ENGLISH GRAMMAR
BY
LILLIAN G. KIMBALL
FORMERLY HEAD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL
SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WISCONSIN
AUTHOR OF “THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE”
“ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK ONE,” AND
“ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK TWO”
NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.
ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON.
KIMBALL’S ENG. GRAMMAR.
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to set forth in a simple and practical manner
the principles of modern English Grammar. The aim has been not only to
give the pupils an insight into the structure of the English sentence,
but also to provide them with exercises helpful to the formation of good
habits of speech.
It is a matter of common knowledge among teachers of grammar that a
mere understanding of the rules of syntax does not insure the avoidance
of errors and the use of correct forms. The use of language by young
persons is instinctive and spontaneous rather than reflective, hence the
most effective way for them to secure correctness of speech is through
imitation and practice. Recognizing this fundamental fact in language
teaching, the author has provided many exercises both for the learning
of correct forms and for practice in their use. These the teacher is
expected to supplement by constant criticism, example, and stimulus.
After the pupil has been led to appreciate and strive for correctness of
speech, he naturally wishes to understand why a certain form is correct
or incorrect, to have a test for his own speech and a standard by which
to judge the speech of others. Only by such an understanding does he gain
a mastery of the form of a language so that he can use it with ease,
freedom, and certainty. To promote such a mastery of English, the author
has made each construction perfectly clear, and has led the pupil through
accurate reasoning to conclusions which are strengthened and established
by their application to many illustrative sentences chosen from standard
literature.
The selection and the arrangement of subject matter have been carefully
considered in the light of experience in the classroom. The arrangement
is at the same time pedagogical and logical. Each point is taken up where
it is called for by the preceding lesson and where it will be of greatest
use in making clear what follows. Technical points that have little or no
practical value have been omitted, but whatever is of benefit in helping
the pupil to use or to interpret the English language has been included.
Thanks are due to many teachers for helpful criticisms of the manuscript
of this book.
CONTENTS
LESSON PAGE
I. Declarative Sentences. Subject and Predicate 9
II. Simple Subject. Nouns 11
III. Classification of Nouns 13
IV. Verbs 15
V. Pronouns 18
VI. Compound Subject and Compound Predicate 19
VII. Transposed Subject and Predicate 22
VIII. Interrogative Sentences 23
IX. Adjectives 25
X. Adverbs 28
XI. Phrases. Analysis of Sentences 31
XII. Prepositions 34
XIII. Term of Address. Exclamatory Noun 39
XIV. Imperative Sentences 41
XV. Interjections 43
XVI. Exclamatory Sentences 44
XVII. Conjunctions 46
XVIII. Clauses. Simple Sentences 48
XIX. Compound Sentences 50
XX. Dependent Clauses. Complex Sentences 52
XXI. Review: Classification of Sentences 55
XXII. Review: Parts of Speech 57
XXIII. Transitive Verbs. Object of Verb 60
XXIV. Intransitive Verbs asserting Action 64
XXV. Intransitive Verbs asserting Being. Nouns as Subjective
Complements 66
XXVI. Adjectives as Subjective Complements 69
XXVII. Review of Verbs 72
XXVIII. Nouns: Number 74
XXIX. Nouns: Gender 77
XXX. Possessive Nouns 80
XXXI. Nouns: Case 83
XXXII. Nouns: The Appositive 85
XXXIII. Appositive Adjectives 88
XXXIV. Indirect Object 89
XXXV. Adverbial Noun Phrases 91
XXXVI. Adverbial Noun Phrases 92
XXXVII. Objective Complement 94
XXXVIII. Parsing of Nouns 96
XXXIX. Personal Pronouns 98
XL. Uses of Personal Pronouns 100
XLI. Uses of Possessive Personal Pronouns 103
XLII. Compound Personal Pronouns 106
XLIII. Interrogative Pronouns 108
XLIV. Descriptive Adjectives 110
XLV. Limiting Adjectives 113
