_Order_ _Sub-orders_ _Families_
,- a. PROSIMII (Lemurs and Aye-Ayes)
|
| ,- i. Hapalidae (Marmosets)
| | ii. Cebidae (Howling Monkeys,
PRIMATES -+ | Tee Tees, Squirrel Monkeys,
| | Spider Monkeys, and Capuchin
| | Monkeys)
`- b. ANTHROPOIDEA ... -+ iii. Cercopithecidae (Baboons
| and Macaques)
| iv. Simiidae (Gibbons, Orangs,
| Chimpanzees, and Gorillas)
`- v. Hominidae (Man)
When we turn to the science of genetics we meet a similar condition, for
the literature reveals only scattered bits of information concerning
heredity in the primates. No important experimental studies along
genetic lines have been made with them, and such general observations
from nature as are on record are of extremely uncertain value. Were one
to insist that we know nothing certainly concerning the relation of
heredity in other primates than man, the statement could not well be
disputed.
Occasionally in recent years students of human diseases have employed
monkeys or apes for experimental tests, but aside from the isolated
results thus obtained, extremely little is known concerning the diseases
peculiar to the various types of infra-human primates or the significant
relations of their diseases to those of man.
Next in order of extent to our morphological knowledge of these
organisms is that of their behavior, mental life, and social relations.
But certainly no one who is conversant with the behavioristic,
psychological and sociological literature could do otherwise than
emphasize its incompleteness and inadequacy. For our knowledge of
behavior has come mostly from naturalistic observation, scarcely at all
from experimentation; our knowledge of social relations is obviously
meager and of uncertain value; and finally, our knowledge of mind is
barely more than a collection of carelessly drawn inferences.
This picture of the status of scientific work on the primates, although
not overdrawn, will doubtless surprise many readers, and even the
biologist may find himself wondering why we are so ignorant concerning
the lives of the organisms most nearly akin to us, and naturally of
deepest interest to us. The reasons are not far to seek. Most scientific
investigators are forced by circumstances to work with organisms which
are readily obtained and easily kept. The primates have neither of these
advantages, for many, if not most of them, are expensive to get and
either difficult or expensive to keep in good condition. Clearly, then,
our ignorance is due not to lack of appreciation of the scientific value
of primate research but instead to its difficultness and costliness.
Strangely enough, the practical importance of knowledge of the primates
has seldom been dwelt upon even by those biologists who are especially
interested in it. It is, therefore, appropriate to emphasize the
strictly human value of the work for which I am seeking provision.
During the past few years it has been abundantly and convincingly
demonstrated that knowledge of other organisms may aid directly in the
solution of many of the problems of experimental medicine, of
physiology, genetics, psychology, sociology, and economics. In the light
of these results, it is obviously desirable that all studies of
infrahuman organisms, but especially those of the various primates,
should be made to contribute to the solution of our human problems.
To me it seems that thoroughgoing knowledge of the lives of the
infrahuman primates would inevitably make for human betterment. Through
the science of genetics, as advanced by experimental studies of the
monkeys and anthropoid apes, practical eugenic procedures should be more
safely based and our ability to predict organic phenomena greatly
increased. Similarly, intensive knowledge of the diseases of the other
primates in their relations to human diseases should contribute
importantly to human welfare. And finally, our careful studies of the
fundamental instincts, forms of habit formation, and social relations in
the monkeys and apes should lead to radical improvements in our
educational methods as well as in other forms of social service.
Along theoretical lines, no less than practical, systematic research
with the primates should rapidly justify itself, for upon its results
must rest the most significant historical or genetic biological
descriptions. It is beyond doubt that genetic psychology can best be
advanced to-day by such work, and what is obviously true of this science
is not less true of all the biological sciences which take account of
the developmental or genetic relations of their events.
In view of the probable values of increasingly complete accounts of
primate life, it seems far from extravagant to insist that the securing
of adequate provision for systematic and long continued research is the
most important task for our generation of biologists and the one which
we shall be least excusable for neglecting. Indeed, when one stops to
reflect concerning the situation, it seems almost incredible that the
task has not been accomplished.
Some ten years ago Professor John B. Watson (1906) entered a plea for
the founding of a station for the experimental study of behavior. He
made no special mention of work with the monkeys and apes, but it is
clear from the problems which he enumerates that he would consider them
most important subjects for observation. Professor Watson's plea has
apparently been forgotten by American biologists, and it seems not
inappropriate to revive it at this time. For surely we have advanced
sufficiently along material and scientific lines during the last ten
years to render possible the realization of his hope.
