

RELAXING AND CLEANING SKINS--"MAKING-UP" FROM PIECES.

RELAXING SKINS.--In many instances, especially when collecting abroad,

it may be found incompatible with the time and storage space at the

disposal of the collector to set up birds and animals in their natural

positions. To obviate these difficulties we make a skin as previously

described, and by this means pack many in the space which would

otherwise be occupied by one. The time comes, however, when we wish to

"set up" the skins procured by ourselves, or by others, and for this

purpose we "relax" them.

"Relaxing" is performed in various ways, but probably the oldest plan

is that of simply unstuffing the skin, laying it down on a board,

wrapping the feet and legs round with wet cloths or tow, and applying

the same to the insides of the butts of the wings, allowing the skin

to remain from one to four or five days in this position, according to

its size; then, when the legs, feet, and wings are sufficiently

damped, warm water is poured into the orifices of the skin, and

suffered to run out at the eyes and beak. It is then ready for

stuffing in the ordinary way.

Another "rough and ready" method is simply pouring hot water through

the bird's skin; this relaxes just sufficiently to bend the head,

which many workmen of slovenly habits consider quite sufficient!

The next most ancient method is relaxing by the plaster box, which is

a rough box, with a lid made to fit over all tightly, and having the

whole of its inside lined with a coating of plaster of Paris mixed

with water, and laid on two or three inches thick. 'When a bird is to

be "relaxed," the inside of the box is saturated with water, which the

plaster readily absorbs up to a certain point. Then the surplus water

is poured off, the skin or skins are placed within the box, the lid is

fastened down, and the whole placed in the cellar for so long a time

as is required to thoroughly soften the included skins.

This plan, though fairly efficient for the smaller skins, must give

place to that which I have ever adopted, and which is almost as

effective for a large as for a small skin. It is this: Procure a box

of suitable size, which, for greater efficiency, may be lined with

zinc. Into this put several quarts of clean silver sand well damped

with water, but not up to the point of actual wetness. Wrap each skin

separately in a clean rag or in a piece of unprinted paper ("cap

paper" will do for the smaller birds), pull back the sand to one end

of the box, leaving a thin layer, however, all over the remaining part

of the bottom, on which place the skins, covering them up as you go on

with the sand from the other end. When covered with the proper depth

of sand, lay a damp cloth over the top, and put the box away in the

cellar or in the shade.

In from three days to a week, according to the size of the skins, they

will be found more thoroughly relaxed by this than by any other

method, and will be kept--by their covering paper or linen rag--from

having their feathers soiled or disturbed by the sand.

In the first edition, I decried the practice of plunging birds' skins

into water in the manner pursued by Waterton and his followers, but I

had not at that time found anyone to please me in the subsequent

manipulation of skins after being taken out of water. I have now,

however, changed my views on the subject, and will proceed to describe

a plan, which, though entailing some little trouble, is yet so simple,

and so complete in its effects, as almost to supersede the previous

methods, when the operator has attained any degree of proficiency in

this.

The skin to be operated upon is, if small, simply placed in a pan or

bucket partly filled with water, and weighted own in such a manner

that it shall always be beneath the surface. If the taxidermist is in

a fair way of business, he will find a wooden tank, about 36 in. by 24

in. by 12 in. deep (inside measurement), sufficiently large for his

needs. This tank should be "tongued" and dressed with red lead, or

lined with zinc, to render it waterproof. Of course, the professional

will not find it large enough for anything but medium-sized skins; for

the larger ones, and for mammals, he will require other and larger

tanks. A petroleum cask (procurable from any oilman for a few

shillings), cut unequally in two parts, will be found of service when

one large skin only is soaked at a time.

When the skin is in the water, a board may be placed upon it, weighted

so as not to flatten against the bottom of the vessel, or it may be

kept in position under the water by pressing thin slips of wood over

from side to side. The skin being well saturated--which, according to

the size of the bird, will take place in from twelve to twenty-four

hours--must have the stuffing removed from it, and then be allowed to

soak for so long a time as experience will dictate. [Footnote: This

should not be attempted before the skin is properly soaked, otherwise

the cotton wool, or whatever it maybe stuffed with, will "stick" and

frequently pull the head, etc. off with it.] As a rule, however, when

the wings and tail will spread out with gentle handling, the bird is

fit to mount.

Sometimes the legs, if thick, and even the wings and tail, if large,

will require a longer time to soak than is conducive to the well-being

of the remainder of the skin; in this case, nothing remains but to

skilfully pull off the wings, legs, and tail, and let them soak a few

hours longer. [Footnote: This would seem to an amateur very rough

treatment, but often it is the only method to pursue especially if the

skin be "tender," although in them latter case vinegar is recommended

to be added to the water in which it is steeped.]

Supposing, however, that the skin is properly relaxed without recourse

to this, it must then be hung up by a wire secured through the

nostrils, in order to drain the water out of it. After hanging a few

hours (or many, if large) it is, when all the water has drained away

from it, but while yet damp, carefully wiped down in every part with

benzoline, applied liberally, but from head to tail, the way of the

feathers; this is important. The skin may now be placed in a long

shallow box, called the dry plaster box, and all the feathers well

covered above and below with common dry plaster of Paris, and the skin

allowed to be buried in it for three or four hours, then the damp

caked plaster may be shaken off and fresh dry plaster added, allowing

it to remain for several more hours.

This should be repeated until the feathers are fairly dry--which, if

the bird be large, will take from twelve to twenty-four hours. The

feathers of the skin must now be beaten with a bundle of stiff

feathers, or the wing of a goose, or other large bird, until nearly

dry, then dry plaster added from time to time, and the skin twirled

about in the open air if possible. Very soon the feathers will cease

to remain clogged with plaster, and will come out ready for mounting,

nicely dried, fresh, and so beautifully clean as to surprise any

person ignorant of the process.

Carefully managed, this is one of the most valuable aids to artistic

taxidermy, as by its means birds' skins are rendered as limp and

supple, and much tougher, than if just removed from the body. In proof

of my assertion, I may mention that I have caused skins from ten to

fifteen years old, and ranging in size from a cassowary to a humming

bird, to be prepared by this method, all of which subsequently mounted

up in a first-rate manner. [Footnote: A humming bird, after relaxing

by water, is, when drained sufficiently, best treated by plunging in

benzoline and then carefully dried in plaster. A night in water, and

half-an-hour's treatment with benzoline and plaster, is sufficient for

these small creatures.]

The points to observe are--first, perfect relaxing; secondly, wiping

down thoroughly with benzoline; thirdly, drying the feathers of the

skin well, by dusting in plaster and beating and agitating them in a

current of air. Should the skin be greasy, covered with fat, or

imperfectly freed of flesh (as many of the foreign birds' skins are),

it will be necessary to scrape and trim when the specimen comes out of

the plaster, before it is finally cleaned. In any case, it is always

advisable to turn the skin of the head inside out, stretch the face,

scrape the neck, and stuff the head in the ordinary manner before

returning the skin.

The great advantage in the water process is, that a "Past master" in

the method can mount a skin in as artistic and natural a manner as if

done from the flesh. Usually, specimens done from the "skin" are at

once recognisable by their uneasy and "wooden" appearance, but I defy

anyone to pick out the skins in the Leicester Museum--unless by their

neater appearance--from those anciently mounted from the flesh.

Skins of mammals, if cured by the formula (No. 9) given in Chapter IV,

need only to be plunged in water for a night or so to relax them,

wrung out, thinned down where required, and mounted straight away; a

wet skin being an advantage when modelling mammals, wet cloths even

being necessary to cover over certain parts, should the mounting

occupy more than a day or so. This, if the skin is properly cured,

does not injure the fur or any part in the slightest degree, while, at

the same time, it thoroughly relaxes.

As newly relaxed skins (especially those of birds) dry rapidly it will

be advisable to have everything ready, and shape them up as quickly as

possible.

The colours of the bills and feet of most birds recover their pristine

hues whilst being relaxed--a matter of great importance as assisting

the naturalist to the subsequent natural rendering of those parts.

CLEANING BIRDS' SKINS, etc.--Formerly, it appears, the orthodox method

of cleaning birds' skins was by the application of water and plaster

of Paris. When it was wished to remove blood, or other stains, from a

white or a light-coloured bird, this was effected by means of a soft

piece of wadding saturated with warm water, and then rapidly and

lightly applied to the stained part, followed by plaster of Paris

dusted on the way of the "grain," and allowed to remain on the

specimen until perfectly dry, when it easily came off in cake-like

pieces, leaving the feathers thoroughly cleansed of all impurities. If

the wadding became overcharged with blood, it was, of course, changed

from time to time before the plaster was thrown on.

Though this method does very well for blood stains of a recent date,

it will not remove grease or the stains from old skins. This was

always a weak point with the taxidermists of yore, who used, with very

meagre results, turpentine and plaster of Paris to clean their skins.

This went on for many years, and, though an unsatisfactory state of

things, had to be endured, as nothing better was known.

Some few years ago "benzine collas" was introduced, and the

taxidermists were not long in finding out its valuable properties for

feather cleaning. "Benzoline" (Benzol, or Benzine C6H6), then came

into more general use, and was, of course, found to have all the

properties of the so-called "benzine collas." This discovery, we may

say, completely revolutionised the art of feather cleaning. It served

equally as well as the other preparation, and its superior cheapness

placed it within the reach of everybody. The cleansing property of

benzoline is still somewhat a secret out of the profession, and is

really worth, as a matter of business, all the money which is

sometimes asked for divulging it to an amateur.

When, therefore, you have a bird which is greased, or stained with

greasy dirt, etc, wipe it down the way of the feathers with a piece of

wool saturated with common (or French) benzoline, using from time to

time fresh wool as the other becomes soiled. When the feathers are

well damped, cover the newly-cleaned part with dry plaster of Paris,

allowing the bird to remain from one to two or three hours, at the

expiration of which time take it out, dusting the waste plaster off

with a soft bundle of feathers, Do not be alarmed if the bird looks

somewhat miserable at the outset, but be sure that, if the plaster is

dusted on the way of the feathers, all will come out right.

