_would_ in the following sentences:—
1. The teacher said, “I shall be pleased to go.”
2. The teacher said that she should be pleased to go.
3. Aunt Elsie said, “I will tell you the story to-morrow.”
4. Aunt Elsie said that she would tell us the story to-morrow.
5. The principal said, “You shall have no recess to-day.”
6. The principal said that we should have no recess to-day.
7. Mother said, “You will be late.”
8. Mother said that I should be late.
9. The mayor said, “The matter shall be investigated.”
10. The mayor said that the matter should be investigated.
11. The director said, “The celebration will be on Tuesday.”
12. The director said that the celebration would be on Tuesday.
13. The teacher said, “David and Harry shall not take part.”
14. David and Harry, the teacher said that you should not take
part.
15. The boys said, “David and Harry will be sorry.”
16. David and Harry, the boys said that you would be sorry.
=Exercise 2.=—Change the following sentences from direct to indirect
discourse:—
1. Longfellow said, “Life is real, life is earnest.”
2. John wrote, “I know that Shep will give you a warm welcome
when you come.”
3. The lawyer demanded, “Mr. Christoff, what have you done with
the company’s books?”
4. The Bible says, “Give to him that asketh.”
5. Patrick Henry asked, “When shall we be stronger?”
6. The eloquent speaker said, “The declaration of our
independence will strengthen us at home, and give us character
abroad.”
7. The great orator declared, “If we fail, it can be no worse
for us. But we shall not fail. The cause will raise up armies.”
8. He admitted, “We may not live to the time when this
declaration shall be made good.”
9. Then he uttered this prophecy: “This declaration must cost
treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will stand, and it will
richly compensate for both.”
10. Every listener was moved when the statesman said, “If it
be the pleasure of Heaven that my country shall require the
poor offering of my life, the victim shall be ready at the
appointed hour of sacrifice.”
11. His closing words were these: “All that I have, and all
that I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am now ready
here to stake upon it; and I leave off as I began, that live or
die, survive or perish, I am for the declaration.”
=Exercise 3.=—Make the following sentences clear by changing them from
indirect to direct discourse:—
1. The teacher told Mrs. Gray that her little girl lost the
report she had given her.
2. Jennie told Ada that her mother was willing that she should
go to the concert with her and her brother.
3. Bertrand told George that he ought to sell his sailboat and
buy his launch.
4. The teachers asked the young men why they had made such a
disturbance in the corridor when they had forbidden them to
congregate there.
LXIII. AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
=259.= A verb must agree with its subject in number, and since the verb
changes its form sometimes to denote number, we must be careful to employ
the correct form. We should say, “The rose _is_ red, the roses _are_ red;
the wind _does_ blow, the winds _do_ blow; the bird _flies_, the birds
_fly_.”
=260.= This agreement of the subject and the verb is a simple matter in
English, for in our language verbs have the same form in the singular and
the plural, except in four cases:—
(1) The verb _be_, which changes its form considerably to indicate
number, in the present and past tenses. See page 128.
(2) Any verb in the second person conjugated in the solemn style. See
page 128.
(3) Any verb in the third person of the present tense, indicative mode;
as, he _speaks_, they _speak_.
(4) Any verb in the third person of the present perfect indicative; as,
he _has_ spoken, they _have_ spoken.
=261.= As _don’t_ is a contraction of _do not_, it should be used only
with a plural subject, or with the singular pronouns _I_ and _you_. We
say, “I _don’t_ know,” “You _don’t_ know,” “They _don’t_ know,” but “He
_doesn’t_ know,” “She _doesn’t_ know,” “It _doesn’t_ come.”
=262.= A compound subject composed of two or more singular nouns should
have a plural verb when the parts are joined by any conjunction but _or_
or _nor_. We say, “Either John or Byron _is_ her cousin,” and “Both John
and Joe _are_ her cousins.”
When two singular subjects refer to one person, the verb, of course,
should be singular. We say, “The secretary and treasurer _was_ absent.”
=263.= When a singular noun is modified by the limiting adjective _each_,
_every_, _either_, _neither_, _any_, or _no_, and used as subject of
a clause, its verb must be singular; as, “Each flower _is_ a thing of
beauty,” “No man _lives_ but loves something.”
In declarative sentences this rule is not likely to be violated, but it
is often violated in interrogative sentences, where the verb precedes the
subject. We should say, “_Has_ either book been returned?” “_Is_ either
of you willing to stay?” “_Was_ neither of the speakers on time?”
