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FOLK LORE NOTES.
Vol. II--KONKAN.
COMPILED FROM MATERIALS COLLECTED BY
The late A. M. T. JACKSON, Indian Civil Service.
R. E. ENTHOVEN, C.I.E., I.C.S.
BRITISH INDIA PRESS, MAZGAON BOMBAY.
1915
REPRINTED FROM THE "INDIAN ANTIQUARY"
BY B. MILLER, SUPERINTENDENT, BRITISH INDIA PRESS, BOMBAY
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Nature Powers.
PAGE.
Worship of minor local deities. Sun-worship. The Swastika.
Circumambulation round images and other sacred objects.
Moon-worship. Days of special importance. Eclipses. Worship
of planets and stars. The milky way. The rainbow. Worship
of the earth. Thunder and lightning. Earthquakes. Worship
of sacred rivers, springs and pools. Water spirits and
goblins. Ceremonies at digging of wells. Well water as a
cure for disease. Sacred Lakes. Palaces under the water.
Sacred mountains. Deities who control the weather. Methods
of causing or averting rain and of checking storms. Vratas
or religious vows practised only by women. Rites in which
women are excluded. Rites in which the worshipper must be
nude. Superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors 1
CHAPTER II.
The Heroic Godlings.
Village deities. Local deities. Installation of deities in
new settlements. Ghostly godlings. Deities responsible for
crops and cattle 21
CHAPTER III.
Disease Deities.
Causes of epidemic diseases and the remedies adopted to
stop them. Cattle diseases. Remedies practised by the
village people in connection with them. The methods for
the exorcism of disease. Methods of expelling evil spirits
from the body. The village sorcerer. Offerings of rags,
coins, etc., at sacred trees and wells. The transferring
of disease from one person to another. Scapegoats 29
CHAPTER IV.
The worship of Ancestors and Saints.
Shráddhas and other ceremonies performed for the
propitiation and emancipation of the deceased. Worship
of the founders of religious sects, of saints, etc.
Ghosts. Rebirth of ancestors in the same family.
Miracle-working tombs. Muhammadan saints whose worship
has been adopted by Hindus. Rural methods for the cure
of barrenness 40
CHAPTER V.
The Worship of the malevolent dead.
Popular notions about dreams. Auspicious and inauspicious
dreams. Temporary abandonment of the body by the soul.
Character and functions of the bhut or disembodied soul.
The state of the soul after death. The rebirth of the
soul. The souls of persons dying a sudden or violent
death. The ways by which ghosts enter and leave the body.
Methods of driving away evil spirits from the body. Reliefs
regarding sneezing and yawning. Rákshasa or the malevolent
demon. Other malignant spirits. Evil spirits which go about
headless. The haunts of evil spirits. Ghosts of women dying
an unnatural death. Spirits of persons killed by tigers and
other wild beasts. Ghosts of women dying in childbed or
menses. Precautions taken by parents at the birth of
children. Beliefs in connection with bats and owls. Spirits
which haunt ruins, guard buried treasure and occupy valleys 49
CHAPTER VI.
The evil eye and the scaring of ghosts.
Effects of the evil eye. Objects liable to be influenced by
the evil eye. Precautions taken to evade the influence of
the evil eye Opprobrious names. Change of sex. Protection
against evil spirits. Amulets. Charmed circles. Omens.
Numbers. Lucky and unlucky days. Rites performed to help the
soul to the other world. Cremation and burial. The customs
of shaving the hair. Offerings of food to the dead.
Manifestation of evil spirits in form. The practice of
breaking earthen vessels at death. Kites connected with
mourning. Benevolent spirits. Spirits which haunt trees.
The guardian spirits of crops and cattle. Spirits invoked
to frighten children 60
CHAPTER VII.
Tree and Serpent worship.
Trees connected with deities and saints. Legends and
superstitions connected with them. Marriage of brides
and bridegrooms to trees. Snake worship. Shrines of snake
deities. Deified snakes. Snakes guarding treasure. The
village treatment of snake-bite. The jewel in the head of
the snake. Guardian snakes 71
CHAPTER VIII.
Totemism and Fetishism.
Devaks. Names derived from animals and plants. Sacred
animals. Deities associated with animal worship. Worship
of stocks and stones. Survivals of human sacrifice.
Disease-curing stones. Respect shown to corn sieves, corn
pounders, the broom and the plough. Fire worship 78
CHAPTER IX.
Animal worship.
Sacred animals and the legends and superstitions connected
with them 83
CHAPTER X.
Witchcraft.
Chetaks and Chetakins. 85
CHAPTER XI.
General.
Rural ceremonies connected with agricultural operations.
Rites performed for the protection of cattle. Rites
performed for scaring noxious animals and insects. Rites
performed for ensuring sunshine and favourable weather.
Rites performed for the protection of crops. Rites in
which secrecy and silence are observed. The observances
at the Holi festival. Rites performed when boys and girls
attain puberty. Vows. The black art 87
APPENDIX
Glossary of vernacular terms, occurring in
Volumes I and II i to xxxvii
FOLKLORE OF THE KONKAN.
CHAPTER I.
NATURE POWERS.
The worship of minor local deities is connected with such low castes as
Guravas, Bhopis, Marátha Kunbis, Dhangars, Wághes, Murlis, Mahárs and
Mángs in the District of Kolhápur. It is believed by the Bráhmans that
once an image is consecrated and worshipped, it should be worshipped
uninterruptedly every day, and he who neglects to worship such an
image daily incurs the sin of Brahma-hatya or Bráhman-murder. For
this reason Bráhmans generally do not worship minor local deities. In
former times Bráhmans who worshipped these deities were excommunicated
by their caste-men. Such Pujáris were compelled to wear a folded dhotur
or waist cloth, and were forbidden to put on the gandh or sandal paste
mark in straight or cross lines. They were allowed to put on the tila
or circular mark of sandal paste. Another reason why Bráhmans are not
the Pujáris or worshippers of such deities is that Bráhmans cannot
accept or partake of the Naivedya offering of cooked food, fowls,
etc., made to them. Lower class people can partake of such offerings,
and are therefore generally the worshippers or ministrants of minor
local deities.