Blood, whether fresh or old, is best removed by warm water as just

described, and the feathers then carefully wiped down with benzoline,

before putting, on the plaster; this obviates the roughness often

observable in water-cleaned birds. [Footnote: The American

publication, "Science," points out that the addition of salt to the

water cleanses blood from feathers, by preventing the solution of the

blood-globules, and diffusion to the colouring matter, or red

haemoglobin. I have found this "wrinkle" of great benefit in cleansing

white-plumaged birds.] Sometimes, in very old skins, successive

applications of water, turpentine, benzoline, and plaster, carefully

managed, will work wonders.

I have mentioned the fact that birds may be plunged into turpentine to

rid them of insects. After this process they do not readily dry in,

proper form, remaining greasy and streaked with, dirt--in fact, in a

generally deplorable condition (as I know to my cost, teste, the

Leicester Museum collection, ignorantly treated in this manner before

my advent). Birds treated with turpentine must be well washed down

afterwards with benzoline and then dried in plaster of Paris, as

before described. In cleansing old specimens, do not forget to dust

them, or to beat them thoroughly with feathers, before applying the

benzoline, etc.

In a fresh specimen it would be a person's own fault if he should fail

to clean a bird, even were it dipped in blood and grease. Patience and

several cleanings are all that are necessary.

Dark plumaged birds--which may have light or white parts--will require

care in cleaning, in order that their darker feathers may not be

dulled by contact with the white plaster. Should this happen, however,

in spite of all pains, it will be found that beating with feathers,

and a light touching over with wadding, on which a very little

benzoline has been poured, will brighten them up wonderfully. Ostrich

and other feathers may be effectually cleaned by any of the foregoing

methods, and, by management, re-curled with a blunt knife and the

fingers.

"MAKING UP" From Pieces.--I have before mentioned that birds are

sometimes made up feather by feather, and also when pulled to pieces

for "relaxing." The first is simply pretty pastime, which any person

possessed of patience, some little ability, and a stock of feathers,

paste, and paper, may indulge in as a recreation.

The latter, however, is a different matter, and is practised in cases

where a bird's skin is accidentally torn in several parts, or drops to

pieces when "relaxed" through imperfect curing, or by old age. When

this happens, the amateur need not feel as if the world would be the

next thing to tumble to pieces, but simply get to work thus: Make a

body of tow, with neck attached, as described; next, pull the legs off

(if they have not previously fallen off), wire them, and attach them

firmly to the body by clenching their free ends; bend these legs into

the position you wish the specimen ultimately to assume and attach the

wires at the feet to a block or perch. A T, formed of two pieces of

wood, the bottom end attached to a block, is, perhaps, the best

support, as you can get all round to adjust everything, even to the

tail.

Your progress up to this point is simply a headless neck attached to a

tow body, supported by natural legs fixed to a perch. I assume that

your fragments are sufficiently relaxed, and the feathers cleaned and

nearly dried. All the fat must, of course, have been scraped off the

inside of each piece of skin. Arrange these pieces in the order they

should come upon the model, to get the "fit," as a dressmaker would

arrange the patterns of a dress upon a lady. Notice where your model

is too small or misshapen, and bind on pieces of tow; or paste and

bind on wadding, excepting near the wings, where wires would fail to

pierce wool or wadding.

When properly-shaped, give the whole of the model a good dressing with

flour paste (see No. 31), into which a little carbolic acid has been

stirred. Paste the inside of each piece of skin with this, and

commence to finally rearrange them. As a rule, the under and breast

pieces are fixed first, then the wings are wired and firmly clenched

on the body; adjust the wings into proper position, bringing the

breast feathers over at the shoulders; next, put on the wing coverts,

the back, the tail (firmly wired), and the upper and under tail

coverts; lastly, the head and neck pieces, shaping the made neck into

position, etc, as you proceed. [Footnote: Note that even in

close-winged birds, which a pieced specimen such as this one described

must be of necessity, it is always advisable to wire the wings as for

flight, running them on these wires close to the body, and giving them

by this means the necessary curvature; entirely different, and much

more natural, than if simply bolted on by straight wires running

through the shoulders into the body.]

Sometimes it is necessary to slip a piece of wadding underneath to

swell out a certain set of feathers; in this case, lift up the

surrounding parts with a crooked awl or with the feather-pliers, and

carefully insert the wadding in such a manner that the paste shall not

clog the other feathers in juxtaposition.

When finished to your satisfaction, lightly sponge off any excess of

paste with warm water; wipe down with benzoline, and dust plaster

thickly over all the specimen; this assists the drying and cleans it.

In an hour or so dust off the plaster with a bunch of feathers, and

bind the skin with "wrapping cotton" in the usual manner. Set it in a

warm place, or in a current of air, for a week or so, to dry, and,

lastly, put in the eyes and finish off. The foregoing, though

apparently a Caesarian operation, is not difficult to a practised

hand. I may, perhaps, here mention, in order to encourage my readers,

that I myself once successfully mounted a large snowy owl from

thirteen pieces of skin, and that had there been twenty-three it would

have come out just as well.

In "relaxing" it is often better, especially in such specimens as

Birds of Paradise, to pull off the legs and wings; by this means the

skin is more easily stretched, and always, in the hands of a master,

makes up more satisfactorily than by any other means.

CHAPTER XII Colouring Bills And Feet Of Birds, Bare Skin Of Mammals,

Fishes, Etc.--Restoring Shrunken Parts By A Wax Process--Drying And

Colouring Ferns Grasses, Seaweeds, Etc.--"Piece Moulds," And Modelling

Fruit In Plaster--Preserving Spiders--Making Skeletons Of Animals,

Skeleton Leaves Etc.--Polishing Horns, Shells, Etc.--Egg Collecting

And Preserving--Additional Formulae, Etc.

COLOURING BILLS AND FEET OF BIRDS.--Birds which, when alive, have either

legs, bills, or faces of various bright colours, lose these tints when

dead, and after lapse of time, the colouring matter in some cases totally

disappears, and nothing can restore the loss of pigment but artificial

treatment of the faded parts. To do this satisfactorily is not one of

the easiest matters in the world, inasmuch as two things are to be

strictly guarded against. One--thick painting, which hides all the

characteristics of the scutellae, or plates of the legs and toes, or

fills up the minute papillae of the face; the other--imparting a too

shining or varnished appearance to the parts coloured. So little colour

is required for this purpose that I have found the oil-colour tubes used

by artists to be the handiest and cheapest. The colour, when squeezed

out, is to be thinned with turpentine only, until it readily flows off

the brush on to the beak or legs of the specimen; if properly done it is

very transparent, and of just sufficient quality to give the necessary

brightness without undesirable shininess.

The colours that are most useful are chrome yellow, yellow ochre,

Prussian blue, permanent blue, light red, burnt umber, flake white,

and vermilion. With these every shade of grey, blue, green, red, or

pink can be obtained; they are all cheap, but if a quantity of

vermilion is desired, it is cheapest bought as a powder at the

oilman's, and mixed as required. When colour tubes are not procurable,

the same colours are to be obtained at the oilman's in powder, or

ready mixed, which latter must be thinned with one part transparent

paper varnish to two parts turpentine (turps), the varnish being added

or decreased as dry or mixed colours are used.

"Brunswick black," a cheap and durable brown, if laid on thinly, i.e.

thinned with turps, is sometimes used for colouring the noses of

mammals. It must be recollected, however, that greys predominate in

some noses over browns, and that the surface is seldom of one tint,

hence "Brunswick black" is seldom used by artists, who prefer to make

tints from some of the colours mentioned.

Faces of parrots must be whitened with dry "flake white" applied with

a piece of cotton wool.

The bills of toucans, and similar birds, require some nice colouring

to blend the various tints one within the other. If the reader

requires a more scientific method of doing this, I must refer him to

"Waterton's Wanderings in South America," in which work he will find

an account of the manner in which that eccentric naturalist cut out

the insides of his toucans' bills, paring them down to the outer

layer, through which the subsequent artificially-introduced colour was

revealed.

It would, no doubt, be possible to introduce colour into combs and

wattles, and also into the bills of some species of birds by

subcutaneous injections of various dyes when the specimen was fresh,

but as all taxidermists are not skilled anatomists, and have not too

much time to spare in doing what is--at best--but an unsatisfactory

and unpractical method, I may relieve their anxiety by saying at once

that the difficulty attendant on shrinkage of the integument may be

avoided by using wax, with which to thinly paint the large bills of

some birds, and the legs of all, restoring also the fleshy appearance

of wattles, etc.

Let us take one or two representative birds--first, an eagle, to work

upon, Premising that your bird is finished and dry, and that you have

previously accurately copied into your note-book the colours of the

soft parts, you will begin by brushing over the parts to be coloured

with a very little turpentine. Next, heat in a pipkin, or "patty-pan,"

some beeswax, into which a little common resin has been powdered, just

sufficient to harden the wax under the point of brittleness; apply

this with camel-hair brushes of different sizes to the eyelids (the

eye being in and fixed), the superciliary ridge, the cere, the gape,

and all over the bill, and legs, and feet, regulating the thickness of

the wax thus--very thin over the bill and eyelids, a little thicker

upon the cere, ridge, and gape, and quite thick upon the legs and

feet; so much so, indeed, in places on the latter, as to necessitate

carving up with tools to reproduce the underlying shrunken scutes, etc.

This, of course, is a delicate operation, involving practice and

artistic perception of form.

Remove all superfluous wax by paring with curved awls of various

sizes, and rubbing down with rag wetted in turpentine. Some parts of

the legs may be treated with hot irons (large wires, old awls, knives,

etc.). When the wax is sufficiently cold, which it will be in a quarter

of an hour after finishing, commence colouring, by using the colours

direct from the tubes, with as little admixture of "turps" as

possible. [Footnote: Winsor and Newton, Rowney, or Roberson, are some

of the best makers of these.] Note the different tints--quite three

shades of yellow upon the cere, four or five upon the bill itself, and

perhaps half-a-dozen upon the legs and feet, and carefully put them

on. Properly finished, your eagle will--if correctly shaped--be quite

life-like; all the soft parts now look full and fleshy, having lost

that hard appearance inseparable from direct painting on the

shrivelled integument without the intervention of wax.

The wattles and combs of gallinaceous birds, after being washed with

preservative (Formula No. 15), or, when practicable, skinned out and

filled, together with analogous processes on the vultures, and also

the pouches of pelicans, etc, may be treated in like manner, the wax

being thinly or thickly painted as required.

The inside of the mouths of mammals, their tongues, eyelids, and

noses, should be treated in a similar manner.

