stress they laid upon accuracy. From another colophon we learn that an
edition of Sallust at that early period consisted of five hundred
copies. In another the same printer declares that he will deign to sell
nothing that is not perfectly correct. In another he talks of having
carefully expurgated his author, as if he had been printing Juvenal or
Martial, but as the author is a divine the remark can only refer to the
correctness of the text. John of Cologne goes further still, and asserts
that his book is absolutely immaculate:
"Emptor, habes careant omni qui crimine libri,
Quos securus emas, procul et quibus exulat error."
Occasionally the corrector's name is mentioned. A remarkable instance of
this is where Vindelinus de Spira prints an Italian book, the "Divine
Comedy," the language of which he probably would not understand, when
Christoval Berardi, of Pesaro, is especially named as the corrector in
an Italian sonnet probably composed by himself. In an instance of an
arithmetical work the printer, Erhard Ratdolt, distinctly claims the
merit of the correctness of the press as his personal merit, and we
learn from other sources that he was a good mathematician.
Another class of colophon sets forth the deserts of the author instead
of those of the printer, and it is noteworthy that these, when in verse,
are generally expressed in a more elegant style. It is to be regretted
that the verses written for Sweynheym and Pannartz, the fathers of the
art in Italy, were generally so bad; yet there is something to be
learned from them. We discover that they thought it necessary to
apologise for their uncouth German names (_Aspera ridebis Teutonica
nomina forsan_); and that a Roman patrician named Maximus—a man to be
ever honoured for his public spirit—had given them and their press
house-room in his palace. We learn from other colophons that an edition
of Sallust consisting of four hundred copies, and that two editions of
Cicero's Epistles to his friends, were carried through the press in four
months. The comparative cheapness of typography is also a frequent
matter of congratulation. It is said to have brought Virgil within the
reach of all scholars, and to have enabled every man to be his own
lawyer; but the printer seldom tells us what the price of the volume
was. We observe that the trade of the book-producer has not yet become
differentiated into the two great classes of printers and publishers.
While, as before remarked, there is every reason to conclude that the
early printers were persons of liberal education, we do not, so far as I
am aware, find evidence of this mechanical craft being exercised by men
of gentle blood. I have, however, already mentioned the priestly
printer, Clemente Patavino, and a colophon reveals that the printers of
one book were two priests. One rather wonders what became meanwhile of
their religious duties. I suppose that a priest would not in general
have been allowed to follow a secular calling, at least openly, but in
this instance of printing there is no attempt at concealment. A
circumstance honourable in its way to the craft to which we owe our
existence, and suggesting that the ecclesiastical authorities of the
fifteenth century thought of printers as our friend Mr. Dewey rightly
tells we ought to think of librarians.
Enough, perhaps, has been said to warrant the suggestion of a little
book of colophons, bringing together what must now be laboriously hunted
up from Panzer, Hain, and similar authorities. Its principal aim should
be to collect whatever might illustrate the feelings with which the
ancient printers regarded themselves and their art in the fifteenth
century; but every colophon should also be given which throws a light on
contemporary history and public feeling on any subject. I should, for
instance, include that in which the peaceful character of Paul II.'s
pontificate is recognised by the epithet "placatissimum," and any that
conveyed a compliment to a king, doge, or any leading personage of the
time. Such a little volume, tastefully executed, something after the
pattern of Monsieur Müntz's delightful little book in the Vatican
Library under Platina, would, I believe, be a favourite companion with
many an amateur of ancient typography.
In conclusion, I may say a few words respecting what we are endeavouring
to do at the British Museum for the illustration of early printing. Of
the little exhibition of title-pages and colophons displayed at the
Association's visit to the Museum yesterday, since you have all seen it,
I need only say that the credit of collecting and arranging it is
entirely due to Mr. Pollard, whose essay on the subject I have already
recommended to your perusal. A more permanent collection is
contemplated, which I believe will be of substantial benefit to the
study of ancient printing. When the requisite funds are procured, as it
is hoped will shortly be the case, it is intended to provide additional
glazed presses in the library, with the view of bringing together
examples of every description of type used by a printer of incunabula,
that is, of books produced during the fifteenth century. Mr. Aldrich, a
gentleman deeply versed in typographic lore, to whom the selection of
these examples will be entrusted, will arrange them as far as possible
in the alphabetical order of the towns where the art of printing was
exercised, keeping the works of each printer together. This collection,
though not shown to the public, will always be accessible to experts.