To my knowledge, only one definite attempt has thus far been made to
gain special provision for the study of the primates. Somewhere about
the year 1912 there was established on Tenerife, one of the Canary
Islands, a modest station for the study of the anthropoid apes. I have
already referred to it briefly on page 1. The plan and purpose of this
station, which is of German origin, have been presented briefly by
Rothmann (1912). From personal communications I know that a single
investigator has been in residence at the station since its founding and
that psychological and physiological results of value have been
obtained, but no published reports have come to my attention.
When I first heard of the existence of the German anthropoid station I
naturally thought of the possibility of coöperative work, but the events
of the past two years have rendered the chances of cooperation so remote
that it now seems wholly desirable and indeed imperative to seek the
establishment of an American station, which, unlike the German station,
shall provide adequately not only for the study of the anthropoid apes
but for that of all of the lower primates. It should be the function of
such a station or research institute (1) to bring together and correlate
all the information at present available; (2) to fill in existing gaps
observationally and thus complete and perfect our knowledge of these
organisms; (3) to seek to bring all available information to bear upon
the problems of human life.
Hitherto the unsatisfactoriness of progress has been due to the lack of
a definite plan and program. Every investigator has gone his own way,
doing what little his personal means and opportunity rendered possible.
The time has at last come when concerted action seems feasible as well
as eminently desirable. I am therefore offering a plan and program
which, if wisely developed, should lead ultimately to fairly complete
and practically invaluable knowledge of the lives of all of the
primates. There should be provided in a suitable locality a station or
research institute which should offer adequate facilities (1) for the
maintenance of various types of primate in normal, healthy condition;
(2) for the successful breeding and rearing of the animals, generation
after generation; (3) for systematic and continuous observation under
reasonably natural conditions; (4) for experimental investigations from
every significant biological point of view; (5) for profitable
cooperation with existing biological institutes or departments of
research throughout the world.
The station should be located in a region whose climate is highly
favorable to the life of many of the lower primates as well as to that
of man. Such a location is by no means easy to find. Because of my
intense interest in the subject, I have, during the past five years,
prospected in various parts of the world for a satisfactory site. I
shall now attempt to indicate the chief requirements and also the
foremost advantages and disadvantages of several regions which have been
considered. It is first of all requisite that the climate be such as to
agree with the organisms to be studied and such, also, as to render
their breeding normal and dependable. Second in importance is its
satisfactoriness for the life and scientific productiveness of the
observer. While certain tropical localities would meet the first
requirement perfectly, they would prove extremely unsatisfactory for
research activity. It therefore seems essential to find a region whose
climate shall reasonably meet the needs of the experimenter while
adequately meeting those of the animals to be studied.
A further factor which has important bearing upon the productiveness of
the observer is the degree of isolation from civilization and from other
scientific work. No scientist can long work effectively, even in a
reasonably healthy and stimulating climate, if entirely cut off from
similar interests and activities. It is therefore desirable, if at all
possible, to discover a location in the midst of civilization and with
reasonably good opportunities for scientific associations.
With these several desiderata before us, I shall call attention to a
number of possible sites for a station, several of which I have visited.
Southern California, and especially the portion of the State between
Santa Barbara and San Diego, promises fairly well. It is definitely
known that certain, if not all, species of monkey will breed there
fairly satisfactorily, and although it has not yet been demonstrated,
there is no reason to suppose that in certain regions the anthropoid
apes might not also be kept in perfect health and successfully bred. The
main advantages of this general region are (a) a climate which promises
to be reasonably satisfactory for many if not all of the primates; (b)
admirable climatic conditions for investigators; (c) wholly satisfactory
scientific and cultural environment for the staff of a station. The most
significant disadvantages are (a) a temperature, which is at times a
trifle too low for the comfort of certain of the monkeys and apes. It is
by no means certain, however, that they would not usually adapt
themselves to it. (b) The necessity of importing all of the animals and
of having to rely upon successful acclimatization. Of course it is to be
assumed that importation would be necessary only at the outset of such
work, since the animals later should replenish themselves within the
confines of the station.
Florida offers possibilities somewhat similar to those of southern
California, but as I have not had opportunity to examine the conditions
myself, I can say only that in view of such information as is available
the advantage seems to be greatly in favor of the latter.