At Palshet in the Ratnágiri District, there are two grámdevis, viz.,
Jholái and Mhárjái, and the pujáris of these deities are respectively
a Gurav and a Mahár. [1] The pujáris of goddesses are generally men
of the lower castes. The guardian goddesses of the villages of Pule,
Varavade, Nandivade, and Rila have Kunbis as their pujáris; while the
pujáris of the goddesses Mahálakshmi, Bhagvati, Mahákáli, and Jogái
are generally chosen from the Gurav caste. [2] In the Konkan the
Ráuls (Shudras) are the pujáris of the deities Vithoba, Ravalnáth
and Bhaváni; the Ghádis are the pujáris of the deities Sáteri and
Khavaneshwar; while the deities Mahádev and Máruti are worshipped by
pujáris belonging to the Gurav caste. [3] The goddesses Makhajan and
Jakhmáta at Sangameshwar in the Ratnágiri District are worshipped by
pujáris who belong to the Gurav and Bhoi castes respectively. The god
Ganpati at Makhnele has for his pujári a Wáni. The pujáris of the
temple of Shiva at Lánje in the Ratnágiri District are Wánis. [4]
It is said that the pujári of Pundárik at Pandharpur is a Kiráta
(fisherman) by caste. [5]
The pujári of the goddess Narmáta at Sidgad in the Thána District is
a Koli; whilst the pujáris of Kánoba, Khandoba, and Vetál are of the
lower castes. [6] The goddesses Mahálakshmi of Kolvan and Vajreshvari
have their pujáris chosen from the lower castes. [7] The pujáris of
Jari-Mari, Mhasoba, Bahiroba, Cheda and other deities which are said
to prevent contagious diseases, are always men of the lower castes. [8]
The pujáris of the guardian goddesses of the villages Petsai,
Dasgaum and Nizámpur are a Mahár, a Kumbhár or potter, and a
Marátha, respectively. [9] The pujári of the guardian goddesses
of Chaul in the Kolába District belongs to the lower castes. [10]
The goddess Mángái has always a Mahár as her pujári. [11] Everyday
the god Shiva is required to be worshipped first by a pujári of the
Gurav caste. The pujári of Bahiri, a corruption of the word Bhairav,
one of the manifestations of Shiva, is a man belonging to the lower
castes. Similarly the pujáris of Bhagavati, Bhaváni, Ambika, Kálika,
Jákhái, Jholái, Janni, Kolhái, Vadyájái, Shitaládevi, Chandika, etc.,
are persons belonging to lower castes. [12]
It is considered by the Hindus very meritorious and holy to worship the
Sun; and by Bráhmans the Sun is considered to be their chief deity. The
Gáyatri Mantra of the Bráhmans is a prayer to the Sun-god or the Savita
Dev, and the Bráhmans offer arghya or oblations of water to the Sun
thrice a day. Those who want health, wealth and prosperity propitiate
the Sun-god by prayers and ceremonies. The Ratha Saptami is considered
to be the principal day for special worship and festivities in honour
of the Sun-god. On this day, on a low wooden stool, is drawn, in red
sandal paste, a figure of the Sun in human shape seated in a chariot
drawn by seven horses, or by a horse with seven faces. This figure is
then placed in the sun-shine, and it is then worshipped by offering
it arghya or spoonfuls of water, red powder, red flowers mixed with
red sandal paste, camphor, incense and fruits. Some people kneel down
while offering the arghyas to the Sun. These arghyas are either three
or twelve in number. Some persons make a vow not to eat anything unless
they have worshipped the Sun and performed the twelve Namaskaras by
falling prostrate and bowing with folded hands twelve times, and at
each time repeating one of the twelve names of the Sun. [13]
In the Ratnágiri District some people worship the Sun on the Sundays
of the month of Shrávan. A ceremony held on the Rathasaptami day,
i.e., the 7th day of the bright half of Mágh, is deemed a special
festival in honour of the Sun-god. On that day people draw, on a
small wooden stool, an image of the Sun, seated in a chariot drawn
by seven horses, and worship it with great reverence. Milk is then
boiled on a fire made of cow-dung cakes in front of the household
Tulsi plant. If the milk overflows to the east, it is believed that
there will be abundance of crops, but if it flows to the west it is
taken as a sign of the near approach of famine. [14] The Sun-god is
also worshipped on the following occasions, e.g., Trikal, Gajaccháya,
Ardhodaya, Mahodaya, Vyatipát, Makar-Sankránt, Kark-Sankránt and the
Solar eclipse. [15] Though there are few temples dedicated to the Sun,
the village of Parule has the honour of having one called "the temple
of Adi-Náráyan." Non-Bráhmanical classes are not seen worshipping
the Sun in this district, despite the fact that the Sun is said to
be the embodiment of the three principal deities of the Hindus. [16]
The people of the Thána District believe that the Swastika is the
central point of the helmet of the Sun, and a vow called the Swastika
Vrata is held in its honor. A woman who observes this vow, draws
a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during the Cháturmás
(four months of the rainy season), at the expiration of which she gives
a Bráhman a golden or silver plate with the sign of the Swastika upon
it. [17] Another vow named Dhanurmás, common to all districts in the
Konkan, requires a person to complete his daily rites before sun-rise,
and to offer a preparation of food called Khichadi to the Sun-god. The
observer of this vow then partakes of the food, regarding it as a
gift from that god. This is either done for one day or repeated for
a month till the Dhanu-Sankránt. [18] On the Somavati-Amávásya day
(the 15th day of the dark half of a month falling on Monday), and
the Kapiláshasthi day, the Sun is held in especial reverence. [19]
A curious story is narrated regarding the offering of Arghya to the
Sun. It is said that the Sun rejoices at the birth of a Bráhman,
and gives 1,000,000 cows in charity, believing that the Arghya which
the Bráhman will offer later on will devour his foes, one drop of the
Arghya killing 1,000 of them [20]. The repetition of the Gáyatri-mantra
108 times a day is supposed to release a Bráhman from the debt of
1,000,000 cows owed in this way to the Sun. [21] The Yoga-Sutras of
Pátanjali however prohibit a man from looking at the setting Sun,
though the sin thus incurred is made amends for by the offering of
Arghya to that god. [22] It is interesting to note that women do not
grind corn on the Ratha-Saptami day. [23]
Women bow down to the Sun on the 11th, 12th, 30th or 40th day after
their delivery; but Kunbi women generally worship that god on the
7th day. [24] On this occasion some women show a churning handle [25]
to the Sun-god and offer him some grains of rice. [26]
The Swastika is considered so holy in the Konkan that it is
always drawn on the Antarpat; and at the time of the Punyáha Wachan
ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding, a Swastika drawn in rice is
worshipped. [27] The principal deities of the Hindus, whenever they
are invoked on special occasions, are seated on the Swastika. [28]
The people of the Ratnágiri District worship the Swastika, regarding
it as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god. [29]
By some the Swastika is regarded as the foundation-stone of the
universe [30] and is held to be the symbol of the god Shiva, and not
of the Sun. [31]
The conception of Kunbi is said to have taken place by the influence
of the rays of the Sun. [32]
The Swastika is considered as an emblem of peace and prosperity, and
for this reason Bráhman women draw a figure of the Swastika in front
of their houses. [33] The custom of moving round such sacred objects
as the Banyan, the Pipal, the Tulsi or sweet basil plant, the Umbar,
the Avala (Phylanthus emblica), etc., is prevalent in the district of
Kolhápur. There are no cases recorded in which women after child-birth
are exposed to the Sun. But on the 12th day after her delivery, the
mother puts on new bangles and new clothes; cocoanuts, betelnuts and
leaves, grains of rice, plantains and grains of wheat are placed in
her lap. She then comes out and bows to the Sun. Wealthy persons on
this occasion perform a homa sacrifice in their houses by kindling
the holy fire and feeding Bráhmans. No one in this district believes
that conception is caused, or is likely to be caused, by exposure to
the rays of the Sun.
The Hindu women of the Konkan walk round Pipal, Tulsi, and Umbar
trees every Saturday and on the Somavati-amávásya day, i.e., the
15th day of the dark half of a month when it falls on Monday. [34]
Sometimes, however, women make a vow to walk round a temple or a
sacred tree one-hundred thousand times; and for the fulfilment of
this vow they walk round the temple or tree for about seven or eight
hours every day. If they find it difficult to make up the number of
rounds themselves, they ask their near relations to assist them in
their undertaking. [35]
The Moon is worshipped by the Hindus on the 2nd of the bright half of
every month. On this day it is considered very lucky to see the moon,
and many people, particularly the lower classes, pull out threads from
the clothes they wear, and offer them to the moon, saying "O! God,
accept these old clothes of ours and be pleased to give us new ones in
their stead." Some people worship the moon on the Sankasti Chaturthi,
4th day of the dark half of every month; and such people will not eat
anything until they have seen and worshipped the moon on that day. The
moon is not worshipped on the Ganesh Chaturthi day that is, the 4th
of the bright half of the month of Bhádrapad, as it is considered
very unlucky to see the moon on that night. It is firmly believed
that any one who sees the moon on the Ganesh Chaturthi day even by
accident will be falsely accused of theft or some other crime. In
order to avoid this, people who have accidently seen the moon, throw
stones at the houses of their neighbours, and if the neighbours abuse
them in return, the mischief makers consider themselves freed by the
abuse from the sin of having looked at the moon on a forbidden night.