Its value to them is obvious, and we hope it will also be of material
service in disclosing the numerous deficiencies of the Museum in
representative specimens of early type, and prompting efforts to make
them good. There is no idea of assembling together all the incunabula in
the Museum, which would be impracticable for many reasons, but only
representative examples of the various types. The foundation, however,
of a general catalogue of incunabula has been laid in a manner which I
have previously stated to the American Library Association, namely, by
printing copies of the catalogue on one side only. When the catalogue is
finished we shall, by merely cutting out the entries of any particular
description of books, obtain a classed catalogue of the entire subject,
among others, of our incunabula; this list can be placed in the
reading-room for general reference, and, if sufficient encouragement is
forthcoming, be reprinted and published as a distinct catalogue, revised
with the careful attention to minutiæ which would be out of place in a
general working catalogue like that of the entire library, but which may
well be expected in a speciality. The standard of accuracy has risen,
and bibliographers are dissatisfied with what many deemed excessive
nicety when the Museum rules were framed. It is improbable that I shall
have any concern with this catalogue of the future: if I had, I would
ask the Trustees' leave to dedicate it to the memory of the man to whom
we are chiefly indebted for this particular development of scientific
cataloguing—Henry Bradshaw.
FOOTNOTES:
[197:1] Read at the Annual Meeting of the Library Association, London,
October 1889.
ON THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFYING BOOKS ON THE SHELVES FOLLOWED AT THE
BRITISH MUSEUM[210:1]
The purpose of this paper is to present a brief account of the system
followed in the classification of books on the shelves of the British
Museum library.
It will be understood that this does not amount to an enumeration of all
the subjects which might suitably be recognised as distinct in a
classified catalogue, but only of such as possess sufficient importance
to occupy at least one book-press in the library.
Subjects which from a philosophical point of view might properly be
separated, must in actual library arrangements frequently be combined
for want of room.
It is further to be borne in mind that the classification now to be
described does not in absolute strictness apply to the entire library,
but to the acquisitions—comprising, however, nearly four-fifths of the
whole—made since Sir Anthony Panizzi's accession to office as keeper of
the printed books. The books in Montague House were indeed
scientifically arranged on their removal to the new premises, but space
was then wanting to carry out the views entertained by the officer
principally entrusted with their arrangement—the late Mr. Thomas Watts,
a gentleman of prodigious memory and encyclopædic learning. Mr. Watts
subsequently obtained space more in correspondence with the
comprehensiveness of his ideas, and the Museum library will bear the
impress of his mind for all ages. With his name will be associated that
of the late keeper, Mr. Rye, for many years his coadjutor, and whose own
independent arrangement of the Grenville library and the
reference-library of the reading-room will always be cited as models for
the disposition of limited collections. I trust to be excused this brief
reference to gentlemen prematurely lost to our profession—the former by
death, the latter by indisposition, brought on, it is to be feared, by
over-application to his official duties. To the example of the former
and the instruction of the latter I am indebted for whatever claim I may
have to address you on a subject to which I can contribute little of my
own.
The classification of a great library is equivalent to a classification
of human knowledge, and may, if men please, become the standard or
symbol of conflicting schools of thought. It might, for example, be
plausibly maintained that knowledge, and therefore the library, should
begin with the definition of man's relation to the unseen powers around
him—that is, with Natural Theology. Or with man himself as the unit of
all things human—that is, with Anthropology. Or, on Nature's own
pattern, with the most rudimentary forms of existence. Hence, as we
heard yesterday from the distinguished gentleman who here represents the
fifth part of the world, the reading-room library at Melbourne begins
with works on the subject of Sponges. Fortunately for the neutral
bibliographer, there exists a book which not only holds in civilised
countries a place unique among books, but which has further established
its claim to precedence by the practical test of being the first to get
itself printed. The Museum classification accordingly begins with the
Bible, and I venture to express the opinion that every sound
classification will do the same.