The skin of fishes also, which, when dry, shrinks away above the eye

and around the mouth and lips, should have these parts replaced by wax

before colouring, in the manner practised on the new specimens in the

Leicester Museum. So little, however, is the want of this understood,

that, of the thousands of stuffed fishes exhibited in the Fisheries

Exhibition, I looked in vain for one with unshrivelled lips or orbital

ridges. For the credit of artistic taxidermy, let us hope I overlooked

some, finished as they should be.

The fins of fishes may be repaired with thin tissue paper, or, if

finless by accident--"ware cat!"--may be replaced by wax. White wax

may be coloured in some instances before using. Paraffin wax does in

some situations, but is not a very tractable medium. Dry colours may

sometimes be rubbed into the wax with advantage. The colouring of a

fish's skin, which, when set up and dried, is colourless, as noted, is

a nice operation involving some artistic ability; the same remarks

apply as those upon the colouring of the bills and feet of birds (see

ante), but with this difference, that although the colour should be

thinly applied as directed, yet in this instance the appearance of

wetness has to be represented. In ordinary taxidermic work this is

managed by adding clear "paper" varnish, or "Roberson's medium," to

the colours, thinned by turpentine, floating the tints on the skin of

the specimen, and nicely blending them, in order to obviate unnatural

streaks or bands of colour.

Speaking of the duck-billed platypus, the Rev. J. G. Wood, in "Homes

without Hands," has some pertinent remarks upon the manner in which

nearly all taxidermists allow the cuticle to dry and shrivel, to the

ultimate distortion of the surrounding parts:

"The wonderful duck-like mandibles into which the head is prolonged

are sadly misrepresented in the stuffed specimens which we generally

see, and are black, flat, stiff, and shrivelled, as if cut from shoe

leather. The dark colour is unavoidable, at all events in the present

state of taxidermy. Bare skin invariably becomes blackish-brown by

lapse of time, no matter what the previous colour may have been, so

that the delicate tints of an English maiden's cheek and the sable hue

of the blackest negro would in a few years assume the same dingy

colour, and become quite undistinguishable from each other.

But there is no excuse now-a-days for allowing the bare skin to become

shrivelled. The colours we cannot preserve, the form we can and ought

to reproduce. No one would conceive, after inspecting a dried

specimen, how round, full, and pouting were once those black and

wrinkled mandibles, and how delicately they had been coloured while

the animal retained life. Their natural hue is rather curious, the

outer surface of the upper mandible being very dark grey, spotted

profusely with black, and its lower surface pale flesh-colour. In the

lower mandible the inner surface is flesh-coloured, and the outer

surface pinky white, sometimes nearly pure white."

All this could easily be avoided by the taxidermist first skinning the

beak and lips to their farthest extent, and then filling them with

clay or composition, and afterwards waxing and colouring the parts in

question.

Small birds having black feet or bills, which permanently retain their

colour, need only to have them slightly brushed with oil, before

casing up, to give them proper freshness.

HOLLOW EYES.--I have for a great number of years discarded the

conventional glass eyes--glass buttons I have heard them irreverently

termed!--for all fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, excepting the

smallest, using, in their stead, hollow half-globes rather more oval

than round; these are hand-painted on the inside with either water or

oil-colours, and when dry are varnished, filled in with wadding and

putty, or modelling-wax, not clay, and fixed in the orbits with wax,

see ante. These, properly coloured, and, in the instance of fishes,

gilded inside, are wonderful representations of the natural eye, and

when properly inserted, the cornea in mammals reproduced by wax, and

the eyelids properly managed, give a most life-like and natural

appearance to any specimen. [Footnote: Glass eyes have of late been

much improved in shape and colour by the Germans, and also by some

English eyemakers, who have had the sense to listen to the suggestions

of artistic taxidermists. I have by me now a really beautiful pair of

glass lynx eyes, veined and streaked, and "cornered" in porcelain, in

almost as perfect a manner as could be managed by hand-painting.]

"PIECE MOULDS" AND MODELLING TONGUES, MUSCLES, etc, IN COMPOSITION. As

I stated at the end of Chapter VII, "composition" has for its base one

of three things--clay, plaster, or wax. The uses of the first I have

fully explained--glue-water and plaster will stiffen or toughen it.

There is also "terra-cotta" clay, which, if moulded into shape, can be

"fired," and is lighter, and retains its shape without cracking. Its

service to the taxidermist is limited to the reproduction of certain

bones and some few natural objects, such as fungi, etc.

Plaster casts of almost anything may be made by "piece-casting," which

is casting arranged to take moulds from anything "undercut" or

complicated; such, let us say, as a lion's head with open jaws, or the

human face, surrounded by a wreath of leaves and flowers, as in the

antique sculptures. Assuming you had such a model as this to cast

from, you would commence by oiling or soaping the whole in the

ordinary manner. The plaster being prepared, is poured on the neck or

chin, being prevented from spreading to other parts by clay placed

across as a barrier. The first section, being cast, is trimmed, and

its edges cut diagonally toward the chin, in such a manner that the

next piece ultimately unlocks from it, without being wedged by

undercasting.

So you may proceed, trimming each piece, cutting its edges to prevent

locking, and casting bit by bit until you reach the hair and forehead,

with wreath. Here the pieces will be numerous, and your ingenuity will

be exercised to keep out of trouble from getting some piece or another

to lock the others. The face will often mould into three or four

pieces; but it is on the forehead, chin, and throat--and, if a lion's

head, in the open mouth--where the multiplicity of parts may perplex.

These small pieces are, when taken from off the model, very difficult

to put together again without a core; hence, when the mould is

complete, each little piece must have a shallow hole cut on its top,

be replaced on the model, and a "jacket-mould" cut into two or more

pieces by string (as described at chapter VII) made over the whole.

This jacket keeps all together for the ultimate casting by the pegs in

its surface made by the holes of the pieces underneath.

The ultimate cast is made by plaster being poured into a hole left at

one end of the mould for that purpose. Should this ultimate casting be

wanted hollow, it will be necessary to shake the plaster, when poured

in, around the mould in the manner described for making wax fruit.

Small undercut articles may be cast from, by making a mould of best

glue--"gelatine glue"--which readily stretches enough to "clear"

undercuts and come off the model. To get a model from this glue mould,

cover the original model you wish to cast from with as thick a

covering of clay as you wish your gelatine mould to be when run; upon

this pour plaster to form a "jacket," letting its top and bottom rest

on the top and bottom of the original model. When the clay is removed,

and the "jacket" fitted on again, it will, of course, only touch at

top and bottom, leaving an interspace all over the remainder of the

model. A hole being now cut in the "jacket," the glue [Footnote: Made

by steeping for a night, and allowing it to absorb all the water it

will, throwing away the surplus, and boiling the remainder in the

usual manner in a glue-kettle. Pour on when hot, not boiling.] is

poured in over the original oiled model, and fills up the interspace

left by the removal of the clay. When cold, it, of course, forms a

mould into which plaster can be run, in the usual manner, to form the

ultimate model.

Piece-casting of large subjects, where the various parts are cast and

then fitted together afterwards, is best understood by learning a

little from some Italian modeller, or looking over the seams

(representing the "piece-casting" joints) in some one or other of

Brucciani's reproductions, which may be seen in almost any art gallery

or museum.

One great advantage of this system is, that by its means large models,

if built up in ordinary field clay, or by any other means, may be cast

from in plaster or in metal by the intervention of piece moulds,

failing which it would be impossible to do so. The resultant model, if

in plaster, is not cast solid, but is hollowed out in the casting--to

prevent weight--by "cores" being inserted in the moulds. "Casting

sand" is, however, necessary when casting in metal, together with all

sorts of technical appliances and knowledge beyond the scope of the

taxidermist, and although I have found it necessary to cast in metal

for some purposes, it is so seldom needed that I do not purpose

describing what any friendly brass founder will tell the amateur in a

few minutes. The casting by amateurs at an ordinary fire is limited to

three metals--lead, tin, and zinc--or a mixture of two.

How large models in clay, etc, can be made is described by Mr.

Waterhouse Hawkins, F.G.S, etc, in his paper on the reproductions he

made of the extinct animals exhibited at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham:

"By careful study of their works I qualified myself to make

preliminary drawings, with careful measurements of the fossil bones in

our Museum of the College of Surgeons, British Museum and Geological

Society. Thus prepared, I made my sketch-models to scale, either a

sixth or twelfth of the natural size, designing such attitudes as my

long acquaintance with the recent and living forms of the animal

kingdom enabled me to adapt to the extinct species I was endeavouring

to restore.

"I caused the clay model to be built of the natural size by

measurements from the sketch model, and when it approximated to the

form, I, with my own hand in all instances, secured the anatomical

details and the characteristics of its nature.

"Some of these models contained thirty tons of clay, which had to be

supported on four legs, as their natural history characteristics would

not allow of my having recourse to any of the expedients for support

allowed to sculptors in an ordinary case. I could have no trees, nor

rocks, nor foliage to support these great bodies, which, to be

natural, must be built fairly on their four legs. In the instance of

the iguanodon, it is not less than building a house upon four columns,

as the quantities of material of which the standing iguanodon is

composed, consist of 4 iron columns, 9 ft. long by 7 in. diameter, 600

bricks, 650 5 in. half-round drain-tiles, 900 plain tiles, 38 casks of

cement, 90 casks of broken stone; making a total of 640 bushels of

artificial stone. These, with 100 ft. of iron hooping and 20 ft. of

cube inch bar constitute the bones, sinews, and muscles of this large

model, the largest of which there is any record of a casting being

made."

Other uses of plaster are also described in Chapters VI. and VII. One

of the uses of plaster in modelling is, however, to reproduce flesh,

etc. For this purpose mix plaster of Paris (best S.F.) with boiled oil

until it forms a smooth, thick putty, which, though at first capable

of much finger-and-thumb manipulation, dries as hard as stone, and is

fairly light and impervious to damp. Plaster will also make a putty if

mixed with glue-water.

The composition used by the picture-frame makers is also a first-rate

medium, being susceptible to the softening influences of hot water

when newly made, but ultimately dries as hard as the preceding. It is

made variously, but perhaps the best is made thus:

Cement for Modelling.

Three parts best glue.

One part linseed oil.

One part powdered resin.

Whiting.

Tallow candle.