The spots on the surface of the moon are believed by some to be the
rath or chariot of the god. Others think that they are lunar mountains;
but many believe that the spots are the visible signs of the stain on
the character of the moon-god due to his having outraged the modesty
of the wife of his guru, the god Brahaspati or Jupiter. In the Puráns
it is stated that on one occasion, a dispute arose between the moon
and Brahaspati or Jupiter about the wife of Brahaspati, each of them
claiming to be the cause of her conception. Subsequently a son was
born who was named Budha (Mercury). Brahaspati's wife, on being asked
who was the father of the child, named the moon. Thereupon Brahaspati
cursed the moon for his adultery. The spots on the surface of the
moon are said to be the effect of this curse.
The moon-god is believed to distribute nectar through his rays, and
therefore this deity is said to have the power of removing diseases
and restoring human beings to health. The moon is the king of herbs,
and all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence of the
moon. Sometimes people place at night, figs, plantains, sugarcane and
other eatables in the moon-light and eat them early in the morning;
and it is said that those who do so improve in health. The practice of
drinking the moon's rays does not prevail in the Kolhápur district. But
people occasionally dine in the moon light. [36]
On a full moon day people perform the special worship of their
chosen deity. On the full moon of the month of Kártika temples are
illuminated, and on the full moon day of Mágha, raw corn such as
wheat, bájri, etc., is cooked and offered to the household and other
deities. [37] On this day are also performed the special rites and
ceremonies that are required in connection with the Kula-devatás or
family gods or goddesses. On the full moon day of Fálguna the Holi fire
is kindled and worshipped. In certain families the full moon of Chaitra
is considered auspicious for making offerings to family deities. On
the full moon day of Shrávan is observed the feast of Cocoanut day,
and on this day Bráhmans put on new sacred threads. The full moon is
considered by the Sanyásis or ascetics an auspicious day for shaving
their heads.
On the new moon day the Pitras or Manes are worshipped. Lighted lamps
are worshipped on the new moon day, of Ashádha. In the Kolhápur
State this is called Tadali new moon day, and in the Konkan it is
called Divali new moon day. On the new moon day of Ashvin, Lakshmi
the goddess of wealth is worshipped. All special ceremonies for the
propitiation of the Bhutas or evil spirits are usually performed on
the new moon day. The Dwitiya or 2nd day of every month is considered
sacred to the moon, and on this day the moon is worshipped; while
the Chaturthi is considered sacred to the god Ganapati, and on the
Chaturthi of Bhádrapada a special festival is held in honour of the
god Ganpati. [38]
On the 15th day of the bright half of the month of Ashvin people put
milk in the rays of the moon for some time, and then, after offering
it to the moon, they drink it. Drinking milk in this way is called
drinking the rays of the moon. [39] On the Sankránt Chaturthi day
and on that Chaturthi which immediately follows the Dasara holiday,
people draw an image of the moon and worship it. [40] In the Ratnágiri
District several conflicting theories are held regarding the spots
on the surface of the moon. Some believe that the spot observed on
the moon is a tamarind tree in which that god has stationed himself;
others hold that the spot is the reflection of a deer which is yoked
to the chariot of the moon [41]; while many more believe that it has
been occasioned by the hoof of the horse of King Nala. Some say that
the spot on the surface of the moon represents a Pipal tree and a cow
fastened to the roots of the tree; others on the authority of Hindu
mythology suppose that God created Madan (cupid) from the essence
taken from the body of the moon and hence the moon-god has spots on
his body. [42] In the Mahábhárat it is stated that on the surface of
the moon is reflected the island of Sudarshan on this earth, together
with some trees and a great hare, the bright part being nothing but
water. [43] The spot on the surface of the moon is considered by some
a deer which the god has taken on his lap. [44] Some believe that
Yashoda, the mother of Krishna, after waving an earthen dish round
the face of Krishna, threw it at the sky. It struck the moon and
thereby the spots on the surface of the moon were caused. Nectar is
supposed to have been derived from the rays of the moon; and in some
sacred books it is stated that the Chakora bird (Bartavelle Partridge)
drinks the rays of the moon. [45]
The people of the Thána District hold similar notions regarding the
spots on the surface of the moon. It has been said by some that the
portion in question represents mud, while others say that the moon
has been disfigured owing to a curse from a sage. [46] Some people
say that the spots are due to the moon being cursed by his preceptor
Brahaspati with whose wife the moon-god had connection. Being unable
to bear the pain of the spots, the moon, it is said, propitiated his
preceptor, who directed him to bathe in the Bhima river to alleviate
the agony. Accordingly the pain was assuaged, and the part of the river
where the Moon-god bathed thus came to be called Chandra bhága. [47]
Some persons suggest that the spots are a Pipal tree with two deer
feeding upon it from two sides. [48] Others hold that the spots on
the surface of the moon are due to its having been kicked by a deer
which, when pursued by a hunter, was refused shelter. [49] The people
of the Thána District believe that the rays of the moon influence
conception. [50]
In the Kolába District, to sit in an open place on a moon-light night,
is regarded as drinking the rays of the moon. [51] The elongated
part of the orb of the moon pointing towards the north or the south
is supposed to forebode scarcity or abundance, respectively. [52]
It is a common belief that the moon should not be seen on the Ganesh
Chaturthi day, i.e., the 4th day of the bright half of Bhádrapad.
Looking at the moon continuously for a short time on every moon-light
night is said to keep one's sight in good order. [53]
If the Amávásya falls on Monday, Bráhman women of the Thána District
walk round a Tulsi plant or a Pipal tree and make a vow to a
Bráhman. [54]
In the Kolába District a special ceremony is held in honour of minor
goddesses on the 8th day of a month. The following things are avoided
one on each of the fifteen tithis respectively:--
Kohala (pumpkin), dorli (Solanum indicum), salt, sesamum, sour things,
oil, ávale (Emblic myrobalan), cocoanuts, bhopala (gourd), padval
(snake-gourd), pávte (Dolichos Lablah), masur (Lens esculenta),
brinjal, honey, gambling. [55]
The people observe a fast on the 13th (Pradosha) and the 14th day
(Shivarátra) of the dark half of every month. [56] On the 15th
day of the bright half of Chaitra, a fair is held in honour of the
guardian deity of a village, and hens, goats, etc., are offered as
a sacrifice. [57]
The following are days of special importance.