Cuba, Jamaica, Porto Rico, and for that matter, several of the West
Indies, offer possible sites for a successful station. I have reasonably
intimate personal knowledge only of the conditions in Jamaica. The major
advantages in the West Indies are (a) suitable climatic conditions and
food supply for the animals; and (b) reasonably satisfactory climatic
conditions for the staff. These are, however, more than counterbalanced
in my opinion by the following serious disadvantages: (a) the relative
isolation of the investigators from their fellow scientists; (b) the
necessity of importing all of the animals originally used; (c) the risk
of destruction of the station by storms.
It is definitely known that anthropoid apes as well as monkeys can be
successfully kept, bred, and reared in the West Indies. During the past
year, on the estate of Doha Rosalia Abreu, near Havana, Cuba, a
chimpanzee was born in captivity. A valuable account of this important
event and of the young ape has been published by Doctor Louis Montané
(1915). It therefore seems practically certain that regions could be
found readily on Jamaica, Porto Rico, or smaller islands, which would be
eminently satisfactory for the breeding of apes.
There are obvious reasons why an American station for the study of the
primates should be located on territory controlled by the United States
Government, and if a tropical location proves necessary, it would
probably be difficult to find more satisfactory regions, aside from the
inconveniences and risk of importation and the relative isolation of the
investigators, than are available on Porto Rico.
I have not seriously considered the possibility of locating an American
station on the continent of Africa, for although two of the most
interesting and important of the anthropoid apes, the gorilla and the
chimpanzee, are African forms, while many species of monkey are either
found there or could readily be imported, it has seemed to me that the
islands of the West and East Indies and the portions of the United
States referred to above are much to be preferred over anything
available in Africa.
In the East, Borneo, the Philippine Islands, and Hawaii are well worth
considering. Borneo is the home of the gibbon and of at least one
species of orang utan, and in addition to these important assets, it
presents the advantages of (a) a wholly suitable climate and food supply
for monkeys and apes; and (b) climatic conditions for investigators
which, I am informed by scientific friends, are nearly ideal. For
investigators the most serious disadvantage here, as in all other parts
of the East, would be the isolation from other scientific work and
workers.
The possibilities of Central America I considered several years ago when
it seemed to me possible that work might profitably be done with monkeys
and apes on the Canal Zone. The advantages are (a) a climate which
promises fairly well for the animals; and (b) reasonable accessibility
from the United States. The disadvantages are (a) a far from ideal
climate for long continued scientific work; and (b) an environment which
from the cultural and scientific point of view leaves much to be
desired.
Were a permanent psycho-biological station for the study of the primates
to be established in southern California, it would, even though wholly
satisfactory conditions for the breeding, rearing, and studying of the
animals were maintained, furnish more or less inadequate opportunity for
the observation of the animals under free, natural conditions. It would
therefore be necessary, to supplement the work of such a station by
field work in Borneo, Sumatra, Africa, India, South America, and such
other regions as the species of organism under consideration happen to
inhabit.
Considering equally the needs of the experimenter and the demands of the
animals, it seems to me reasonable to conclude that southern California
should be definitely proved unsuitable before a more distant site were
selected. For the information which I have been able to accumulate
convinces me that it would in all probability be possible successfully
to breed and keep the primates there, and it is perfectly clear that in
such event the output of a station would be enormously greater because
of the more favorable conditions for research than in any tropical
region or in a more isolated location.
Assuming that satisfactory provision in the shape of a scientific
establishment for the study of the primates in their relations to man
were available, the following program might be followed: (1) Systematic
and continuous studies of important forms of individual behavior, of
social relations, and of mind; (2) experimental studies of physiological
processes, normal and pathological, and especially of the diseases of
the lower primates, in their relations to those of man; (3) studies of
heredity, embryology, and life history; (4) research in comparative
anatomy, including gross anatomy, histology, neurology, and pathological
anatomy.
Each of these several kinds of research should be in progress almost
continuously in order that no materials or opportunities for observation
be needlessly wasted. Because of the nature of the work, it would be
necessary to provide, first of all, for those functional studies which
demand healthy and normally active organisms, whose life history is
intimately and completely known. This is true of all studies in
behavior, whether physiological, psychological, or sociological.