Melt the glue with water until it is moderately thin. Boil up the

resin and oil together (be careful of fire). Mix up this with the glue

by thorough stirring and boiling together, turn it all out into a

bucket (unless you are boiling it in one), and add half a tallow

candle. Stir in enough powdered whiting to make a thick putty. Pour

some out on a plate, and let it get cold; you will then be able to

determine whether the mixture requires more or less glue, whiting or

oil. It should dry tough, but not too brittle, and should, when cut

into strips and warmed by hot water or steam, be tough and yet

pliable. Properly made, this cement is invaluable to the taxidermist,

as it works well by the hand or by tools, drying slowly until it sets.

It can be worked over real or modelled bones to show sinews or muscles

as previously mentioned. The tongues of mammals or fishes may be cast

either in plaster, glue, or wax, and subsequently modelled in this

cement, plaster, or wax, as required.

Wax is the last, and, as I have before pointed out, is, whether used

melted or softened by warm water, of the highest service to the

artist. Beeswax, when melted, will mix well with either plaster or

whiting, or with both, and will make a useful modelling composition,

its brittleness being determined by its containing more or less

plaster. Wax will also mix with red ochre, and makes a modelling

composition. Modelling wax is sold, however, ready prepared, and is

useful to pack under the skin for delicate muscles or "flabby" folds

of skin.

Paraffin wax melted, and modelled when half cold, is also sometimes of

service; it has, however, so little affinity for "sticking" as to come

away from almost anything smooth, on the slightest provocation.

White lead stiffened with whiting is sometimes useful in taking the

place of putty, and is a trifle more durable.

Perhaps, at the end of this section, it may not be amiss to point out

to the modeller that it is of the highest importance that all his

tools should be freed from dirt and plaster at the conclusion of his

day's work; scarcely anything rusts and spoils tools more quickly than

damp plaster left on them.

TO IMITATE BLOOD.--Frequently blood is required to be shown, as in

instances where some animal may be represented tearing its prey.

Usually this is done by thickly painting on vermilion and red lead

mixed with varnish, or brushing on red lead mixed with thick glue, as

a base on which to subsequently lay the vermilion. I may point out,

however, that blood differs in tint, and that the appearance of torn

flesh, fresh blood, and coagulated blood is best got by painting the

parts with wax, and tinting, with a little vermilion, some madder

brown, or madder lake (a rather expensive colour), and light red,

arranged and blended one with the other as in nature.

Should you be setting up a large group, such as a tiger tearing open a

deer, or a vulture at a sheep, you may represent the liver and other

organs in modelling clay or plaster, dried, waxed, and coloured, or by

coloured wax alone if the part to be modelled is not large.

SNOW, FROST, AND ICE.--The appearances of snow and frost are imitated

in a variety of ways. Pounded white sugar; alum powdered, or put on

boiling, and suffered to crystallize; borax, two parts, alum, four

parts, burnt in a shovel over the fire; and various other crystalline

preparations. Nothing, however, is half so good as using best S.F.

plaster of Paris mixed with powdered "glass frosting"--bought from the

glass-blower's or artificial eyemaker's--to imitate snow, the powdered

glass frosting being thrown upon the foliage and rocks--the latter

being gummed or varnished with paper varnish--to imitate ice. Blocks

of ice require special treatment with glass and thin paper strained

over a framework and varnished to get a good and natural effect.

Icicles are best modelled in glass.

WATER AND WAVES.--Water is best represented by "hammered glass"

coloured, and streaked and varnished, to the tint required. Birds may

be represented swimming by being cut in halves, their upper and under

surfaces fixed to the corresponding sides of the glass, or the glass

may be cut to receive the body, which is the most satisfactory,

although the most difficult to manage without smashing the glass.

[Footnote: There is a black-necked swan (Cygnus nigricollis), from

Chili, treated in this manner, in the Leicester Museum.] Holes may be

drilled in the glass to allow water plants to come through, or to

allow long-legged birds, such as herons, to stand mid-leg in water.

Waves are moderately well imitated by thin paper creased, varnished

and coloured, on which white wool "foam" is arranged.

MODELLING FRUIT, etc, IN PLASTER.--You may, perhaps, wish to model an

apple, peach, or plum, to place in the hands of some mounted object,

such as a monkey. To do this, you take a natural fruit, which oil, and

push it half way (on its longest axis) into a bed of damped and

hard-pressed sand banked up all round. At some little distance from

the edges of the fruit stick two or three small pegs of wood (points

downwards) about half-an-inch long, leaving a quarter-of-an-inch out

of the sand. Over all this pour some plaster of Paris mixed with water

to the thickness of a paste; when set, lift it up carefully--the

plaster now appears with the fruit half set in it, and the two or

three little pegs of wood sticking up, their other half firmly fixed

in the plaster--oil their points, the face of the plaster, and also

the fruit, and laying the half-cast fruit uppermost, pour over it some

more plaster.

When set, trim the edges, the complete mould will then part in halves,

and the fruit will shake out. Oil the mould inside, and when dry procure

some wax--beeswax from the oilman's will do for this purpose--and after

heating it carefully, for fear of fire, pour it while hot into the mould

through a hole cut for that purpose. When about a quarter full, put

your thumb or finger over the hole, and rotate the mould rapidly.

Allow it to cool, and on opening the mould the artificial fruit will

drop out, and may then be coloured by powder or varnish colours to

the tints required.

My friend, Wright Wilson, F.L.S, etc, surgeon to the Birmingham Ear and

Throat Hospital, has very kindly written me a short description of the

plan he adopts, which, it will be seen, is a complete reversal of the

foregoing:

"With regard to plaster casts of fruit, etc, a much neater and readier

method of making the mould is to mix a sufficient quantity of beeswax

with resin in a pipkin over a slow fire. It must be used whilst just

lukewarm by either dipping the fruit--say, an apple--until sufficient

adheres to form a good strong coating. When cold (dipping in cold

water will readily make it so), the whole can be cut through with a

sharp knife, the halves of the fruit come out easily, and a perfect

mould in two halves is thus obtained. Fasten the halves of the mould

together with string, and smear a little of the warm material over the

joint to hold it together, and cast your model (into this, through a

small hole made for the purpose) in the usual way with plaster of

Paris made rather thin with water. When set, place in a little warm

water, when the mould easily strips off, leaving a model of the most

perfect kind and at a small expense, for the mould can be melted up

and used over and over again."

Glue may sometimes be substituted for the wax.

The advantage of being able to fall back on this system is obvious,

especially if the modelled fruit is to be placed in a position exposed

to considerable heat. Of course, the plaster model must be coloured to

nature, and, as I have before pointed out, this is not one of the

easiest things to do. I would suggest dipping the model (when dry) in

melted wax to give a surface for colouring, or modelling it in paper.

PRESERVING SPIDERS, etc.--Spiders, which from their rarity or the

beauty of their markings it may be desirable to preserve, require the

contents of the abdomen to be pressed out, or their bodies to be cut

underneath. A first-rate article on preserving these crustaceans

appeared in Science Gossip for January, 1868, in which the author

points out what is just as well to bear in mind, which is "that the

colouring matter or pigment is placed between the outer or abdominal

covering and the pulpy contents within, upon a very delicate membrane,

which adheres very loosely to both, but more firmly to the contents

within; so that when the viscera or contents are rudely removed, and

without much tearing, the whole mass will be found more or less

coloured, while the outer skin will be left entirely transparent. To

preserve, therefore, the beauty of spiders, this must be untouched."

He further says: "Make an incision along the ventral aspect of the

abdomen, nearly its whole length, or as long as will enable the pulpy

contents to be easily removed; then pinch up the pulpy mass with a

small forceps, carefully avoiding any dragging; then, with

sharp-pointed scissors, cut away the contents bit by bit until the

whole is nearly removed, or until you can see the brilliant colour

shining through what remains in the cavity--better leave a little too

much than be too nice in clearing all away; then, with a blowpipe,

distend the empty abdomen; it will very soon become firm, and retain

its original form, but until it is so the blowing must be frequently

repeated."

A correspondent to Science Gossip, page 21, 1868, says: "I found the

best way to preserve spiders was to suspend them by a loop round their

waist in a solution of glycerine 2/3, water 1/3. The solution may want

changing once or twice at first, after that it will keep unchanged for

years."

Fig. 36--Blow-pipe for inflating larvae

PRESERVING CATERPILLARS.--The larvae of moths and butterflies may be

preserved by pressing out the contents of their bodies, and by working

from the head to the tail in a gentle manner, and assisting the

removal of the mass by a careful dragging with a crochet needle. When

empty, a little corrosive sublimate solution may be injected with a

metal or glass blow-pipe, and the empty skin then distended by blowing

into it through a very fine blowpipe, made by drawing out in a clear

flame a small glass tube until it is attenuated to a fine point. This

being inserted in the orifice at the last segment of the caterpillar,

is kept in place by being tied round with a piece of darning cotton,

or, better still, by a contrivance shown in Fig. 36 (the invention of

Mr. Auld, in Science Gossip for 1872). A A are pieces of watch spring

tied on the thick part of the blowpipe, and holding the caterpillar by

pressure on the last segments when the point B is inserted.

Mr. Auld, I see by his article, used a spirit lamp under a glass jar

to form a drying chamber while blowing; but I have myself found a "box

iron" a most convenient arrangement. The inner iron, being heated in

the fire, is placed in the chamber or "box," which it thoroughly

heats; then removed, and the larvae introduced and blown out in the

hot air, but not so full as to unnaturally distend the segments.

A certain loss of colour inevitably takes place in preserved larvae,

which in the larger ones may be restored by colouring inside them with

powder colours mixed in turps. Coloured wax is sometimes injected, and

makes the skin very firm, but it is a delicate operation, requiring

great skill in application. When finished, they may be "mounted" on

green silk-covered wire, or, more naturally, on nicely modelled leaves

of their various food-plants, by gum attached to their claspers.

It is often necessary to plunge the more delicate larvae into a weak

solution of carbolic acid, or alum and water, to harden them before

preservation.