Gudhi-pádva, i.e., the first day of the bright half of Chaitra:--This
being the first day of the year, gudhis and toranas are hoisted in
front of every house and are worshipped. [58]
Bháu-bij:--On the 2nd day of the bright half of Kártik every
sister waves round the face of her brother a lamp, and makes him a
present. [59]
The ceremony on the Bháu-bij day has come into vogue on account of
Subhadra having given a very pleasant bath to her brother Krishna on
that day. The Court of Yama is also said to be closed on that day,
since he goes to his sister; and consequently persons who die on that
day, however sinful they may be, are not supposed to go to Yamaloka,
i.e., hell. [60]
Akshya Tritiya:--On the third day of the bright half of Vaishákh cold
water and winnowing fans are distributed as tokens for appeasing the
Manes of ancestors. On this day is also celebrated the birth of the
god Parashurám. [61]
Ganesh Chaturthi:--On the 4th day of the bright half of Bhádrapad,
an earthen image of Ganpati is worshipped and a great ceremony is held
in his honour. [62] The fourth day of the bright half of every month
is called Vináyaka-Chaturthi; while that of the dark half is called
Sankasti-Chaturthi. On the Vináyaka-Chaturthi day, people fast the
whole day and dine the next day; while on the Sankasti Chaturthi day,
they fast during the day time and dine after moon-rise. [63] That
Sankasti Chaturthi which falls on Tuesday is considered the best. [64]
Nágpanchami:--On the 5th day of the bright half of Shrávan, pictures
of serpents and snake holes are worshipped. [65]
Champá-Shashti:--On the 6th day of the bright half of Márgashirsha,
some ceremony relating to the family-deity is performed. [66]
Ratha-Saptami:--On the 7th day of the bright half of Mágh, the sun
is worshipped and milk is boiled until it overflows. [67]
Gokul-Ashtami:--On the 8th day of the dark half of Shrávan the birth
of the god Krishna is celebrated. [68]
Ráma-Navami:--On the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra the birth
of the god Ráma is celebrated. [69]
Vijayádashami:--On the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin people
cross the boundary of their village and distribute sone (leaves of the
Shami and Apta trees). It is a popular belief that a work commenced
on this day is sure to end well. Weapons are also worshipped on this
day. [70]
Ekádashi:--On the 11th day of Ashádh and Kártik a special fast is
observed. People also fast on the 11th day of each month. A man who
dies on this auspicious day is supposed to go to heaven. [71] Sometimes
the Ekádashi falls on two consecutive days; in which case the Smártas
observe the first, while the Bhágvats observe the second. [72]
Wáman-dwádashi:--On the 12th day of the bright half of Bhádrapad
Wáman is worshipped and one or twelve boys are adored, being held
to represent Wáman. The marriage of the Tulsi plant is sometimes
celebrated on this day. [73]
Dhana-Trayodashi:--On the 13th day of the dark half of Ashvin, Lakshmi,
the goddess of wealth is worshipped. [74]
Narak-Chaturdashi:--On the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin, the
demon Narakásur was killed. In consequence, on this day people take
their bath before sun-rise, break Karinta (a fruit), regarding it as
a demon, and apply its seeds to their heads. [75]
Nárali Paurnima:--On the 15th day of the bright half of Shrávan,
people worship the sea and throw into it a cocoanut. [76]
Wata-Paurnima:--On the 15th day of the bright half of Jyeshtha,
women whose husbands are alive fast the whole day, and worship the
Wata-tree. [77]
On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin, people keep themselves
awake the whole night and amuse themselves in a variety of ways. On the
15th day of the bright half of Kártika houses are illuminated. This
day is called Tripuri-Paurnima. On this night people illuminate
with earthen lamps all temples in the village, but particularly the
temple of Shiva. This is done in commemoration of the triumph of
the god Shiva over the demon Tripurásura. The full-moon day of the
month of Mágha is called Chudi Paurnima. On this night people light
chudies torches and with them slightly burn certain flowers, trees
and plants. The full-moon day of the month of Fálguna is called the
Holi or Holi-Paurnima and is the biggest holiday of the lower class
Hindus. On this night the Hindus kindle the Holi-fire and worship
it. [78] On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin people eat grain
of the new harvest. On the full-moon day of Shrávan they perform the
Shrávani ceremony and give a lamp in charity. On the full-moon day of
the month of Chaitra, Vaishakha and Márgashirsha, the births of Máruti,
Narasimha and Dattátraya respectively are celebrated. [79] The Kunbis
of the Ratnágiri District believe that on the 15th or full-moon day of
Pausha, the Hindu gods go out hunting and that they return from their
hunting expedition on the full-moon day of the month of Mágha. During
this period the Kunbis abstain from worshipping their gods. [80]
Amávásya:--On the 15th day of the dark half of every month, oblations
are given to the Manes of the dead. [81] The commencement of a good
deed, journey to a distant place, and the ploughing of land are
postponed on the no-moon day of a month. [82] Sanyásis are enjoined
to get their beard shaved on the Paurnima and Amávásya days only. [83]
People do not set out on a journey on the following tithis, regarding
them as rikta (unfruitful or inauspicious):--
Chaturthi, Navami and Chaturdashi. [84]
The Chándráyana Vrata:--Widows fast on the no-moon day of a month. They
are required to regulate their diet in such an increasing proportion
that on the next full moon day they should have a full meal. The
reverse process follows for a fortnight after, so that they observe
an absolute fast on the following no-moon day. [85]
People have various ideas about the cause of the eclipses of the sun
and the moon. Some say that the sun and the moon are superior deities,
and that the demons Ráhu and Ketu who belong to the caste of Mángs
attempt to touch them and to devour them. Others believe that the
planets Ráhu and Ketu stand in the path of the Sun and the Moon and
thereby darkness is caused on the earth. It is believed that about 5
hours before the commencement of the obscuration, in the case of the
Sun and about 4 hours in the case of the Moon, the Vedha or malign
influence of the monsters begins and during the period till the whole
eclipse is over a strict fast is observed. At the commencement of
the eclipse, as well as at its close, people bathe. Some sit on a
low wooden stool with a rosary in their hands repeating the names of
the gods, or the gáyatri or some of the mantras. But those who want
to acquire the art of magic or witch-craft or the power of removing
the evil effects of snake-poison, or scorpion sting, go to a lonely
place on the riverside, and there standing in water repeat the mantras
taught to them by their guru or teacher. People give alms to Mahárs
and Mángs on this occasion, and therefore persons of this class go
about the streets saying loudly "Give us alms and the eclipse will
be over." De dán suté girán.
A strict fast is observed on an eclipse day, but children and pregnant
women who cannot bear the privation are given something to eat under
a sike. The eclipse time is so inauspicious that children and animals
born at that time are considered unlucky. [86] Sometimes an eclipse
cannot be observed owing to the intervention of clouds. On that
occasion the people of the Konkan resort to the following expedient
in order to ascertain whether the luminary is eclipsed or not. They
take a potful of water and hold in it a musal. If it stands in the
pot unsupported it is regarded as indicative of the existence of an
eclipse. Mángs, Mahárs, etc., are supposed to be the descendants of
Ráhu and Ketu; and for this reason gifts are made to them in charity
on an eclipse day. [87]
The people of the Thána District believe that corn grows abundantly
in a year that witnesses many eclipses. [88]
The popular cause of an eclipse in the Kolába District, is the Girha, a
minor deity which is said to wander through the sky and swallow the Sun
and the Moon when they cross his path. [89] Besides the mythological
story regarding the cause of an eclipse, the people of the Ratnágiri
District also believe that the Girha throws his shadow on the sun and
the moon, when he comes to demand his dues from them. [90] The Konkan
villagers, on an eclipse day, strike barren trees with a pestle, [91]
in order that they may bear fruits and flowers. A barren woman is
also beaten with the same motive. Similarly many other superstitious
beliefs are connected with an eclipse. Pregnant women are not allowed
to see the eclipse of the sun or the moon, nor are they to engage
in cutting, sewing, etc. as this is believed to be injurious to the
child in the womb. [92] The eclipse time is supposed to be the most
suitable to learn mantras or incantations. [93] The mantris also
mutter incantations during an eclipse in a naked condition. [94] The
people who believe that the eclipses are caused by the influence of
the planets Ráhu and Ketu offer prayers to Ráhu on the lunar eclipse
day and to Ketu on the solar eclipse day. [95]
The planets and stars are worshipped by the Hindus. It is believed
that a person who is to die within six months cannot see the polar
star. From the movements of the planets past and future events of
one's career are foretold by Bráhman and other astrologers. And as
it is believed that man's good and bad luck are dependant upon the
influence of the planets, offerings of various kinds are made and
sacrifices performed for securing the favour of the Navagrahas or the
nine planets. In order to avert the effect of the evil influence of
certain planets people sometimes wear rings of those precious stones
which are supposed to be the favourites of the planets.
The rain-bow is called Indra dhanushya or the Indra's bow, and it is
believed that if the rain-bow appears in the east, it indicates the
coming of more rain, and if it appears in the west it is a sure sign
of the close of the monsoon.