XLVI. Comparison of Adjectives 116
XLVII. Review of Adjectives 120
XLVIII. Adjective Pronouns 121
XLIX. Verbs: Tense 123
L. The Indicative Mode 127
LI. The Interrogative Form of the Indicative Mode 129
LII. The Subjunctive Mode 131
LIII. The Imperative Mode 134
LIV. Principal Parts of Verbs. Regular and Irregular Verbs 135
LV. Voice 140
LVI. The Passive Voice 144
LVII. The Progressive Conjugation 148
LVIII. The Emphatic Conjugation 149
LIX. Parsing of Verbs 150
LX. The Auxiliary Verbs _Shall_ and _Will_ 151
LXI. Defective Verbs. Verb Phrases 154
LXII. Direct and Indirect Discourse 162
LXIII. Agreement of Verb and Subject. Collective Nouns 165
LXIV. Review of Verbs 168
LXV. Classification of Adverbs. Simple Adverbs 169
LXVI. Conjunctive Adverbs 171
LXVII. Summary of Adverbs 173
LXVIII. Coördinate Conjunctions 174
LXIX. Subordinate Conjunctions 176
LXX. Adverbial Clauses of Time, Place, and Manner 180
LXXI. Adverbial Clauses of Cause, Purpose, and Result 183
LXXII. Adverbial Clauses of Condition and Concession 186
LXXIII. Adverbial Clauses of Comparison 188
LXXIV. Analysis of Sentences 191
LXXV. Adjective Clauses 193
LXXVI. Relative Pronouns 196
LXXVII. Noun Clauses 200
LXXVIII. Introductory Words of Noun Clauses 203
LXXIX. Review of Clauses 206
LXXX. Review of Pronouns 207
LXXXI. Infinitives 209
LXXXII. Infinitives as Subjects or Complements 212
LXXXIII. Infinitives as Modifiers of Nouns 215
LXXXIV. Infinitives as Parts of “Double Objects.” As Modifiers
of Verbs 216
LXXXV. Other Uses of Infinitives 220
LXXXVI. Summary of Infinitives 224
LXXXVII. Analysis of Sentences containing Infinitive Phrases 225
LXXXVIII. Participles 228
LXXXIX. Participles modifying Nouns 231
XC. Participial Phrases in the Predicate 234
XCI. Absolute Participial Phrases 237
XCII. Agreement of Participles. Other Words in _-ing_ 239
XCIII. Summary of Participles 243
XCIV. Analysis of Sentences 244
XCV. Anticipative Subject 247
XCVI. Elliptical Sentences 249
XCVII. Review of Analysis 252
General Review 257
Index 265
I. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
=1.= The purpose of English Grammar is to set forth the laws and customs
governing the use of the English language. We study grammar in order that
we may express our thoughts correctly.
A group of words, sometimes few, sometimes many, that completely
expresses a thought is called a =sentence=. In speech one sentence is
set off from another by a slight pause. On the written or printed page
sentences are separated from each other by a slight space, while the
first word of every sentence begins with a capital letter, and the last
word is followed by some sort of terminal mark.
Most sentences are made to state, or declare, something, and hence are
called =declarative= sentences. The following are declarative sentences:—
Molly danced up and down with delight.
My grandfather’s desk had the best light in the room.
=2.= Declarative sentences consist of two distinct parts. One part names
the person, place, or thing which the sentence tells something about.
This part is called the subject. The other part is the telling part. It
is called the predicate.
In the first example _Molly_ is the subject, because it names the person
about whom something is told. _Danced up and down with delight_ is the
predicate, because it tells something about Molly.
What is the subject in the second example? the predicate? How do you
know? What terminal mark follows a declarative sentence?
=Summary.=—A =sentence= is a group of words that completely expresses a
thought.
A =declarative sentence= is one that states, or declares, something.
A declarative sentence is always followed by a period.
The =subject= of a sentence is the part which names that about which
something is said.
The =predicate= of a sentence is the part which says something about the
subject.
=Exercise 1.=—Tell why each of the following sentences is declarative.
Select the subject, and tell why it is the subject. Select the predicate,
and tell why it is the predicate. Tell all this in good language. Write
it about one of the sentences, and be sure to underline the words that
should be printed in italics. (See § 2.) Remember that all the words in
the sentence belong either in the subject or in the predicate.