SKELETONS OF ANIMALS.--Many people being under the impression that it

is only necessary to remove the flesh of any mammal or bird in order

to get a perfect skeleton, it may be as well to point out that as the

flesh rots, so do the ligaments which hold the bones, and consequently

the skeleton falls to pieces. When, therefore, you have made your

skeleton by the means recommended by various authors, such as exposing

it in an ant-hill, a wasp's nest, or to the attacks of the

"blow-flies" or "mealworm" (the larvae of a beetle), to "tadpoles," or

--as is the usual way with the bone preservers--by maceration in water

for a lengthened period (after removal of a great deal of the flesh,

the skin, and entrails), you will, after the careful removal of the

flesh still remaining, and subsequent drying of the bones in the sun

and air, find that nearly every bone will have to be attached to its

fellow by fine brass wire, and in the case of the bones of large

animals, each bone will have to be neatly drilled and coupled with

brass wire of greater strength.

Skeleton-making by maceration in cold water is, perhaps, one of the

most sickening operations. I have been somewhat successful by trimming

off all the flesh possible, wiring some parts together, tying others

in cloths and boiling them gently for several hours in water changed

from time to time, afterwards taking them out and picking off, with

fingers and blunt tools, all the flesh remaining--whilst hot--then

drilling and wiring all together with galvanised or copper fastenings

in a proper manner, boiling again in plenty of water, and then

allowing the bones to remain in cold water--constantly changed--for a

week or so; finally laying out in the sun and air to bleach.

By this system I have lately "skeletonized" part of a horse, and the

bones are free from grease and fairly white. Experience, however, in

this as in everything else, will tell you what to do and how to piece

one system into another to best advantage. Washing the bones with

Hudson's "dry" soap, or soda and water, will often remove a great deal

of the grease. Chloride of lime and water will assist the bleaching,

but must be managed cautiously, or in careless hands it is likely to

do more harm than good. The making of good and nicely bleached

osteological preparations really depends on carefulness and neatness,

supplemented by water, air, and sun; by the three latter aids, I have

repeatedly improved in a wonderful manner "old bones" which were

greasy and discoloured.

Should the sea be close at hand, the skeleton, shut in a box with

holes, may be sunk, and exposed to the attacks of various "small

deer," especially "bees" (Aega tridens), which swarm in some shallow

waters to such an extent as to clear the flesh from a large animal in

a few hours.

SKELETON LEAVES.--Very beautiful objects may be made by placing the

leaves of trees and shrubs, or such as are of a strong or woody

texture, in a pan, pouring boiling soft or rain water over them, then

exposing them to the atmosphere for a time varying from one to three

or four months. They are then gently lifted out and held on a board,

or on a plate, under running water, and the pulpy part, or epidermis,

removed by gentle brushing with a camel-hair pencil or fine needle, to

split the skin away from the mid-rib.

When nothing but the ligneous skeleton or woody fibre remains, it may

be placed in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and exposed to the

sun under glass to dry and bleach. To prevent them sticking to the

paper on which you may wish to dry them, use either blotting-paper or

oiled paper, after well washing the leaves. If skeletonizing in summer

time, trust to sun alone, as chloride of lime has a tendency to make

the leaves go brittle. The seed vessels of various plants, such as the

poppies, thorn apples (Daturae), and campions, as also the leaves of

laurel, holly, ivy, lime, sycamore, poplar, and a host of others, may

be treated in this manner. When finished, they may be mounted on wires

whipped with white silk, and placed on black velvet under a shade.

Some writers have advised the boiling of the leaves in a solution of

caustic soda, or steeping them in a strong mixture of chloride of lime

and water, but I have hitherto considered these plans not so practical

as the foregoing, though, perhaps, quicker; as, however, I find two

writers, in Science Gossip for 1867, very positive on the subject, I

will give the following extracts:

"A solution of caustic soda is made by dissolving 3 oz. of washing

soda in two pints of boiling water, and adding 1.5 oz. of quicklime,

previously slacked; boil for ten minutes, decant the clear solution,

and bring it to the boil. During ebullition add the leaves; boil

briskly for some time--say, an hour--occasionally adding hot water to

supply the place of that lost by evaporation. Take out a leaf and put

into a vessel of water, rub it between the fingers under the water. If

the epidermis and parenchyma separate easily, the rest of the leaves

may be removed from the solution, and treated in the same way; but if

not, then the boiling must be continued for some time longer.

To bleach the skeletons, mix about a drachm of chloride of lime with a

pint of water, adding sufficient acetic acid to liberate the chlorine.

Steep the leaves in this till they are whitened (about ten minutes),

taking care not to let them stay in too long, otherwise they are apt

to become brittle. Put them into clean water, and float them out on

pieces of paper. Lastly, remove them from the paper before they are

quite dry, and place them in a book or botanical press."--Dr. G.

Dickson, Science Gossip, January, 1867.

"I once saw another way of managing skeleton leaves that interested me

greatly. The leaves were boiled for two minutes, and then transferred

to a strong solution of permanganate of potash and gently heated. In

an hour or two the laxer tissues were easily removed by means of a

brush. Sulphurous acid was used for bleaching them, and this liquid

was also employed with much facility for the removing of the stains on

the fingers caused by the permanganate of potash."--George Newlyn,

Science Gossip, November, 1867.

The last-named gentleman appears to bleach his leaves by fastening

them across a hat-box by means of strings, inserting a pan or tin cup

containing sulphur, setting it on fire, and shutting down the lid (of

course, out of doors). The whole article is very interesting, but too

long for insertion here.

CRUSTACEANS.--Lobsters, crawfish, and crabs must have the

cephalo-thorax (the upper part) disjointed from the body or "tail"

part, the limbs taken off at their attachment to the body, and the

whole of the flesh removed by means of the "undercutting tool" (see

Fig. 29), and crooked wires; afterwards wash the inside with carbolic

wash (No. 15), and fill the limbs and body with dry plaster and

wadding, neatly fixing on the legs where disjointed, and putting the

remainder of the body together with any of the cements mentioned in

Chapter IV.

POLISHING HORNS.--As a commencement it will be requisite to remove all

the rough shell-like layers of horn which stand up as knots and

gnarls, and mar the symmetry of the horns. In some horns, old ones

especially, you will find their inner sides covered with several

thicknesses of this waste or dead stuff. Do not be afraid, but boldly

pare this down level with the surrounding horn, for which purpose

nothing is so good as a spokeshave. Blood stains usually lie in the

soft upper layers; shave these down carefully until they end, which

will be underneath where the horn becomes white and of a more

ivory-like texture. When nearing this it will be as well to give up

the use of the spokeshave, and use some instrument in a scraping

manner; the side of a chisel (not the cutting edge) or a knife is best

for this purpose. The handle being held in the right hand and the

point in the left, scrape the horn until you get to the white part,

which will be somewhat harder than the remainder.

In colourless horns you must get down to this white part, or your

polish will not be high; besides this, blood stains will show up, and

the surface will look of a soapy, greasy nature, instead of the

ivory-like texture it should assume. Be careful when working to the

largest part, or base of the horn, not to run your tool through, as it

is much thinner there than at the tips.

Whilst thinning rough places in certain horns you will find a half

round and flat fine rasp of great assistance. When you have obtained a

nice even surface all over, use glass paper of different degrees of

fineness, and pumice-stone. Collect the dust which falls off, with a

rag dipped in linseed oil and well rub the horn with this. Next get

some "putty powder" (oxide of tin), which rub violently on all parts

of the horn with a rag and linseed oil, finally finishing off with

brown paper, a soft rag, and the palm of the hand, using plenty of

"elbow grease."

Remember, horn polishing is all hard work, unless managed by "bobbing"

on a lathe, so let no one attempt it who is not prepared to work very

hard, as plenty of quick and violent friction is indispensable in the

latter stages to give the high polish requisite. Horn may be softened,

and ultimately dissolved in caustic soda.

POLISHING TORTOISE-SHELL, etc.--To polish tortoise-shell (which is in

many cases turtle-shell) it is necessary to scrape the shell very

carefully with a broad knife, taking care not to cut through to the

under shell or "bone." When properly smoothed rub it over with

pumice-stone and water, then with bath-brick and water, finally

polishing off, when you have a nice fine surface, with putty-powder

and oil, or rotten-stone and oil, with plenty of hard work and

hand-polishing towards the last. A little tallow rubbed in with the

hand, as the very last finishing touch, will be found of benefit. A

paste made of sal volatile and rouge has been recommended to be

applied to the shell after scraping, then suffered to remain until

dry, and finally polished off.

Bad places in the shell, where it has peeled or been broken off,

should be made up with coloured shellac, or hardened wax, put in with

a warmed knife after polishing, and finished off separately.

Tortoise-shell may be welded by heat.

Sea shells may be polished by being plunged for a little time in

dilute nitric acid, then rubbed down with sand paper or fine emery and

oil, finished with "Water-Ayr" or "Snake-stone," and finally polished

with putty-powder and oil. A mussel-shell treated in this manner makes

a most beautiful object, coming out purple, with streaks of lighter

blue and pearl.

Stones, such as agates, which are found on the sea beach, or any stone

which is required to be polished, is to be first ground down to a

rough surface, then polished by successive rubbings of first, second,

and third grit-stones of different degrees of fineness, lastly

"Water-Ayr" or "Snake-stone," and finished with "putty powder" applied

with oil. All of the stones or grits mentioned are to be procured at

the marble mason's at a low rate. Serpentine treated in this manner

makes a very beautiful object.

EGGS, COLLECTING AND PRESERVING.--Eggs of various birds may be sought

for in their seasons in the localities best suited to the several

species. But so much depends upon special training or aptitude in the

collecting of birds' eggs, that a detailed description of localities

where to seek and how to find, eggs, is hardly necessary, in the pages

of this work, further than to remark that a pair of "climbing irons"

are requisite for those individuals who do not possess the agility of

a cat or of a schoolboy.

Climbing Irons (see Fig. 37), to fit the foot and leg, are best made

of wrought iron with a welding of finely-tempered steel from C to DE,

to form the claw used when climbing. To affix them to the leg, the

foot is placed as in a stirrup from C to B, the claw ED pointing

inward. A strap should now be passed through a slot or square hole

punched in the metal between C and D (not shown in the figure), and

laced under and across the foot to and through the loop shown between

B and A at a, thus keeping the foot itself tightly fixed. Another

strap passes through the loop at the top where marked A, and is

strapped round the calf of the leg, keeping all below the knee rigid

and secure. When climbing, the hands clasp the tree in the usual

manner, and the side of the foot is struck smartly against the trunk,

to cause the claw to penetrate. The climber now rests on this, and

strikes the claw of the other iron in, on the other side, higher up,

and so on alternately.