The milky way is believed to be the heavenly Ganges. Well known
tradition relates how Wáman (the 5th incarnation of Vishnu) went to
Bali the king of the lower regions and asked him to give him land
measuring three feet only. The king consented, whereupon the god
Wáman enlarged his body to such an extent that by his one footstep he
occupied the whole earth and by the second he occupied heaven. Upon
this the god Brahma worshipped the foot of the god Vishnu which was
in heaven, and from that foot sprang the heavenly Ganges which flows
in heaven and is called Dudha Ganga or the milky Ganges.
The worship of stars and planets is in vogue among Konkan Hindu
families of the higher castes. The polar star in particular is seen
and worshipped by the bride and the bridegroom after the ceremony
at the marriage altar is over. [96] A very interesting story is
connected with the polar star. By the great power of his penance
the sage Vishvámitra despatched king Trishanku to Heaven, but the
gods hurled him down. Thereupon Vishvámitra became enraged and began
to create a new heaven. Hindu mythological books say that he thus
created the sages Vashista, Angiras, Pulah, Pulastya, Rutu, Atri, and
Marichi, and stationed Trishanku in the sky. The Nava-grahas or the
nine planets are worshipped before the commencement of all important
ceremonies. [97] A cluster of seven stars called the Sapta-rishis are
worshipped by men at the time of the Shrávani ceremony, while women
worship them on the 5th day of the bright half of Bhádrapada. [98]
These Sapta-rishis are said to have been created by the God Brahma
from his own body; and teaching them the four Vedas, he handed them
over to them and asked them to regulate the affairs of the world. [99]
Some people of the Ratnágiri District believe that the rain-bow is the
bow used by Ráma, the hero of the Rámáyana. Its appearance on the east
is regarded by them as symptomatic of the approach of rain, while its
appearance on the west is equivalent to the departure of rain. [100]
The short duration of the rain-bow is held to indicate an excessive
fall of rain while its long duration forbodes a scarcity of rain. [101]
The appearance of the rain-bow on a river is supposed to indicate
the approach of rain, while its appearance on a mountain means the
departure of rain. [102] Of the two bows of which the rain-bow seems
to be composed, the larger is believed to belong to Ráma, and the
smaller to Lakshman. [103] Since the God Indra is supposed to send
rain, the Indradhanushya (the rain-bow) is regarded as a sign of the
advent of rain. [104]
By some Hindus it is believed that the milky way is a heavenly river
which is a favourite bathing place of the gods. [105] Others suppose
it to be a branch of the celestial Ganges which is said to have been
brought down upon this earth by king Bhagiratha. [106] Some persons,
however, believe that since the great sage Agastya is said to reside
at Rámeshwar in the southern direction, the Ganges (the milky way)
runs through the sky to the south in order to bathe him. Sometimes
the milky way is believed to be a white cloud. [107]
On the authority of the Mahákála Nirván Tantra, some people of the
Thána District believe that a person who cannot get a view of the
polar star will die within six months; while others substitute the
Arundhati star for the polar star and determine the duration of life
of a diseased person by the same process. [108]
The people of the Thána District believe that the rain-bow is caused
by the accumulation of moisture in the air. [109] The rain-bow is said
to consecrate the region over which it appears. [110] The appearance
of the rain-bow in the morning is supposed to forbode the approach
of rain. [111]
Some people of the Kolába District believe that the holy persons such
as Káshyapa, Arundhati and other sages, who lived on this earth in
ancient times are seen shining in the sky by the sacred lustre of
their powers. [112] Hindu women worship the planets Budha and Guru
(Mercury and Jupiter) in the month of Shravan. [113]
The Sapta-rishis are somewhere called Khatale and Bájale (cot). [114]
The rain-bow is held by some to be the symbol of Ráma and Lakshman,
who visit the world in that form with the view of watching its
proceedings. Others, however, believe that it represents God Indra
who assumes that form to see how his orders are executed by his
subordinates. [115] The rain-bow is said to foretell good if it
appears either at the beginning or end of the rainy season, while
its appearance at any other time is supposed to forbode evil. [116]
Hindus regard the earth as one of their important deities and worship
it on various occasions. It is enjoined upon Bráhmans to worship it
daily at the time of their Sandhya rite, as well as while performing
the Shrávani ceremony. [117] The people of the Ratnágiri District pray
to the earth as soon as they leave their bed in the morning. [118]
The earth is required to be worshipped at the time of laying the
foundation-stone of a house, as well as at the time of bringing into
use a newly built house. [119] Since it is held unholy to sleep on
the bare ground, those whose parents die, sleep on a woollen cloth on
the ground till their parents' anniversary is over. [120] Wanprastas,
Sanyásis, and Bráhmans are required to sleep on the ground. [121]
Some pious men sleep on the bare ground during the Cháturmás (the four
months of the rainy season), at the expiry of which they present a
bed to a Bráhman. [122] It is enjoined upon a prince to sleep on the
bare ground on the eve of the coronation day. [123]
Widows and women are required to sleep on the ground during their
monthly courses. Women whose husbands are away are also to do the
same. [124] In the Ratnágiri District Katkaris, on the day on which
they wish to be possessed by a particular deity or spirit, are
required to sleep on the earth. [125] When people are on the point
of death, they are made to lie on blades of darbha grass placed on
the earth. [126] The performer of a sacrifice as well as one who
has observed a vow are to sleep on the ground. [127] The following
articles should not be allowed to touch the earth, viz. pearls,
the Sháligram stone, an image of the god Vishnu, the linga of Shiva,
a conch shell, the sacred thread of a Bráhman, flowers intended for
worship, basil leaves, and Govardhan. [128]
The following lines are repeated in the morning before setting foot
to the ground [129]:--
O Goddess! who is clothed (surrounded) by the sea, whose breasts are
mountains, and who is the wife of Vishnu, I bow down to thee; please
forgive the touch of my feet. O Goddess Earth! who art born by the
power of Vishnu, whose surface is of the colour of a conch shell and
who art the store house of innumerable jewels, I bow down to thee.