=264.= There is a class of nouns like _flock_, _army_, _herd_, _company_,
which mean a collection of individuals, and so seem to be plural; but
since the individuals forming the collection are thought of as one body,
these nouns are in reality singular. They are =collective nouns=.
=265.= The verb of which a collective noun is subject is a singular verb,
and the pronoun that stands for a collective noun is the neuter singular
pronoun _it_. We say, “The company _is_ on _its_ way to the Philippines.”
NOTE.—When a collective noun is plural in meaning, that is,
when the individuals are thought of as acting separately,
it takes a plural verb; as, “The faculty _are_ not going to
trouble _their_ heads about the kind of shoes we wear.”
=Summary.=—A verb must agree with its subject in person and in number.
A =collective= noun is one that names a group of individuals considered
as one body.
A collective noun is usually singular and neuter.
=Exercise 1.=—If you do not already know, find out from the dictionary to
what sort of individuals each of these collective nouns is applied.
bevy
choir
committee
constellation
covey
crew
drove
family
fleet
flock
gang
hive
horde
jury
mob
orchestra
regiment
swarm
tribe
troop
=Exercise 2.=—Find all the collective nouns in these sentences. Find
evidence as to whether they are singular or plural. If they are plural,
tell why. Give the reason for the number of each verb.
1. Forty wolves make a very fair pack indeed.
2. At the edge of the thicket was a straggling colony of low
blueberry bushes.
3. Here, in course of days, there accumulated a shining cluster
of six large white eggs.
4. At last cousin Eben came with a double sleigh and the team
of prancing grays, and then the whole family was off for
Christmas dinner at Aunt Mary’s.
5. Has either of the critics ever heard the new organ?
6. No man in his senses takes such a risk.
7. A school of porpoises were ducking and tearing through the
water.
8. Through the ancient forest, which was a mixed growth of
cedar, water ash, black poplar, and maple, with here and
there a group of hemlocks on a knoll, the light drained down
confusedly.
9. The opinions of this junto were completely controlled by
Nicholas Vedder.
10. Is either of you going up the river in the houseboat?
11. This band of crows numbered about two hundred.
12. Each year the old crow came with his troop, and for about
six weeks took up his abode on the hill.
13. Here and there a band of chimney sweeps were staring in
stupid wonder at the miracle of a showman’s box.
14. Butler tells of an Indian tribe in the Far North that was
all but exterminated by a feud over a dog.
15. On a level spot was a company of odd-looking personages
playing at ninepins.
16. Every word on his papers was correctly spelled.
17. The rest of the horses swept dutifully into line, and the
herd was off.
LXIV. REVIEW OF VERBS: PARSING
=266.= Study again Lessons XXIII-XXVII, XLIX-LXIII. Make an outline of
verbs, having the following main topics:—
(1) Classification.
(2) Properties.
(3) Conjugation.
(4) Principal Parts.
(5) Auxiliaries.
(6) Agreement.
Fill in the subtopics and recite in detail from your outline with
illustrations of every point.
=Exercise.=—Parse the verbs in the following sentences according to the
outline on p. 150:—
1. If you have a Halloween party, shall you invite the Cromers?
2. At first the chemist said he couldn’t do anything about it;
but when Agamemnon said they would pay in gold if he would only
go, he packed up his bottles in a leather case, and went back
with the Peterkins.
3.
Faith’s journeys end is welcome to the weary,
And heaven, the heart’s true home, will come at last.
4. We are going to have a tile well, and Mr. Jones is going to
oversee the men who dig it.
5. This woodchuck was neither handsome nor interesting, but he
knew how to take care of himself.
6. Sheep are usually kept in flocks of from one thousand to
three thousand under one or more shepherds.
7. Rabbits telegraph each other by thumping on the ground with
their hind feet.
8. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?
9.
Breast the wave, Christian, when it is strongest.
Watch for day, Christian, when the night’s longest.
10. Even so did men talk round the king’s cages at Oodeypore.
11. Your Uncle Nathan and I used to be called the bothering
Bodleys, because we were always teasing to find out something.
12. The Peterkins had been so busy inside the house that they
had not noticed the ceasing of the storm outside.
13. For thou, Lord, wilt give thy blessing unto the righteous,
and with thy favorable kindness wilt thou defend him as with a
shield.