Fig. 37--Climbing iron

Eggs, when procured, must have their contents removed. To do this they

must first be drilled with little steel instruments called egg-drills,

which are made of various degrees of fineness according to the size of

the egg to be operated upon. Drills are to be procured from the

various dealers, but can be made from steel wire softened in the fire

and filed to a sharp three-cornered point--afterwards tempered to

hardness--for the smaller eggs, or filed up for the larger eggs to the

pattern of a "countersink" used for wood; indeed, the smallest-sized

"countersink" made--to be procured at any ironmonger's--will do very

well for eggs the size of a hen's. Capital egg-drills are to be made

from "pinion wire" used by watchmakers. Simply file to a point, and

"relieve" with a small "three-square" file the channels of the wire,

giving them a cutting edge up to their point. With such a drill as

this--cost, about 2d.--I have blown, without any breakage, eggs

varying in size, from swallows' to hens'. A drill costing 2s. 6d,

which was the price I paid for my first--purchased from a

surgical-instrument maker in London, since deceased--could not do the

work better.

To use these drills, rotate the point by "twiddling" the drill between

the finger and thumb, making only one hole, and that in the centre of

the egg. When a nicely-rounded hole is cut, the egg must be emptied by

means of an "egg-blower," or blowpipe; the point being introduced into

the hole, the contents are blown out or sucked up into the bulb,

which, when full, is emptied out at the other end. It sometimes

happens that the egg is "hard set." The embryo must, in that case, be

cut out with small curved scissors specially made. If hard set,

putrid, or stale, an egg often bursts when touched. To obviate this,

drill and blow it under water.

Young birds can often be extracted, with a little care, uninjured from

their egg-shells, and yet--as happened to me lately in the instance of

a hawk--the shell may make a presentable museum object, after such

extraction.

In all cases eggs should be thoroughly rinsed out with a solution of

six grains of corrosive sublimate to an ounce of rectified spirits of

wine. This may be sucked up into the bulb of the "egg-blower," and

thence ejected into the egg, which is to be rotated, and what solution

is left may then be sucked back and thrown away, or returned to the

bottle. Great care must be taken, however, that the mixture shall not

pass the bulb and be drawn up into the mouth, as it is, of course, a

deadly poison; the egg, being placed (hole downwards) on blotting

paper, is to be left until dry.

Those who object to poison may rinse their eggs out with water to

which has been added a few drops of strong essence of cloves. This is

agreeable to use, and appears to cleanse away all impurities.

A little label may finally be gummed over the orifice, and the

specimen is then ready for the cabinet; or, as labels will in time

fall off, however well they may have been previously gummed, it is

better to write a distinguishing number, and as much of the history of

its collection as is possible on the egg itself, the full history, of

course, being posted up in the note book. Labels may, however, be used

with great advantage on the divisions of the cabinet drawer which

separate one species of egg from the other.

Loose labels are not to be used on any account, as they often get

reversed and create confusion, and a collection thus treated is

brought into grave discredit. Eggs, when being sent any distance,

should be separately wrapped in cotton wool, and packed in a strong

box, any interstices being lightly filled with wool also. Sawdust or

bran should never be used as a packing medium, as the eggs shake

together and break each other in travelling.

For those who require coloured figures of eggs I must refer them to

Hewitson's "Eggs of British Birds," or Atkinson's "British Birds' Eggs

and Nests," a much cheaper, but very good little work; also to a new

work by Mr. H. Seebohm (the celebrated traveller in Siberia, etc.),

entitled, "A History of British Birds," with coloured illustrations of

their eggs.

PREPARATION OF MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.--The same remark applies to this

as to aquaria (see Chapter XIII.). The treatment is so varied, the

objects so numerous, that books upon books have been written on it.

Every naturalist and curator, however, has to work sometimes with the

microscope; but taking into consideration the vastness of the subject,

I must refer them to text-books, such as Beale's "How to Work with the

Microscope;" Lankester's "Half-hours with the Microscope;" Hon. Mrs.

Ward's "The Microscope;" Davies "On the Preparation and Mounting of

Microscopic Objects;" G. E. Davis' "Practical Microscopy;" Gosse's

"Half-hours with the Microscope;" Wood's "Common Objects of the

Microscope;" any of Quekett's works, and to late numbers of the

Monthly Microscopical Journal, Nature, Science Gossip (the latter

teeming with practical hints on all matters connected with natural

history), and hosts of other works.

This chapter, dealing as it does with details and hints upon many

subjects, may fittingly be closed with scraps forgotten in the body of

this work, but which now occur to me as being useful knowledge.

STARCH AS PASTE: (see chapter IV).--Procure some common starch (that

which is white looking is perhaps the best), mix it up with a little

cold water, just sufficient to dissolve it, stirring it thoroughly to

prevent lumps. Pour upon this sufficient boiling water to make it into

a stiff paste. This will be found most useful for clean paper or

photographic work, as it enables paper to be pasted on cardboard, etc.

without creasing. The paper should be first wetted on the face side,

the back pasted with the starch-paste, fixed on the cardboard, and the

whole dried off by blotting paper. For common taxidermic work, paste

containing resin (sold at leather merchants') is strong and cheap.

BEST GLUE, made in the ordinary manner, but rather thicker than usual,

then poured into a bottle containing enough methylated spirit to thin

it, is recommended as being a strong medium to stick paper on wood or

cardboard, with the advantage claimed for it that it does not cause

the thin wood or cardboard to "cast" or "buckle."

MARINE GLUE dissolved in diluted acetic acid makes a strong cement for

certain things, such as mending shells. This, as also the preparation

of Formula No. 33, should be kept in bottles, or small stoppered jars,

and melted for use by surrounding with hot water.

LEATHER is (so says a bookbinder) to be pasted, after it is damped on

the outside. Cloth is to be glued. This is useful to know if making up

cloth-covered boxes with leather backs, to imitate books (see Chapter

XV, on Entomology).

ANTI-INSECT NOSTRUMS (see chapter IV).--Russian tallow in saucers, oil

of birch, flowers of sulphur, hellebore, pepper, tobacco, are said to

be "bogies," the last especially, to the Dermestes beetles and their

cousin, Anthrenus museorum. Try them, but don't rely too much upon

them, is my advice; nor, indeed, upon anything--not excepting even

corrosive sublimate. Trust only to exposure to light and constant

supervision, zinc or wire drying cases, and to "casing up" as soon as

possible.

If sending specimens long distances, it is well to pepper the shot

parts, enclosing also in the parcel some pieces of charcoal wrapped in

paper. Of course, if the specimens are not for the table, dilute

glacial carbolic acid, poured on the wounds and down the throat, is

the best thing to do, but it should always be noted in an accompanying

letter, for fear of accidents. Smearing the hands and face with

paraffin is said to keep forest flies and midges from biting.

PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL TISSUE (see chapter IV).

Chloride of zinc, 1 part.

Water, 20 parts.

This formula appears to be one of the non-alcoholic preservatives most

suited for fishes in preparation jars. I have so lately tried it that

I cannot at present state if it is the very best.

PICRIC ACID, formed by a certain chemical fusion of carbolic acid with

nitric acid, is recommended (when diluted) for the preservation of

soft-bodied animals, such as zoophytes, etc.

BICHROMATE OF POTASH (see chapter IV), though so useful for pickling

fishes, mollusca, worms, and even "jelly fish" and sea-anemones, is, I

have found, liable to be attacked by mildew; to prevent this add a few

drops of phenic (carbolic acid). [Footnote: Phenol, Phenic Acid,

Phenic Alcohol, Hydrate of Phenyl (C6H5HO)=Carbolic add.] This salt is

also used in microscopy to assist in fixing glass covers on glass

slides. The cement in question appears so admirably adapted to many

purposes, that I think it worth quoting (see Science Gossip, 1879, p.

136):

Cox's gelatine, 2 oz.

Acetic acid, fluid, 1 drachm.

Gum ammoniac, 10 grains.

"Dissolve in a water bath, and filter through cotton while warm. This

cement remains fluid when cold, and dries quickly. After the ring has

become set, or stiff, the whole slide is immersed for a minute or so

in a 10-grain solution of bichromate of potash, and is then allowed to

dry, exposed to the light, which makes the bichromated gelatine

perfectly insoluble, even in boiling water, and thoroughly prevents

the escape of any glycerine."

PERMANGANATE OF POTASH (see chapter IV) is recommended at p. 49,

Science Gossip, 1879, by a French scientist, for "preserving delicate

organisms." "It is especially good in histological researches, as it

acts like osmic acid, burning up the protoplasm, bringing out the

minutiae, and showing the nuclei, outlines of cells, etc. It is used as

a saturated solution in distilled or very pure spring water; sea-water

also dissolves it. The concentrated solution, of a lovely violet

colour, kills small organisms at once, and then burns them. They are

left in it from thirty minutes to an hour, then withdrawn, and placed

in alcohol, after which they can be made transparent with essence of

terebinth and mounted in Canada balsam. Beautiful results are thus

obtained with echinoderms, zoophytes, worms and marine arthropoda. For

delicate researches, especially in the ciliated infusoria, it is

better than osmic acid, without its great cost, and is everywhere

easily obtained."--G. du Plessis.

GLYCERINE (see Chapter IV).--Glycerine will be found useful for

rubbing on the eyes or noses of animals to keep them moist and prevent

their drying up when modelling, as well as for many other purposes,

which will readily occur to the practical worker.

CORALS, etc, may be cleaned by first soaking in warm water, to remove

surface dust, etc, then allowing the tap to run on them for some hours,

and afterwards soaking them in a weak solution of chloride of lime for

a short time, until fairly bleached.

BIRDS may be roughly preserved from immediate decay by pouring down

their throats, or into their bodies by an incision under the wing,

crude creosote or carbolic acid. I remember once having a collection

of birds from India prepared in this way, which after a lapse of years

were successfully skinned and made up--"as well as could be expected."

Sometimes I have been written to by correspondents to say that they

had cured some mammals' skins by Formula No. 9, and that there was an

efflorescence about the mouth, or that mildew had appeared. My answer

has ever been:

Firstly, that possibly the specimen had been cased up too soon. At

least two months should elapse after stuffing before mammals should be

mounted in a case.

Secondly, that common alum had been used instead of burnt alum.

Thirdly, that an undue proportion of saltpetre had been mixed with the

alum.