When the next question emerges, how to arrange the Bible itself, we
alight at once upon a few simple principles, which, with the necessary
modifications, will prove applicable throughout. It is obvious that
entire Bibles should precede parts of Bibles; that originals should
precede translations; the more ancient originals, the more recent; and
Bibles in both the original tongues those in one only. We thus obtain
the following arrangement at starting: Polyglots, Hebrew Bibles, Greek
Bibles. It is equally apparent that Greek cannot be fitly succeeded by
any tongue but Latin; that Latin is most naturally followed by its
modern derivatives; that these draw after them the other European
languages in due order; the Slavonic forming a link with the Oriental,
which in their turn usher in the African, American, and Polynesian.
Concordances, consisting of the words of the Bible detached from their
context, form a convenient link with Commentaries. The latter fall into
two principal sections, according as they relate to Scripture in its
entirety or to some particular part. In arranging the former, the
erudite labours of scholars are, as far as possible, kept apart from the
popular illustrative literature of modern days. The order of
commentaries on separate books must, of course, correspond with that of
the books themselves in the canon of the Bible.
Next succeeds the very important class of literature representing the
Bible in contact with society through the medium of the Church. The most
obvious form of this relation is the liturgical. Liturgies accordingly
succeed Scripture in the Museum arrangement, precedence being given to
the various Churches in the order of their antiquity. A minor but very
extensive class of Liturgy, the Psalm and Hymn, naturally follows as an
appendix, preceding Private and Family Devotion, which prefaces works on
liturgical subjects in general. The next great department of this class
of literature ensues in the shape of Creeds and Catechisms. These pass
into formal expositions of dogmatic theology, including theological
libraries; which lead to the collected works of divines, commencing with
the Fathers. The same order is observed here as in the arrangement of
the Bible in its various languages: the Greek Fathers leading to the
Latin, the Latin to the divines of the nations speaking languages
derived from the Latin, and these to the Teutonic nations, a division
practically equivalent to one into Catholic and Protestant. The general
theological literature of each nation follows in the same order,
excluding works treating of special theological questions, but including
all the immense mass of printed material relating to the Reformation and
the controversies resulting from it down to the present day. With these
the subject of General Theology may be deemed concluded, and we enter
not only upon a fresh department, but upon a fresh numeration. The
book-presses embracing the subjects hitherto described all bear numbers
commencing with 3000. With the new department 4000 commences, and the
same remark, _mutatis mutandis_, is applicable to every succeeding
principal division. I must pass very lightly over the numerous sections
of this second section. Beginning with the fundamental questions of the
being of a God and the truth of Christianity, it embraces every special
question which has formed the subject of discussion among Christians, in
the order which commended itself as most logical to the original
designer of the arrangement. These controversies conduct to the common
ground of Religious Devotion and Contemplation, including the important
departments of Tracts and Religious Fiction; and these to devotion in
its hortatory form—_i.e._, Sermons, classified on the same linguistic
principle as Scripture, and divided into the great sections of collected
discourses and separate sermons. With these the subject of specifically
Christian Theology terminates, and is succeeded by the great and
growing department of Mythology and non-Christian Religion. Judaism
follows, leading by an easy transition to Church History. A few words on
the arrangement of this section will save much repetition, as the
principle here exemplified is never departed from. It demonstrates the
advantage of beginning with a subject like the Bible, respecting the
correct arrangement of which there can be no dispute, and which serves
as a norm for all the rest. As the Bible necessarily commenced with
Polyglots, so Church History begins with General Church History; the
various nations succeed in their linguistic, which is practically also
their geographical order, provision being, of course, made for the
intercalation of sub-sections where necessary, as for instance one on
English Nonconformity. Polynesia, as the last member of this
arrangement, naturally introduces the next subject—Missions—which in
turn brings on Religious Orders, including Freemasonry. Religious
Biography follows, arranged on the same principle as Religious History,
which is always carried out wherever practicable. Finally, the whole
class is concluded by the small but important division of Religious
Bibliography.