Some women of the Thána District worship the earth daily during the
Cháturmás (four months of the rainy season), at the end of which they
give a Bráhman a piece of land or the money equivalent of it. [130]
Persons who perform a particular rite, e.g., the Solásomavár-vrata
(a vow observed on sixteen successive Mondays) are required to sleep
on the bare ground. [131] At the sowing and harvest time, farmers
appease the earth by offering it cocoanuts, fowls, rice mixed with
curd, etc. [132] The blood of a king and the balls of rice given to
the manes of the dead are not allowed to touch the ground. People
convey to a distant place the water of the Ganges, without placing
it on the ground. [133]
The earth is required to be worshipped before taking a portion of
it for sacrificial purposes. [134] A vessel containing water over
which incantations have been repeated is not allowed to touch the
ground. [135] On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin every
farmer prepares some sweetmeats in his house, and takes them to his
farm. There he gathers five stones, worships them, and offers the
sweetmeats to the earth. Afterwards he takes a portion of the food
and scatters it over the farm. His family then gather there and take
a hearty meal. In the evening the person who carried the food to the
farm, picks up some grains of barley and puts them into a basket. On
return home the grains are thrown over the house. [136]
Various conflicting notions are entertained regarding thunder and
lightning. The people of the Ratnágiri District believe that the
clouds are animals that roar. When these animals emit water it
bursts forth on account of the circular motion of the winds called
Chanda and Munda. This bursting is supposed to produce thunder
and lightning. [137] Somewhere thunder and lightning are said to
be the signals given by the god Indra, to birds, beasts, etc., of
the setting in of the rainy season. [138] Some people believe that
the god Indra sends rain through his elephants who, being excited,
make a noise like thunder. [139]
Others regard the thunder as the roaring of the elephant of the gods,
while sucking sea-water. The thunder is also believed to be the
roaring of the god Varuna, the king of the clouds. [140] The boys of
the Ratnágiri District believe that thunder is a sign of the wedding
ceremonies performed in the heavenly houses of the gods. [141] Some
Mahomedans believe that an angel called Mekail has control over the
rain. To cause a fall of rain Mekail strikes the clouds with a whip
of lightning. The clouds then utter a cry, and this is the cause of
thunder. [142] Some people of the Thána District believe that there
are big stones in the sky which strike against each other owing to
the force of the wind, and produce thunder. The dashing of these
stones against each other also generates lightning. [143]
In the Kolába District it is believed that thunder is the military band
of the king of clouds and lightning is his banner. [144] Lightning
is said to be produced by the fighting of celestial elephants; while
thunder is heard when they pour out water. [145] Some people think
that thunder is the noise of the feet of the elephants (clouds)
that give rain; lightning is also said to be generated from their
foot fall. [146] The clouds are supposed to be the messengers of gods,
lightning being the manifestation of Divine power. The gods are said to
confine these messengers from the nakshatra of Ardra to the nakshatra
of Hasti, in which latter nakshatra they again begin to roar. [147]
Thunder is supposed to take place when the god Indra draws his bow;
while lightning is said to be produced when the same god strikes his
adamant against a mountain. [148]
In the Ratnágiri District it is believed that earthquake occurs
whenever the thousand headed Shesha shakes its head. [149] It is said
that at one time a demon named Gayásur became very troublesome, and all
the gods held him down by standing on his body. Thereupon the demon
requested all the gods to remain on his body for ever. Occasionally
this Gayásur shakes his body and this causes the earthquake. [150]
Some people believe that the earth trembles of its own accord when
sins accumulate upon it. [151] Others hold that the earthquake takes
place in the hollow parts of the earth. [152] Some people, however,
believe that since the earth floats upon water, it naturally quakes
at times. [153]
The Hindus being element worshippers naturally hold in reverence
certain rivers, ponds, etc. In the Ratnágiri District the spring at
Rájápur, called the Rájápurchi Ganga is considered very sacred. It
flows from the roots of a Banyan tree. There are fifteen Kundas or
ponds, and the principal Kunda always remains filled with water. On
occasions a big játra fair is held and people from distant places
come to bathe and worship at the spring. [154] Some people believe
that many of the lakes, springs, etc., situated in the Kolhápur
State are sacred. [155] A spring or rivulet that flows to the east is
considered specially sacred. It is called a Surya-Vansi spring, and
it is considered meritorious to bathe in it. [156] In the village of
Kunkauli in the Ratnágiri District if a person is bitten by a snake
or other poisonous reptile, no medicine is administered to him, but
holy water brought from the temple of the village goddess is given to
him to drink, and it is said that the patient is thus cured. [157]
The water fall at Maral near Devarkuha, where the river Bán takes
its rise, is held sacred. [158] At Shivam in the Ratnágiri District
the people use the tirtha of a deity as medicine for diseases due
to poison. They say that it is the sole remedy they apply in such
cases. [159] There are ponds at Manora in the Goa State, and Vetore
in the Sávantwádi State, the water of which is used as medicine
for the cure of persons suffering from the poison of snakes, mice,
spiders, and scorpions. [160] When a well is dug, the people call
a Bráhman priest to consecrate it. The Bráhman takes cow's urine,
milk, curds, ghi, sandal paste, flowers, basil leaves, and rice,
and mixes them with water, and after repeating sacred mantras over
the water, throws the mixture into the well. After this ceremony,
the people are at liberty to drink water from the well. [161]
Before a well is dug, an expert is consulted to ascertain the place
where a spring flows. A well is then dug, after offering a sacrifice to
the spirits and deities that happen to dwell at that spot. A dinner
is given to Bráhmans after the well is built. [162] A golden cow
is often thrown into a newly built well as an offering to the water
deities. [163] There is a well at Mandangad, the water of which serves
as medicine to cure the poison of snakes and other reptiles. [164]
It is believed that there is a class of wicked water nymphs called
Asará who generally dwell in wells, ponds, or rivers, far from the
habitation of men. Whenever these nymphs come across a lonely man
or woman entering a well, pond, etc., they carry that person under
water. The village of Mithbáv in the Ratnágiri District is a well-known
resort of these Asarás, and many instances are given by the villagers
of persons being drowned and carried off in the river by these wicked
nymphs. A tank in the village of Hindalem in the same district has a
similar reputation. [165] The people of the Konkan believe that water
nymphs are sometimes seen in the form of women near wells, rivers,
and ponds. [166] Some say that the water nymphs and water spirits
confer objects desired by worshippers if they are propitiated by
prayers. [167]
There are seven kundas, ponds, at Nirmal in the Thána District,
forming a large lake. This lake is said to have been formed from the
blood of the demon Vimalásur. At Sháhápur there is a holy spring of hot
water under a Pipal tree. It is called Ganga. [168] There are kundas,
pools, of hot water in the Vaitarna river in the Thána District, in
which people bathe on the 13th day of the dark half of Chaitra. [169]
There are also springs of hot water on the bank of the Surya river at
Vajreshvari and at Koknere, in the Thána District. [170] A handful
of corn, if thrown into the hot water kundas at Tungar, is said to
be boiled at once. [171] It is held holy to bathe in the kundas of
hot water that are situated in the rivers Tánsa and Bánganga in the
Thána District. [172] The water of a well which is drawn without
touching the earth or without being placed upon the ground is given
as medicine for indigestion. Similarly the water of seven tanks,
or at least of one pond, in which lotuses grow is said to check the
virulence of measles, small-pox, etc. [173] A bath in a certain tank
in the Mahim taluka is said to cure persons suffering from the itch,
and water purified by repeating incantations over it is also said to
be a good remedy for the same disease. [174]
The water of a tank or a well is supposed to be wholesome to a person
of indifferent health, if given to him to drink without placing it upon
the ground. [175] Some people believe that the water of the Ganges is
so holy and powerful that if bows are thrown into it they are instantly
reduced to powder. [176] The repair of lakes, caravanserais, temples,
etc., is held more meritorious than their actual erection. [177]
It is enjoined upon a man to perform a certain rite if he wishes
to relinquish his right of ownership over a well or tank, and after
this rite is performed, it can be utilized for public purposes. But
no ceremony is required to be performed if a well is dug for the
benefit of the public. [178]
The people of the Thána District believe that water nymphs reside in
every reservoir of water. [179] Some people, however, believe that
the water nymphs dwell in those lakes in which lotuses grow. These