14. My father’s, like every other young ladies’ school near
a village, was very much disturbed by the attentions of the
village young men.
15. If any man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone
astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine and go into the
mountains and seek that which goeth astray?
16. They were sitting round the breakfast table and wondering
what they should do because the lady from Philadelphia had gone
away.
LXV. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. SIMPLE ADVERBS
=267.= In Lesson X it was shown that an adverb modifies a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb. Select the adverbs in the following
sentences, and tell what words they modify:—
We proceeded through a tract of country excessively wild and
desolate.
People with lanterns rushed hither and thither.
John knew that he could spend a day very pleasantly in going
over to that pasture.
All the adverbs in these sentences are called =simple adverbs= because
they have but one office in the sentence,—they merely modify the word
they go with.
=268.= In the sentence, “Perhaps my pony can carry the load,” the word
_perhaps_ tells nothing whatever about the action of carrying, but
rather serves to make the whole statement doubtful. Such a word is said
to modify the whole sentence. Some other adverbs used in this way are
_certainly_, _indeed_, _fortunately_, and _not_.
The common use of the adverb _not_ is to change an affirmative statement
to a negative statement, as in the sentence, “I will not wear my heart
upon my sleeve.”
=269.= The simple adverbs, _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _whence_,
_whither_, are used in asking questions; as, “_When_ shall we be
stronger?” “_Why_ do you answer me so?” Such adverbs modify the whole
predicate. They are called =interrogative adverbs=.
NOTE.—_The_ is sometimes used as an adverb before comparatives;
as, “_The_ more you have, _the_ more you want.”
=270.= When the meaning permits, adverbs may be compared in the same
manner as adjectives; as, _fast_, _faster_, _fastest_; _pleasantly_,
_more pleasantly_, _most pleasantly_; _fortunately_, _less fortunately_,
_least fortunately_.
=Summary.=—A =simple adverb= is one that merely modifies the word or the
group of words that it goes with.
Some simple adverbs, like _not_, _perhaps_, _certainly_, modify the whole
sentence.
An =interrogative adverb= is a simple adverb that is used in asking a
question.
Some adverbs may be compared.
=Exercise.=—Select all the simple adverbs in the following sentences,
and tell what each modifies. In so far as you can, tell what each adverb
denotes. (See Lesson X.)
1. How the huge breakers foam and fret!
2. People living by the sea are always more or less
superstitious.
3. No one can work well without sleep.
4. Whence came that blessed mother love, so strong, so
dauntless, so pure, and whither has it fled?
5. Where had the stone been before? Why did it come there? When
would it go away?
6. Heaven is not reached at a single bound.
7. Luckily, poor Pepper was not seriously hurt.
8. Meanwhile Mrs. Peterkin was getting quite impatient for her
coffee.
9. How do you like to go up in a swing, up in the air so blue?
10. Why should one hurry when days are long and calm and sweet?
11. You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him
drink.
12. Presently a huge black bear poked his nose out of the
bushes, and sniffed inquiringly.
13. How quickly we learn to claim as our own that in which we
delight!
LXVI. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
=271.= In Lesson XX we learned that a dependent clause is one that does
not make sense when standing alone; also that such a clause sometimes has
the office of an adverb, modifying a predicate, and sometimes that of
an adjective, modifying a noun. It is, therefore, called an =adverbial
clause= or an =adjective clause=.
Select and classify the dependent clauses in each of the following
sentences:—
(_a_) Old Stony Phiz set out on a visit to the valley where he
was born.
(_b_) When I first came to Rivermouth, I looked upon girls as
rather tame company.
=272.= A dependent clause is usually introduced by some word which
indicates that it is a dependent clause. In the clause _where he was
born_, this introductory word is _where_. What is the introductory word
in the clause in sentence (_b_)?
This introductory word does more than introduce the clause; it joins the
clause to the word the clause modifies. What does _where_ join in (_a_)?
What does the introductory word in (_b_) join?
But these words do more than join. _Where_ denotes place, and modifies
the verb _was born_. Hence it is an adverb. What does _when_ denote? What
does it modify?
Since these words have two uses, that of an adverb and that of a joining
word, we call them =conjunctive adverbs=.
=Summary.=—A =conjunctive adverb= is one that introduces a clause,
modifies some part of the clause, generally the predicate, and joins the
clause to that part of the sentence which the clause modifies.