Should mildew make its appearance, it would point to improper mounting

--i.e, not trimming off enough flesh or fat, or to the specimen being

mounted in a case before it was sufficiently dry. If it be mildew, the

specimen must come out of the case and be properly dried. If it be

merely crystallisation of impure alum, the crystals must be washed off

with warm water from time to time as they form, until no more appear.

It must be remembered, however, that a damp house, or juxtaposition to

a wet wall, will ruin the most carefully mounted specimens.

Correspondents may be quite sure that neither the method nor the

formula are to blame in the matter. The great point is to wipe off the

mildew or crystals as fast as they appear until no more form, which

will determine when the specimen is thoroughly dry.

How to solder, either by the blowpipe or by the "bit," is now and then

useful knowledge. Any mechanic will impart this for a consideration.

CHAPTER XIII.

CASES, MOUNTS, SHIELDS, EGG CABINETS, ROCKWORK, FERNS, GRASSES,

SEA-WEEDS, ETC, FOR "FITTING UP."

CASES can be made in all styles. The oldest is the "box," which needs

no description. Next in age is the "canted-corner case," a most odious

abomination beloved of the amateur; the shape of the ground plan being

as Fig. 38. A to A the front, B to B the back, C C C is glass, the

points A A are wooden or metal uprights, pinning together top and

bottom; B B B B is wood; hence it follows that all the space outside

the dotted lines is useless, or if used at all, the uprights (A A)

cross perhaps the most important part of the work, so that this shaped

case resolves itself into the following difficulty: either the case is

too large for the object, or two lines cross it.

Fig. 38--Plan of "canted-corner" case.

The usual glass-ended square case is easily made by any amateur joiner

in this wise: Take two pieces of wood for top and bottom to size

required, plane and square them up together to ensure their being

exactly alike; then, with a "plough" plane, set to 0.375 in, "plough

out" all around the front and sides of each to half its thickness.

Take the back and nail it to the top and bottom with brads; having

done which, next take two pieces of wood for the uprights of

sufficient thickness to suit the case--too great thickness being

guarded against.

Fig. 39--Section of "uprights" or pillars of square case.

Let us, however, assume that each of these pieces is 0.75 in. square,

the height immaterial, "plough" these out on two sides, the "plough"

still set at 0.375 in. for depth. For the front, "plough" out 0.375

in. from the edge, and 0.375 in. deep, this still leaves 0.375 in. out

of the 0.75 in. untouched; turn the upright now on its side and repeat

the "ploughing," allowing for just missing the point of intersection.

Fig. 39 shows a section; the dark part is the wood left, the dotted

squares show where the wood has been removed; the corner A, outside

the dotted line, is afterwards rounded off. Each upright is "ploughed"

alike; they are then glued and nailed to the top and bottom by brads

running through; the rounded edges falling outside.

The case is now finished, as will be seen, for the reception of glass

at its front and sides. First, however, it will have to be blacked or

ebonised. Mix, therefore, some "lamp" or "drop" black in powder with

thin glue-water, boil, and lay the mixture on with a stiff brush over

the case whilst warm. When quite dry, rub it down with fine sand

paper.

The subjects being mounted in the case, paper the glass in with brown

paper and strong paste, and then go over the previously blackened case

with a very thin coat of Brunswick black. When this is dry put a slip

of 0.5 in. or 0.75 in. gilt moulding (procured at the picture frame

maker's) all around the front of the case on top of the prepared

glass, and just within the edges of the wood "ploughed" out to receive

it, nicely mitring the comers with a mitre and shooting block.

The foundation of this latter is a sound 1 in. board, 2 ft. 6 in. long

by 18 in. wide, or of any other convenient dimensions. Upon this is

screwed another piece an inch or more thick (Fig. 40), so as to make a

step (C C). Both pieces must be dry, so as not to be liable to warp;

upon the higher part are screwed two strips of hard wood (B B) about

1.5 in. or 2 in. wide, forming a right angle where they meet. The

whole must be very accurately made, and although deal will answer the

purpose, hard wood of some kind will be more satisfactory. Beech or

oak will do very well.

Fig. 40--Mitre block.

Suppose a piece of moulding to require mitring; it has only to be laid

as shown against the guide bar (B), and sawn off on the line (CC), or

laid on the other side against the second guide bar, and similarly cut

off. It will be necessary to use both sides in this way, because,

although the piece cut off has also an angle of 45 deg, it would need

to be turned over and applied to the other, which could not be done

without reversing the moulding. In a plain unmoulded strip this, of

course, would not signify.

Gilt moulding may be put at each end or not, according to the fancy

and pocket of the workman. The case is now finished, and shows the

front and two sides of glass framed in by gilt, outside of which is

the narrow black line of the wood. If it be desired to get up the wood

of the case in a superior manner, it must first be blacked with the

glue and lamp-black, sand-papered down, blacked and sand-papered

again, and finally French polished.

The most substantial and effective case is the "stop-chamfered" one,

made either in deal ebonized, or fancy woods polished. In this the

glass is put in from the back with putty, or papered in, and finally

held in place by "beads" of wood, the top is lined with linen and

coloured in oil, and after the work is put in (from the back) the

back-board (previously lined and coloured) is screwed up, and thus you

have a case perfectly impervious to dust or to the changes of the

atmosphere. Unless the amateur is a good workman, it will be better

for him to get such a case turned out by a professional joiner, to

ensure clean-cut work.

These are very handsome and neat cases, especially if the back be

"ploughed" out deeply to receive a canvas on a stretcher, on which a

characteristic scene is painted. In this event the included work must

be good, and the fitting-up as plain as possible.

Cases for fishes are best glazed by "sprung" or semi-convex glass for

the fronts, which often does away with the necessity for glass ends,

and gives also a more artistic and finished appearance.

Glass shades, especially those of an oval shape, suit many birds well,

but for large work are more expensive than cases. Stands in black or

gilt are usually supplied with them; but those in mahogany, oak, and

other fancy woods must be ordered, unless the amateur possesses a

lathe, and the requisite knowledge to use it. In fitting up these with

rockwork, etc, it is best to arrange the work on a "false bottom," or

at least to cover up with paper the polished stand, lest it be

spoiled.

MOUNTS.--"Mounts," which are simply tops of round or oval shades

fitted into corresponding stands or frames of wood, or are open

cylinders of glass with a flat piece cemented on one end, were, I

believe, first invented by Mr. George Ashmead, of Bishopsgate-street,

London. They are very effective, and also occupy but little space, as

they hang up on the wall in positions where shades or cases will not

go.

The method of making up a "mount" is as follows: Procure from a glass

merchant the top of a shade, let us say 12 in. in diameter by 7 in.

high. To this have a stand or rim turned out of thoroughly dry wood of

sufficient size to overlap the shade 1 in. all round--14 in. in

diameter, therefore, for a 12 in. shade. A groove should be turned in

them stand of sufficient width to allow the glass to play freely.

The groove, however, should be so arranged that the excess in width

should fall outside the glass. The centre of the stand inside the

groove being tinted for a sky, as desired, the objects, whether small

birds or butterflies, are introduced in the usual manner, and the

glass is then cemented, in the groove, over them.

Waste cylinders of glass may be economised for making mounts. It will

then, however, be necessary to have a circular plate for the top cut

by a glazier's turn-table. These are really better for showing up

anything than the round-topped mounts, as they cast no reflection; but

the top plates are harder to put on and to keep on when finished.

Strongly pasted black tape will do to fix the very small ones, but for

larger the tops should be cemented with thick white-lead, left to dry,

and then further cemented with narrow tape smeared with white-lead, or

any of the cements given in chapter IV. If it be desired to give a

rounded edge to this taping, plaster or whiting mixed with glue and

lamp-black may be laid on thickly, rubbed down with fine sand-paper,

and polished, or if the black is left out, the cement may be gilded,

after the manner of picture frames.

The stand itself may be "dished" out in the centre, in concave form,

and thus more room allowed for the enclosed specimens; but in this

case the stand must be of some thickness.

At one time the glasses were put in the stands with glue and cork, or

glue and paper, until it was found, in nine cases out of ten, that

glue, under atmospheric changes, sooner or later broke the glass, or

else entirely released it. Putty was then used, but that failed to

hold with the tenacity required, as there was a constant tendency of

the shade to fall out by its natural weight when hanging up. I have

accordingly mixed white-lead with putty with better results, in the

proportion of two parts putty; one ditto white-lead (thick, such as

gasfitters use); one-eighth ditto gold size--or I have used red-lead,

mixed with common putty and boiled oil; and, again, simply plaster of

Paris mixed with water. These last two are the best holdfasts of glass

within my experience.

Supposing the stand to be ebonized, or of mahogany or any other fancy

wood, the putty or plaster can be coloured to any required tint, or if

the stand is gilt the cement can be gilded over. Failing to make a

very neat job, it will be necessary to wind a piece of chenille around

the shade in order to hide the junction.

As it is very difficult to prevent a small percentage of the cement

from working inside, and thus spoiling the neatness of the sky effect,

I have devised the following plan, which I do not think is generally

known: Instead of using a solid stand with groove for the back of the

mount, I turn a rim of wood to form a ring, in such a manner that it

shall just pass over the shade without allowing the latter to fall

through at its bottom edge. Underneath this rim, or ring, I turn it

out to within a quarter of an inch of its edge to receive the back,

turned out of a piece of thinner wood.

The rim of wood is best turned by being nearly cut through on its

upper or pattern side, the wood then reversed on the lathe, turned out

to receive the back, then altered again, and the rim cut entirely

through. To fix this, the rim is fitted on over the glass, and kept in

place with cement. The work is made up on the back, which is then

screwed, or pasted, or glued, in the hollow turned out at the back of

the rim. By this method there is no cement showing inside on the

sky-line of the work when finished, nor can the glass possibly tumble

out, being, of course, held by the rim, which is of necessity smaller

than the bottom of the glass. Such rims may, of course, be ebonized,

of fancy woods, or gilded, according to the taste of the workman. A

small screw-plate with ring should be attached to hang it up by.

A modification of the "mount" is made by securing five pieces of glass

together in the usual manner, by tape pasted on each edge to make a

square glass cover, making up the work on a piece of board of the

required size, rebated or grooved all around, or by nailing on strips

of wood to receive the glass cover, which is then pasted or cemented

to the edges of the board, and finally finished off by dropping over

all picture-frame moulding, cut and joined to size, to which the back

is screwed. This style does either for fishes or dead game to stand

upon a hall table, or easily becomes a "mount" by the simple process

of screwing on "plate-rings," and hanging it up on a wall.