Divine Law is evidently most fitly succeeded by Human Law, or
Jurisprudence. The fulness with which the preceding section has been
treated will enable me to pass very cursorily over this and its
successors. I may be pardoned, however, one remark suggested by the
introduction of a new division—that in the classification of a library
it should be considered whether the scope of the collection is special
or general. In arranging a mere collection of Law Books it would be
proper to commence with works treating of the general principles of
Jurisprudence. In arranging a great library, regard must be had to the
harmonious connection of the parts, and accordingly the Museum
arrangement commences with Ecclesiastical Law as the natural sequel of
Theology. Bulls, Councils, Canon-Law and Modern Church-Law introduce the
great section of Roman Law. Oriental Law follows, the Laws of the
Continental Nations succeed in the order previously explained, and thus
room is only found for General Jurisprudence at a comparatively late
period, at the beginning of the numeral series 6000. It brings after it
such minor subjects as Prison-Discipline and Forensic Medicine. The
remaining space of the section is occupied by the Law of the
English-speaking nations, which requires most minute subdivision.
Next to Divinity and Law, the third rank among the pursuits of the human
mind was anciently assigned to Medicine. We have learned to recognise
that Medicine, however practically important, ranks scientifically only
as a department of Biology. The next section, accordingly, commences
with general Natural History, continuing through the natural kingdoms of
Botany, Geology, and Zoology, including Veterinary Surgery, with their
appropriate subdivisions, and then embracing Medicine—first in its
general aspect, as medical principle and practice; then in its great
leading divisions of Physiology, Pathology, Therapeutics, &c.; again, as
Special Pathology; finally, in such comparative minutiæ as professional
controversies and bills of mortality. The divisions of Art—the next
class—are simple and obvious. They may be enumerated as Archæology,
Costumes, Numismatics, Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, first as
treated collectively, and then as treated separately; and, finally,
Music. Fine Art is succeeded by Useful Art, and the interval bridged
over by Field-Sports, Games of Chance, and Games of Skill. No
subdivision of the Useful Arts has been attempted beyond the separation
of Cookery and Domestic Economy from the rest, and the addition of two
special sections, one for the catalogues of industrial exhibitions, the
other for the voluminous and important publications of the South
Kensington Museum.
The extensive and miscellaneous division which succeeds may, perhaps,
best be defined under the head of Philosophy, alike in its scientific
principles and in its application to human life. Commencing with
Political Philosophy, or the Science of Government, it runs rapidly
through the politics of the various nations, in the geographical order
previously detailed, passes into Political Economy, with the allied
subjects of Finance, Commerce, and Social Science; thence into
Education, and, by the minor morals so intimately allied with the latter
subject, into Ethics, including works on the condition of Woman, Peace,
Temperance, and similar topics. Speculative Philosophy succeeds,
introducing Mathematics, on which hangs the great department of Applied
Mathematics, including all physical sciences except the biological. The
various branches are carefully discriminated, and room is found among
them for the so-called Occult Sciences, and for Military and Naval
matters, the series appropriately concluding with Chemistry, or the
science which aims at the resolution of all matter into its original
elements. The remaining sections, though most important and extensive,
are very simple in arrangement, and may be dismissed very briefly. They
are: History; Geography, with Voyages and Topography; Biography; Poetry
and the Drama; Belles Lettres, including Fiction; and Philology. The
arrangement is invariably the same: collected works on each subject
being placed first, and a geographical order being adopted for the rest
when the conditions of the case allow. Genealogy is regarded as an
appendix to History; Letters to Biography; Elocution, with Literary
Criticism and Bibliography, to Poetry and the Dramatic Art. The class of
Belles Lettres is headed by Libraries and Cyclopædias.
It should be stated that the system here explained refers in the
strictest sense only to works complete in themselves, and not to
Periodicals, Academical Publications, and State Papers, which are placed
separately. Although, however, these constitute distinct series, the
principle of classification is practically identical. The same remarks
apply to the Oriental departments of the collection, the Grenville
library, and the reference-library of the reading-room.