nymphs are said to do harm to children and young women, especially
when they set out for a walk accompanied by their brother Gavala. They
are unusually dangerous. [180] The people worship the images of the
following seven water nymphs or apsaras, viz., Machhi, Kurmi, Karkati,
Darduri, Jatupi, Somapa and Makari. [181]
The following places are said to be inhabited by water spirits:--the
channel of Kalamba, the tanks of Sopara and Utaratal and the lake
called Tambra-tirtha at Bassein [182]. Water nymphs are supposed to
drown a person who tries to save another fallen into water. [183]
A species of small men named Uda, otherwise called water-spirits,
are said to dwell in water and subsist on fishes. [184] The spirits
called Khais and Mhashya are supposed to reside in water. [185]
The river Sávitri in the Kolába District takes its rise near
Mahábaleshwar and is considered very sacred. The following traditionary
account is given of its origin. The god Brahma had two wives, Sávitri
and Gáyatri. A dispute having arisen between them, they both jumped
over a precipice. Sávitri assumed the form of a river and fell into the
sea near Bánkot. Gáyatri, on the other hand, concealed herself in the
river Sávitri and manifested herself as a spring near Harihareshwar in
the Janjira State. [186] A man is said to be released from re-birth
if he takes a bath in the kund (pond) named Katkale-tirtha near
Násik. [187] Bows are said to be reduced to powder if thrown into
a certain kund at Uddhar-Rámeshwar in the Sudhagad taluka. [188]
Kupotsarga is defined to be the digging of a well for the benefit of
the public and abandoning one's right of ownership over it. [189]
A pond near Khopoli in the Kolába District is held very sacred. The
following story is related in connection with it. The villagers say
that the water nymphs in the pond used to provide pots for marriage
festivities if a written application were made to them a day previous
to the wedding. The pots were, however, required to be returned
within a limited time. But one man having failed to comply with
this condition, they have ceased to lend pots. Another interesting
story is associated with the same pond. It is as follows. A man had
fallen into the pond and was taken to the abode of the nymphs. He was,
however, returned by them after a few days on the understanding that
he would be recalled if he spoke of what he had seen there. One day
he communicated to the people the good things that he enjoyed there,
and to the surprise of all he was found dead immediately after. [190]
Water nymphs are said to reside in a pond at Varsai in the Kolába
District. Consequently persons that are held unclean, e.g., women in
their monthly course, etc., are not allowed to touch it. The nymphs of
the same lake were once said to lend pots on festive occasions. [191]
It is said that the water nymphs used to provide ornaments for marriage
and other ceremonies, if returned within a prescribed period. But some
people having failed to return them, they ceased to lend them. [192]
A spirit called Girha is supposed to reside in water. It is said to
make mischief with man in a variety of ways by enticing him into deep
water. [193] The Jakrin is said to be a deity residing in water. [194]
Persons drowned in water are believed to become water-spirits, and
to trouble innocent passers-by. [195]
A mountain near the village Pule, in the district of Ratnágiri is
held sacred on account of the residence of the god Ganpati at that
place. For this reason people walk round the mountain and worship
it. Tradition says that Ganpati was at first at Gule in the Ratnágiri
District, but on account of the sanctity of the place being violated
by some wicked persons the god transferred his residence to Pule. At
Gule there is still a very beautiful temple of Ganpati, though it is
now in a dilapidated condition. [196] The cave of the sage Much-kund
near Machal on the Sahyádri mountain is considered sacred. In the
Konkan it is not held sinful to ascend a mountain or a hill, though
to sit upon its summit is considered sinful. [197] The hill of Mirya
near Ratnágiri is considered sacred. This hill is believed to be a
particle (miri) of the mythological mountain Dronagiri. [198]
A hill near Dhárávi in the Thána District is consecrated by the temple
of a goddess upon the top. This goddess is said to preserve ships at
sea, and people are occasionally possessed by her. It is said that
a Roman Catholic priest met instantaneous death on having insulted
her. [199]
The hill of Mahálakshmi in the Dahánu táluka is held sacred. The
villagers consider it dangerous to ascend this hill. [200] On the
hill of the same name is a temple of the goddess Jivadhani, who is
said to preserve children from small-pox. The following story is
told in connection with the goddess. A person in need of money used
to place before her image as large a heap of flowers as he wanted
gold, stating that he would return the gold when he had done with
it. He used then to go home and return on an appointed day for the
gold, which was sure to be found where he had placed the heap of
flowers. Once a man failed to return the gold, and thenceforth the
goddess withheld her bounty. There is no door to the temple of this
goddess. It is only through a hole in a big stone that one can have a
view of her image. Sweet scent is said to be continually emitted from
this hole. The goddess is said to have fastened the door of her temple
for the following reason. One day the goddess was walking at the foot
of the hill at night. A cowherd who happened to be there was bewitched
by her matchless beauty and fell a prey to evil desire. He pursued
her to the top of the hill, when the goddess, divining his motive,
fastened the door of her temple with a prodigious stone. On the same
hill is a cattle shed in which fresh cow-dung is said to be always
found. This place being inaccessible to cows and other quadrupeds,
the people believe that the goddess keeps a cow of her own. [201]
The hill of Tungar is consecrated by the temple of a certain goddess
upon it. There is also a very famous hill near Arnála, called the
hill of Buddha. This hill was once the seat of a king belonging to
the weaver caste. Recently a pond was discovered upon it, in which
was found a stone-box containing a begging-pot and a diamond. A great
fair is held annually on the hill of Motmávali near Bandra in the
Thána district. The devotees of the deity are Hindus, Parsis, and
Christians. It is said this goddess was once worshipped by Hindus
only. A Bráhman is the pujári of the Pir on the hill of Bába Malang
near Kalyán. It is said that the Pir has declared that no Moslem pujári
should worship him. The Hindus and Moslems worship him alike. [202]
Bráhmans do not cross the top of a mountain without stopping for a
short time before ascending the summit. [203]
At a short distance from Chaul in the Kolába District is a hill
dedicated to the god Dattatraya, in whose honour a great fair is
held annually. The following story is told in connection with this
hill. In ancient times a Bráhman used to practise austerities on
this hill near a Tulsi plant (the place on which the present temple
stands). He used to spend the whole day there, but returned home at
nightfall. On his way home fearful scenes were often presented to
him, and in his dreams he was asked not to go there any more. But
the Bráhman was obdurate. He persisted in his resolution to practise
austerities for a number of years, and at last succeeded in obtaining
a personal interview with the god Dattatraya, who commanded him
to bow down to his feet (páduka). From that time pious men live on
this hill and offer their prayers to the god Dattatraya. Nearly four
hundred steps have been constructed for the ascent of this hill,
and additional steps are being built every year. Here also are some
springs of pure water. It is worth while to note that the pujári of
this god is a Shudra by caste. [204] On the north-east side of the
hill dedicated to the god Dattatraya stands the temple of the goddess
Hingláj. To the north of this temple are four caves, while to the
west is a deep den resembling a well, through which a lane appears to
have been dug. This is said to be the road excavated by the Pándavas
to enable them to go to Kási. [205] At a distance of two miles from
Akóla in the Kolába District is a hill called Mallikárjun. This
is said to be a small stone fallen from the mythological mountain
Dronagiri. This hill is said to contain many medical herbs. [206]
The hill at Kankeshwar near Alibág is held sacred, and tradition says
that in ancient times it had golden dust upon it. [207] A cave at
Ambivali near Karjat in the Kolába District consists of seven rooms,
one of which is spacious enough to accommodate five hundred persons. In
the same taluka there is another cave at Kondhavane. [208]
The gods Indra and Varuna are supposed to send rain; but it is believed
that the god Shiva in chief has the power of causing the fall of rain,
and for this reason whenever there is a scarcity of rain people pour
water over the linga of Shiva until the whole linga is submerged. [209]
In order that there should be a fall of rain, some people besmear
the linga of the god Shiva with cooked rice and curds. [210] In the
Ratnágiri District, whenever there is a scarcity of rain, people go
to the place known as Parashurám Kshetra, and there pray to the god
Parashurám to send rain. [211] Sacrifices are also offered to Indra,
the god of rain, in order that there should be plenty of rain. Some
believe that there are certain mantris or enchanters who by the power
of their mantras are able to prevent the fall of rain. [212]
In the Ratnágiri District the following ceremony is performed by the
lower castes such as Kunbis, etc., to avert drought. All the male