Simultaneously with behavioristic observations and often upon the same
individuals, genetic experiments might be conducted. This would be
extremely desirable because of the relatively long periods between
generations. After the usefulness of an animal in behavioristic or
genetic inquiries had been exhausted, it might be made to render still
further service to science in various experimental physiological, or
medical inquiries. And finally, the same individual might ultimately be
used for various forms of anatomical research. Thus, it is clear that
the scientific usefulness of a lemur, a monkey, or an ape might be
maintained at a high level throughout and even beyond the period of its
life history.
The program thus briefly sketched would provide either directly or
indirectly for work on every aspect of primate life. Especially
important would be the intimacy of interest and cooperation among
investigators, for the comparative method should be applied consistently
and to the limit of its value. The results of various kinds of
observation should be correlated so that there should ultimately emerge
a unitary and practically valuable account of primate life, to replace
the patchwork of information which we now possess.
Because of the costliness of maintaining and breeding the monkeys and
apes, it is especially desirable that the several kinds of research
mentioned above should be conducted. Indeed, it would seem inexcusably
wasteful to attempt to maintain a primate or anthropoid station for
psychological observations alone, or for any other narrowly limited
biological inquiry.
Furthermore, the station should be permanent, since for many kinds of
work it would be essential to have intimate knowledge of the life
history and descent of an individual. With the lower primates, a
generation might be obtained in from two to five years; with the higher,
not more frequently, probably, than from ten to fifteen years. It
therefore seems not improbable that the value of the work done in such a
station would continue to increase for many years and would not reach
its maximum short of fifty or even one hundred years.
A staff of several highly trained and experienced biologists would be
needed. The following organization is suggested as desirable, although,
as indicated below, not necessarily essential in the beginning: (1) An
expert especially interested in the problems of behavior, psychology,
and sociology, with keen appreciation of practical as well as of
theoretical problems; (2) an assistant trained especially in comparative
physiology; (3) an expert in genetics and experimental zoology; (4) an
assistant with training and interests in comparative anatomy, histology,
and embryology; (5) an expert in experimental medicine, who could
conduct and direct studies of the diseases of man as well as of the
lower primates and of measures for their control; (6) an assistant
trained especially in pathology and neurology.
To this scientific staff of six highly trained individuals there should
be added a business manager, a clerical force of three individuals, a
skilled mechanician, a carpenter, and at least four laborers.
The annual expenditures of an institute with such a working staff, would
in southern California, approximate fifty thousand dollars. It would
therefore be necessary that it have an endowment of approximately one
million dollars.
In the absence of this foundation it would, of course, be possible to
make a reasonably satisfactory beginning on the work which has been
outlined in the following less expensive manner. A working plant might
be established, on ground rented or purchased at a low figure, for about
ten thousand dollars; the salary of a director, assistants, a clerical
helper, and combined mechanic and laborer might be estimated at the same
figure; the cost of animals and of maintenance of the plant would
approximate five thousand dollars. Thus, we should obtain as an estimate
of the expenditures for the first year twenty-five thousand dollars.
Without expansion, the work might be conducted during the second year
for fifteen thousand dollars, and subsequently it might be curtailed or
expanded, resources permitting, according as results achieved and in
prospect justified.
An institute established on such a modest basis as this still might
render largely important scientific service through its own research and
through organized cooperation with other existing research
establishments. Thus, for example, supposing that behavioristic,
psychological, sociological, and genetic inquiries were conducted in the
institute itself, animals might be supplied on a mutually satisfactory
basis to institutes for experimental medicine, for physiological
research, and for anatomical studies. Under such conditions, it is
conceivable that extremely economical and good use might be made of all
the available primate materials. But it is not improbable that even
coöperative research would prove on the whole more profitable, except
possibly in the case of morphological work, if investigators could
conduct their studies in the institute itself rather than in distant
laboratories. In any event, the idea of coöperation should be prominent
in connection with the organization of a research station for the study
of the primates. For thus, evidently, scientific achievement in
connection with these important types of animal might be vastly
increased over what would be possible in a single relatively small
institution with a limited and necessarily specialized staff of workers.
Despite the fact that biologists generally recognize the importance of
the work under consideration and are eager to have it done, it is
perfectly certain that we shall accomplish nothing unless we devote
ourselves confidently, determinedly and unitedly, with faith, vision,
and enthusiasm, to the realization of a definite plan. Our vision is
clear,--if we are to gather and place at the service of mankind adequate
comparative knowledge of the life of the primates and if we are to make
this possible harvest of scientific results count for human betterment,
we must bend all our efforts to the establishment of a station or
institute for research.