The colouring of the backs of cases and mounts is of two

kinds--distemper and oil; that is to say, supposing paper, calico or

sheeting is used for the back of the cases or mounts. Colour the paper

or other material--if you wish to show a toned sky--with whiting in

which a little glue-water or paste is dissolved, or with common

flake-white and size (note that there must be a good body of white to

give a luminous appearance), tinting at the same time with blue,

shading off into pink, etc. The colours most useful are ultramarine,

vermilion, and chrome yellow in powder. This colouring will not do if

putty is used to put the glass in with, as the oil flies over the

tinted sky. For oil painting place a thin calico or canvas on the

backs, and colour with the tints you desire, mixed in oil and turps.

Putty can be used in any part with this colouring. One coat of colour

is sufficient, as if another is added an unpleasant glaze is the

result.

SHIELDS.--Heads of mammals, etc, when set up and finished, should be

mounted on "shields" of fancy wood; oak or mahogany being the best,

unless ebonized and gilded pine is preferred. The shapes are usually a

modification of the conventional "heart," such as will be found in a

pack of cards. This being purely a matter of individual taste, the

taxidermist may easily make as many patterns as he chooses by doubling

a piece of brown or stiff paper and cutting his shapes out therefrom.

One of these paper patterns may be traced around upon a piece of

planed wood of the suitable size, and cut out by a "bow "-saw, the

edges trimmed and bevelled, and the surface finally polished. A

key-hole (protected by metal screwed across in the instances of large

or weighty heads), is bored or cut, by which to hang it up, and the

neck-block of the specimen is screwed thereto by three screws of

sufficient length placed in the form of a triangle. Horns alone are

attached to shields by screws running through the frontal bone, or, if

without this, are attached--to a model of the frontal bone in wood, by

nuts and screws.

CABINETS FOR EGGS AND SKINS.--I have lately seen many cabinets for

eggs, skins, etc, constructed on a capital system, the invention, I

believe, of Mr. Salvin, the eminent ornithologist. The drawers are

made of varying depths, from 1 in. to 6 in, and the bottoms are fitted

with tongues overlapping each side, which fit into grooves cut in the

carcase of the cabinet, and so arranged by a little calculation that a

shallow drawer can immediately be inserted in the place previously

occupied by a deep one, or vice versa--i.e, a deep 6 in. drawer, which

may be No. 30, at the bottom, can be pushed upwards at any

intermediate point between that and No. 1.

The modus operandi is as follows: Whatever the depth decided on of the

drawers, the carcase is grooved all the way down to half the depth of

the shallowest drawer, if in even inches, or to a multiple of each

drawer if otherwise. Example: Take a foot rule and mark off 10 in on a

piece of paper, dividing it into alternate half inches making, of

course, twenty half inches; this represents the carcase. Then take

some strips of paper or cardboard, which cut to 1 in, 1.5 in, 2 in.

2.5 in. and 3 in. respectively, total 10 in. These represent the

drawers; putting them in their order, they will, of course, fit in the

10 in. Now change them about, top to bottom, or bottom in the middle,

or in any way that you like, and you will find that they will always

fall in a groove, leaving room for the others, when pushed down,

without any open space between.

The same method is adopted in the cabinets under the invertebrate show

cases in the Liverpool Museum, which I recently visited under the able

guidance of the clever and genial curator, Mr. Moore, so well known,

together with his family, in connection with many unique and beautiful

osteological preparations.

CASING UP WITH ROCKWORK, ETC.--Brown paper was formerly the pièce de

rèsistance of those who aspired to imitate rocks on which to place or

to surround their animals. It was used by being first soaked in water

and drawn over pieces of wood, boxes, or large cinders even, to give

shape. It was then glued, and small stones and sand thrown on. Usually

uncoloured, it revealed itself in its naked ugliness, and looked what

it was--paper. Later, it was more artistically arranged, and when

divested of folds by the application of more paper, plenty of glue,

and well coloured, it certainly looked decent. Then came peat, a

glorious innovation for quick, if not artistic, work. This dried

earth, dug from bogs, admits of being carved and shaped to almost any

form. Sandstone and some other rocks may be represented by it, as also

trunks of trees. Well glued and sanded, it takes colour readily, or it

may be gone over with a mixture of whiting and plaster of Paris with

glue-water, and finally coloured; or dry plaster may be mixed with

thick oil paint as a "priming" medium.

"Virgin" cork is the latest rockwork model. Its shape being irregular,

it is well suited to imitate craggy rocks, added to which it takes

thick colour or whiting well, glued or unglued.

Nothing, however, beats a mixture of all methods--paper, peat, and

cork, their lines broken up or blended with wadding. The whole of

this, well glued, sanded, and properly coloured, will defy the most

critical unprofessional judgment to declare it anything but what it

seems--hard rock.

I am speaking, of course, of small cases; large work requires

consideration. Peat will not do for anything but the illustration of

small subjects. It is too heavy, and does not readily adapt itself to

imitate large masses of overhanging rock; added to which, its expense

in large quantities is very great. It is also dirty to work with, and

is often a harbour for larvae of various moths--inimical to the

taxidermist. I so recognised all these facts in the treatment of the

rockwork in the Leicester Museum, that I determined to use paper only,

treating it by an old method, artistically elaborated.

This method was, after making a rough drawing and calculation as to

the positions the specimens would occupy in the case, to nail strips

of "quartering" across the backs of the cases, to which again were

nailed strips of 0.75 in. wood, crossing in all directions, but

especially where the drawings indicated a mass of rock. On these, and

to these, small shelves of wood were nailed in the positions to be

subsequently occupied by the specimens. To these shelves cardboard was

tacked, and bent upward and downward to the pointed or square shapes

assumed by the rocks modelled from. [Footnote: It is quite necessary

in artistic modelling not only to have coloured drawings of the rocks

you are imitating, but to have an actual piece by you as a little

guide to form and colour.] Where the edges were too sharp they were

beaten in by a mallet, or altered by glueing on wadding.

The mass of rock being joined here and there to break up the

appearance of shelves, and to give a certain homogeneity, was then

treated by having brown paper well glued on both sides, stuck all over

the edges, joins, or accidental fissures; this, suffered to dry, was

then well painted with a mixture of whiting and glue-water, again

allowed to dry, and again painted. When this last was dry it was gone

over with a thin wash of glue-water, and sharp "silver" sand thrown

on; when dry, coloured by staining it with various oil colours (not

tube), and some few powder colours--blue-black, yellow ochre, Vandyke

brown, celestial blue (cheap), burnt sienna, etc, thinned with turps,

afterwards touched up, when dry, with touches of tube colours, smartly

and cleanly put on. This would be the treatment and colouring for

greyish-brown or yellowish-grey smooth, dry-looking rocks, sandstones,

etc.; and by a little alteration of tint and treatment in places, would

imitate the various slates.

For chalk and limestone, mix plaster and sand with the whiting and lay

it on thickly, not throwing on sand, as a final operation. Colours, of

course, are different here, more bright and light green predominating;

but the colouring of the rockwork, etc, to imitate the various kinds of

rocks required, is only to be learned by experience; in point of fact,

to colour rocks in an effective manner is really the work of an

artist, for it is requisite to know the properties of colours, and to

"scumble" and "stipple" or "glaze" one colour over another to get

"depth." A few hints may, however, help out the tyro.

For rough sea rocks, after sanding and glueing, go over the rockwork

with a mixture of chrome yellow and Prussian blue, mixed with oil and

turps, the blue predominating; touch up the points with white, and

allow it to dry. The next day deepen the shadows with Brunswick black,

"stippling" lightly the remainder of the rock with the same. Arrange

sea-shells and sea-weed, here and there, where the mounted subject

allows of this treatment. This is a shining dark bluish-green and

brown rock, suitable for sea-gulls, divers, etc.

For rough grey land rock, paint over all with lamp-black in powder,

mixed with plaster of Paris, and touch up the points with oil white.

When the work is quite dry, go over all with a glaze of Prussian blue

mixed with Brunswick black. Fit up with ferns, grass, and golden

lichens on the points, or in the hollows. This makes a greyish rock

with no gloss, and is suitable for owls and similar birds.

For rough sandstone rock, paint over with chrome yellow and a very

little blue mixed with oil white, the latter predominating; dust over

on the points with red sand, touch up the hollows with Brunswick

black, suffer to dry, and then go over all with a very little rose

pink or vermilion, worked up in turps with a little varnish. Fit up

with ferns, grasses, and mosses. This is a reddish-yellow rock,

suitable for anything not having red or yellow fur or feathers.

The predominating colour may be mixed with the whiting, etc, to paint

over the artificial rock; but there is a certain loss of brilliancy in

the colours which follow, unless a white ground has been previously

laid on.

For certain objects a great advantage is obtained by making up the

rockwork on a false bottom and slipping it, ready finished, into the

case.

There are hundreds of other varieties, but they must be worked out by

each person according to his proclivities. It might as well be

expected that a picture could be painted from printed directions as to

imagine that one person could make a rockwork precisely similar to

another without seeing it done, or without working it out by his own

experience.

Trees for large groups may be carved out of successive layers of peat,

or modelled up with brown paper and virgin cork; better still by

arranging brown paper over rods or a wire framework, covered

previously by tow, and afterwards coloured to nature. The leaves of

some trees dry and colour up well, and can be introduced on the

natural or artificial twigs.

TWIGS.--Artificial twigs can be made by twisting tow round wire,

glueing, and throwing on sawdust, peat-dust, etc, and afterwards

colouring. The most natural way, however, is to rub up the gold and

grey lichens, and throw them on the glued tow, filling up afterwards

with larger pieces to break the lines. Natural and artificial twigs

mix well together; the latter, from their flexibility, allowing of any

treatment.

FERNS, GRASSES, ETC, FOR "FITTING up."--Time was when our ancestors

were content to stick their preserved specimens in boxes with nothing

to break the blank of white paper which backed them up. Nowadays we

have arrived at such a pitch of decorative art in taxidermy, as in all

things, that this stiffness of outline does not suffice; accordingly,

we break our background by flowing lines of beauty, produced by the

graceful aids of dried ferns and grasses, twigs of trees, etc.