Some common conjunctive adverbs are _when_, _where_, _whence_,
_whenever_, _wherever_, _while_, _why_, _how_. (See note, p. 177.)
An =adverbial clause= is a dependent clause that is used like an adverb.
An =adjective clause= is a dependent clause that is used like an
adjective.
Both the adjective and the adverbial clause may be introduced by a
conjunctive adverb.
=Exercise.=—Select all the conjunctive adverbs in the following
sentences. Tell what clause they introduce, what they join, what they
denote, and what they modify.
1. When his eyes got command of the dusk, he saw to his
surprise that the den was empty.
2. Mr. Gathergold bethought himself of his native valley, and
resolved to go back thither, and end his days where he was born.
3. The canals in Amsterdam are crossed by a great many
drawbridges, and the people must sometimes wait while a ship or
barge is passing.
4. Our lunch was only bread and tea and blueberries and cream,
but do you remember how delicious it tasted that day when you
came home from the circus as tired as a dog and as hungry as a
bear?
5.
Whenever I cross the river
On its bridge with wooden piers,
Like the odor of brine from the ocean,
Comes the thought of other years.
6. The reason why men succeed who mind their own business is
because there is so little competition.
7.
The frugal snail, with forecast of repose,
Carries his house with him where’er he goes.
8. When all the trees in the forest have the same number of
leaves, then will all men be alike in their power and skill.
9.
While the breath’s in his mouth, he must bear without fail,
In the name of the Empress the Overland Mail.
10.
Where’er our footsteps range,
Comes the chilling breath of change,
And the best of friends look strange
When the purse is low.
11. The reason why men do not obey us is because they see the
mud at the bottom of our eye.
12.
So shut your eyes while mother sings
Of wonderful sights that be.
13. Chip answered me with a cheery little note or two whenever
I spoke to him.
14.
My heart leaps up when I behold
A rainbow in the sky.
LXVII. SUMMARY OF ADVERBS
=273.= We have learned,—
(1) That adverbs may be simple adverbs or conjunctive adverbs.
(2) That simple adverbs merely modify some word or group of words.
(3) That conjunctive adverbs modify, and at the same time introduce a
dependent clause and join it to whatever the clause modifies.
(4) That one kind of simple adverb is the interrogative adverb, which
is used in asking a question.
(5) That an adverb may modify a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a whole
predicate, or even a whole statement.
(6) That adverbs may denote time, place, manner, degree, and direction.
(7) That some adverbs may be compared.
Give a good illustration of each point in this summary.
=274.= When we parse an adverb we should tell,—
(1) Its class as to use,—simple, interrogative, conjunctive.
(2) Its class as to meaning,—time, place, manner, etc.
(3) Its degree (if it admits of comparison).
(4) Its use, and what it modifies.
=Exercise.=—Parse each adverb in the following sentences:—
1. Virtue and intelligence will lead our country ever onward in
her happy career.
2. Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud?
3. The man in the moon came down too soon.
4. Fortunately, what seemed to be a barrel of apples turned out
to be an electric lamp.
5. The old horse cars rocked along scarcely faster than we
could walk.
6. Calmly I await the hour when the summons comes for me.
7. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore.
8. I will lock the door most willingly, but I will not cover
the bird.
9. Probably Frank was mightily relieved when he saw the mayor’s
automobile.
10. Our side made a remarkably good score.
11. Where shall we sit in the new church?
LXVIII. COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
=275.= We have learned that such words as _and_, _but_, and _or_ are
conjunctions. Their use is merely to join, and they may join either
words, phrases, or clauses. Since they join like elements,—a word to
a word, a phrase to a phrase, a clause to a clause, a sentence to a
sentence, we call them =coördinate= conjunctions.
=276.= In the sentence, “Either the well was very deep or she fell very
slowly,” the coördinate conjunction _or_, which joins two sentences, is
preceded by the word _either_, which hints that _or_ is coming. When
_either_ and _or_ are used in this way, they are called =correlatives=;
that is, they are words related to each other. Other correlatives are
_neither_, _nor_; _not only_, _but_; _both_, _and_. It is always the
second word of these pairs that does the joining. The first merely tells
the listener or reader what sort of sentence is to follow.