villagers assemble together at an appointed place, and there they
select one of them as their Gowala-deva. All of them then go about in
the village from house to house. The owner of every house sprinkles
water over the assembly, and curds and butter-milk over the body of
the Gowala-deva. They are also given some shidha consisting of rice,
pulse, vegetables, etc. After visiting most of the houses in the
village, the assembly headed by the Gowala-deva go to the bank of a
river. Here they cook the food, offer it first to the Gowala-deva and
then partake of the remainder as a prasád from the Gowala-deva. [213]
Some people make an image of the sage Shringarishi for the purpose of
causing the fall of rain. [214] Others make an image of Dhondal-deva
in order that there should be plenty of rain. [215] Sometimes people
repeat mantras addressed to Parjanya (rain) so that rain should
fall. [216] The goddess Navachandika is worshipped in order that
there should be rain. The Kunbis perform a peculiar rite for checking
the fall of rain. They ask a person born in the months of Jyeshtha,
Ashádh, Shrávan or Bhádrapad to fetch some rain-water in an alu leaf,
and this is fastened to the eaves of thatched houses by means of
a string. Note that, if this rite is to be performed in the month
of Jyeshtha, a person born in that month only is required and no
other; and so forth. [217] In order to check an excessive fall of
rain the villagers sometimes ask a boy to take off his clothes and
then to catch rainwater in the leaves of the alu plant. The leaves
containing the water are then tied to the eaves of the house. [218]
The people say that during the rule of the Peshwás there was a class
of mantris who had the power of causing a failure of rain. [219] To
check the fall of rain, some people ask naked boys to throw burning
coals into the rain water. [220] Irale (a protection against rain,
made of the leaves of trees) is kept in the rain upside down, the
goddess Holika is worshipped, the boughs of the Avali tree are conveyed
to a place where four roads meet and stones are heaped over it, and
eaves of thatched houses are beaten by boys who do not wear clothes,
all these being done by the villagers with a view to preventing an
excessive fall of rain. [221]
The people of the Thána District believe that distinct deities preside
over distinct seasons, e.g., Mars presides over the spring (Vasant),
Venus over summer (Grishma), the moon over autumn (Varsha), Mercury
over sharat, Saturn over winter (Hemant and Shishir). [222] When the
people are in need of rain they say to the god of rain "Let us have
plenty of rain to-morrow and we will give thee, Oh! God of rain! rice
mixed with curd." The same offer is made to the god of rain even when
they do not want it. In order that there should be no scarcity of rain,
some people perform the rites of Laghu-rudra and Mahá-rudra. [223]
The following measure if adopted is said to cause rain. The villagers
go from house to house with boughs of the Limb tree on their heads,
and water is then poured upon them by the inmates. [224] The fall
of rain is supposed to cease if a person born in the month of Fálgun
extinguishes burning coals in rainwater when his garments have been
removed. [225]
Some stones are supposed to have influence over rain fall. There is a
big stone at Varasai in the Kolába District on which are drawn certain
images. The people believe that it rains hard if this stone is held
straight, and then swung to and fro. [226] Some people perform the
following rite known as the Dhondilgajya. They ask a person of the
Kaikádi or Vadar caste to remain naked and break the string round
his waist. A small image of black earth is made and placed upon
his head. The boy then conveys the image from house to house in the
village. A woman in each house sprinkles water over the image while
the boy dances saying "Dhondil gajya, Páus gajya." It is believed
that it rains in the direction in which the water sprinkled falls. A
person who accompanies the boy gathers corn at every house. A dinner
is then prepared, and the people of the caste to which the boy belongs,
partake of it heartily. It is also said that making water in a standing
posture causes the fall of rain. [227] The god Rámeshwar at Chaul in
the Kolába District is said to have control over rain. In the temple
of this god there is a parjanya-kund (pond) which is opened after
performing a sacred rite, if there be a scarcity of rain. There are
also other kundas in the temple, viz., Váyu-kund and Agni-kund, but
no occasion has yet arisen to open them. [228] Some people believe
that the god Agni regulates the seasons [229].
Eaves of thatched houses are cleansed with a brush made from the
leaves of cocoanut trees in order that a fall of rain should be
prevented. [230]
The ceremonies of Haritálika, Rishi-Panchami, Vata-Sávitri,
Vaná-Shasthi, Mangalá-Gouri, Shital-Saptami are to be performed
by women alone. [231] Similarly, the ceremonies of Mahálakshmi,
Vasubáras, Shiva-mutha, and a rite on the Makar Sankrant day are
performed by women exclusively. [232]
The rite of Rishi-Panchami is performed on the 5th day of the
bright-half of Bhádrapad to make amends for sins committed without
knowledge. On this day women go to a river, a well, or some other
sacred place, cleanse their teeth with the leaves of the Agháda plant,
and take baths with something on the head. They then take some stones
from that place and worship them as Rishis. On the conclusion of
the worship, they partake of fruits. On the Vrata-Sávitri day women
worship a banyan tree or its boughs. The ceremony falls on the 15th
day of the bright half of Jyeshtha. [233] On the Haritálika day,
i.e., the 3rd day of the bright half of Bhádrapad, women make images
of earth of Párvati and her two friends and worship them and fast
the whole day. The observance of this rite contributes to their good
fortune. Even girls of tender years observe this fast. The worship
of Mangalá-Gauri is a ceremony performed by married girls for five
successive years on every Tuesday of the month of Shrávan. Similarly,
the goddess Mahálakshmi is worshipped on the 8th day of the bright
half of Ashvin. On the Makar Sankránt day women worship a sugad [234]
and present it to a Bráhman. [235] The Shiva-mutha consists of a
handful of corn offered to the god Shiva by married girls on every
Monday in the month of Shrávan. [236]
The worship of Shadananda and the Holika Devi and the ceremonies of
Shrávani, Shráddha and Antyesti are performed by men alone. [237]
In some families of non-Bráhmans on a particular day, especially on
the full-moon day of Ashvin, the host and the hostess put off their
clothes and perform certain family rites. [238]
The women of the Thána District fast the whole day on the 12th day of
the dark half of Ashvin. At night they worship a cow, give in charity
a calf, and then take their meal. It is to be noted that this ceremony
called the Vasu-dwádasi is performed by women who have children. On
the Haritálika day some women live on the leaves of a Rui tree. [239]
On the Somavati-Amávásya day women worship a Pipal tree and offer it a
hundred and eight things of one kind. [240] Women desirous of having
a son perform a certain rite at midnight, without clothing. [241]
If one wishes to have a son, one has to go through a ceremony called
the Hanumán in a naked state. [242]
The god Kálbhairav is worshipped by a naked person on the
Narka-Chathurdasi day (14th day of the dark half of Ashvin). Those
learning the dark lore, e.g., muth márane, are also required to remain
naked while studying it. They learn this lore on an eclipse day on
the bank of a river. [243] The rite called Somaya is performed by
the host when his clothes are off his body. On a certain Monday in
the month of Shrávan a lamp of wheat flour is prepared and burned
by adding ghi. This lamp is regarded as a deity, and is worshipped
solemnly. During the performance of this ceremony as well as the
preparation of the requisite food, the host and the hostess are
required to remain naked. [244]
The Swayambhu (unartificial) linga of the god Shiva is supposed to
have influence over the fall of rain. [245]
The people of the Thána District believe that the following
ceremony causes a fall of rain. Stones are taken out of a pool and
worshipped. They are then carried to every house in the village, and
water is poured upon them by the inmates. [246] There is a temple of
the god of clouds at Viranáth in the Thána District. [247]
The appearance of a comet is regarded by the Hindus as symptomatic
of a coming evil, e.g., a big war, a great famine, or a terrible
contagious disease spreading itself throughout the length and breadth
of a country. [248] Some persons think that comets and shooting stars
bode evil to the king. [249]
Whenever a great person or a very holy man is about to be born, it
is believed that he alights on the earth in the shape of a shooting
star. Sometimes a big star falls on the earth, and thereby a noise like
that of thunder is produced. When this happens, people believe that
a great Rája or a holy saint whose merit has been exhausted is going
to be born on earth. [250] The following verse from the Mrichhakatika
Nátak supports the view in accordance with which orthodox people in
the Konkan avoid looking at shooting stars:--
INDRADHANUSHYA ANI GOPRASUTI | NAKSHATRANCI ADHOGATI SATPURUSHANCI
PRANAVIPATTI || PAHUM NAYE SACARA || i.e.,
The following four things, viz., the rainbow, the fall of shooting
stars, the delivery of a cow, and the death-struggle of saints or
holy men should not be looked at. [251] It is generally believed by
Hindus that a child will immediately be born in the house towards
which shooting stars are directed. [252]