NOTE.—Frequently a coördinate conjunction has another word
going with it to change or emphasize its meaning. In the
sentence, “He is rich and yet he is not generous,” the word
_yet_ going with _and_ changes its meaning to _but_. In the
sentence, “He is poor, but still he is generous,” the word
_still_ reinforces the meaning of _but_. Such a word associated
with a conjunction may be said to be a part of the conjunction,
that is, the two words together do the joining. In the same way
the two words _not only_ form the correlative of _but_ or _but
also_; as, “He is not only a teacher but also a student.” What
does _but also_ join here?
=Summary.=—A =coördinate conjunction= is one that joins like elements. It
is sometimes more than one word.
=Correlative coördinate conjunctions= are pairs of words, the second of
which does the joining.
=Exercise.=—When we parse a coördinate conjunction we tell its class and
what it joins. If it has a correlative, we state that fact. Parse the
coördinate conjunctions in the following sentences:—
1. The writer who professes to care nothing for fame is
probably deceiving himself, or else his liver is out of order.
2. Everybody took a holiday, and high and low, rich and poor,
feasted and danced and sang, and got very mellow.
3. There was neither dust nor mud nor noise to annoy one.
4. The mahogany arm chair is very handsome, and the green plush
rocker is very comfortable, but still I choose this little
chair with the flowers painted on the back, that mother gave to
me when I was only five.
5. On its southern side is an elevated walk, or terrace, very
broad and handsome, and about half a mile long.
NOTE.—In the preceding sentence, try to discover under
what circumstances an appositive is joined to the word it
explains by _or_. Notice the punctuation. Make other
sentences illustrating this use of _or_.
6. The road to Paradise is rough and thorny.
7. His chief amusements were gunning and fishing, or sauntering
along the beach and through the myrtles.
8. Neither hare nor grouse was stirring in the brushy opens.
9. You know Mary always bangs things when she is cross, but I
never could see what good it does.
10. When the two children went down to the river to play, they
not only disobeyed their mothers, but they also ran away from
school.
11. I never looked either neat or clean, though I had my daily
bath and a generous allowance of clothes.
12. Over the tree tops and from the open spaces in the wood
could be seen the first pallor of approaching day.
13. In deep snow the moose can neither flee nor fight.
14. They always put Mammy Tittleback in the carriage too; but
before they had carried her far, she generally jumped out, and
walked the rest of the way by their side.
15. These Spaniards wished to build ships and to get away; but
they had neither knowledge nor tools nor iron nor forge nor tow
nor resin nor rigging.
16.
He prayeth best who loveth best
All things both great and small.
Tell the part of speech and use of _himself_, sentence 1, _high_, _low_
2, _mellow_ 2, _when_ 4, _neat_ 11, _allowance_ 11, _pallor_ 12.
LXIX. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
=277.= We have learned that a dependent clause is often used as an adverb
to modify a predicate. When so used, it is joined to the predicate it
modifies by some connecting word.
Sometimes this connecting word is a conjunctive adverb, as was pointed
out in Lesson LXVI, but more often it is some other word, as in the
following sentences:—
Sheep are such senseless creatures _that_ they are liable to be
stampeded by the veriest trifle.
You cannot catch a muskrat _unless_ you put tar on his nose.
I love hens _because_ they are such good mothers.
What is the dependent clause in each of these sentences? What does it
modify? What word joins it to that part of the sentence which it modifies?
These connecting words,—_that_, _unless_, and _because_,—are not adverbs,
for they do not modify any word. They merely connect, hence they are
conjunctions. Since they connect elements not alike, not equal in rank,
they are called =subordinate conjunctions=.
=278.= There are many subordinate conjunctions. The most common are
_after_, _although_, _as_, _because_, _before_, _for_, _if_, _in order
that_, _lest_, _provided_, _since_, _so that_, _than_, _that_, _though_,
_till_, and _unless_.
NOTE.—There is little distinction between the subordinate
conjunction and the conjunctive adverb. Both connect a
dependent to a principal clause; and some subordinate
conjunctions, like conjunctive adverbs, express time, cause, or
manner, etc. For this reason, _as_, _after_, _before_, _since_,
_till_, etc. are included by some authors among conjunctive
adverbs. Compare, “I came _when_ you called me” with “I came
_before_ you called me.”
=Summary.=—A =subordinate conjunction= is one that introduces a dependent
clause, and joins it to that part of the sentence which it modifies.
=Exercise.=—Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences. Tell their
class and what they join.
1. The four cubs, running down hill on their bellies, melted
into the thorn and underbrush as a mole melts into a lawn.