1. The village street was as quiet as the fields.
2. The great crashes of deep bass notes sent little thrills
down our backs.
3. The cat could not find anything to eat except a thin,
dried-up old mole.
4. Little gray-eyed Caroline went to live with her Aunt Fogg.
5. The traveler, being quite faint for lack of food, helped
himself to the leg of a roast chicken.
6. Four is the right number for a pie.
7. A young girl of wonderful beauty lay asleep on the bed.
8. Mary shut the parlor door with a great slam.
9. Beauty, full of surprise but very happy, permitted the
prince to lead her to his palace.
10. The magic song still rose from the vines outside the
chamber window.
11. We cats are confined entirely to the society of each other.
12. The glassy water was sparkling with stars.
13. Locusts devoured the green things of the valley.
14. Not a living soul was to be seen.
15. My little half-starved cat grew white and plump and pretty.
=Exercise 2.=—Find five interesting declarative sentences in a story
book. Write them with the subject underlined.
=Exercise 3.=—Write a fitting predicate for each of the following
subjects:—
1. A boy with a fish pole
2. Abraham Lincoln
3. My last dime
4. The man on the ice wagon
5. Our old white rooster
6. Not a girl in the class
7. The battered old musket
8. The haymakers
9. The miner’s cabin
10. Moving picture shows
II. SIMPLE SUBJECT. NOUNS
=3.= It is evident from the sentences in Exercise 1, p. 10, that the
subject of a sentence may consist of one word or of a group of words. In
the sentence, “Peter was sitting by himself,” the subject is only the one
word _Peter_. In the sentence, “A lovely old lady with white hair and a
gentle, noble face came to the door,” the subject is a group of twelve
words. What are they?
When the subject of a sentence is a group of words, there is always
a base word in the group, which, more than any other word, names or
designates the person, place, or thing about which something is said.
This word is called the simple subject.
What is the simple subject in the sentence that tells who came to the
door? What are the simple subjects in sentences 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 14, and
15 in Exercise 1, p. 10?
=4.= Every word in a sentence is used for a particular purpose. Because
words are used for different purposes they have been divided into classes
called =parts of speech=.
In the sentences just studied the words _Peter_ and _lady_ are used to
name certain persons. Name words are called nouns. A noun is a part of
speech.
=5.= Not every noun is the name of a person. Many are names of places;
as, _Oshkosh_, _pasture_, _corner_. Many more are names of things of all
sorts; as, _peach_, _violet_, _bee_, _thimble_, _automobile_.
In the sentence about the lovely old lady, find three nouns that are
names of things.
Any noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence. Write sentences
in which the nouns _hair_, _face_, and _door_ are so used.
=Summary.=—The =simple subject= of a sentence is the base word, or most
important word, of the subject.
=Parts of speech= are the classes into which words are divided according
to their use.
A =noun= is a name word.
A noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence.
=Exercise.=—Write a list of all the nouns you can find in the following
paragraphs. Tell what each noun is the name of. Point out five nouns that
are simple subjects. What are their predicates?
1. At last Purun Dass went to England on a visit, and had to
pay enormous sums to the priests when he came back to India;
for even so high-caste a Brahmin as he lost caste by crossing
the black sea. In London he met and talked with every one
worth knowing—men whose names go all over the world—and saw a
great deal more than he said. He was given honorary degrees by
learned universities, and he made speeches and talked of Hindu
social reform to English ladies in evening dress, till all
London cried, “This is the most fascinating man we have ever
met at dinner since cloths were first laid.”
2. Her godmother laughed, and touched Cinderella also with the
wand; at which her wretched, threadbare jacket became stiff
with gold, and sparkling with jewels; her woolen petticoat
lengthened into a gown of sweeping satin, from underneath
which peeped out her little feet, no longer bare, but covered
with silk stockings and the prettiest glass slippers in the
world. “Now, Cinderella, depart; but remember, if you stay one
instant after midnight, your carriage will become a pumpkin,
your coachman a rat, your horses mice, and your footmen
lizards; while you yourself will be the little cinder wench you
were an hour ago.”
III. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS
=6.= There are certain beings in the world that are called men, and
certain other beings that are called horses, certain things that are
called cities, and certain other things that are called rivers, hence
the words _man_, _horse_, _city_, and _river_ are names, or nouns. Since
these nouns belong in common to a great many individuals, we call them
=common nouns=.
=7.= On the other hand, every man, every horse, every city, and every
river is likely to have a _special_ name that distinguishes that
particular man or horse or city or river from all others. _Cæsar_,
_Gypsy_, _Denver_, and _Penobscot_ are such names. Since these names
belong to only one thing instead of to a class of things, we call them
=proper nouns=.
=8.= A common noun is a name that belongs to a person, a place, or a
thing because of its nature or qualities. A boat is entitled to the name
_boat_ because it has the characteristics of boats. A proper noun is a
name conferred or given by some person, as when a certain boat was named
by its owners _Westernland_.
It sometimes happens that the same name is conferred upon several
objects. There is more than one city named Madison, more than one dog
named Shep. Still these names are proper names, because they are names
conferred upon a special city and a special dog to distinguish them from
other cities and other dogs.
A proper noun always begins with a capital letter.
=9.= When a word denoting relationship, like _father_, _mother_, _uncle_,
is used as the name of a particular person, it is a proper noun and
should therefore begin with a capital letter; as, “Did Father say that
Grandma and Auntie are coming?”
=10.= A title like _Colonel_, _Judge_, _Duke_, is a proper noun when
it is used to denote a special person; as, “Thousands had gathered to
welcome the Colonel home.” When such a word is the name of a class of
persons, it is a common noun; as, “A new uniform was designed for the
colonels.”
When a title is followed by another name, as, _Colonel Bouck_, _Judge
Gary_, the two words are considered as one proper noun. In the same way,
any group of two or more words forming one special name may be considered
as one proper noun; as, _Liberty Bell_, _Bay of Biscay_, _Mountains of
the Moon_. In such groups of words, each important word begins with a
capital letter.
NOTE.—Names of qualities, conditions, or actions are often
called =abstract nouns=; as, _honesty_, _power_, _boyhood_, the
_passing_ of the train, sound _thinking_, _suspense_.
=Summary.=—A =common noun= is a noun that belongs in common to each one
of a class of persons, places, or things.
A =proper noun= is a name that has been conferred upon a particular
person, place, or thing.
Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.
=Exercise.=—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, and tell
whether they are common or proper nouns. Give your reason in each case.
Account for the capitalization.
1. The Bermudas are a cluster of small islands, lying as far
south as Charleston, as far east as Nova Scotia.
2. Hotel Hamilton is a large, commodious building with many
pillars and broad verandas.
3. The _Tenedos_ is lying off Grassy Bay, making herself fine
to receive the Princess Louise, and her jolly tars are in high
spirits.
4. On the Sunday of the christening, Mrs. Howe and her children
watched the merrymaking in Poverty Lane from a second story
window.
5. Where was Prospero’s cell? Where slept the fair Miranda?
Upon what bank sat Ferdinand when Ariel sang?
6. The Duluth High School is a fine structure built of red
sandstone.
7. The _Deliverance_ was a ship of eighty tons.
8. Old Lobo, or the King, as the Mexicans called him, was the
gigantic leader of a remarkable pack of gray wolves, that had
ravaged the Currumpaw Valley for a number of years.
9. About this time I met with an odd volume of the _Spectator_.
10.
Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night
Sailed off in a wooden shoe.
11. Let us all go to the station Monday to meet Uncle.
12.
The cows were coming one by one;
Brindle, Ebony, Speckle, and Bess,
Shaking their horns in the evening wind.
13. Gunpowder had been a favorite steed of his master’s, the
choleric Van Ripper, who was a furious rider.
14. Upstream, at the bend of the sluggish pool round the Peace
Rock, stood Hathi, the wild elephant, with his sons, gaunt and
gray in the moonlight.
15. In his eighth year Charles Lamb entered Christ’s Hospital,
a famous school in London.
It is evident from this exercise that several different sorts of things,
as hotels, streets, books, and ships, may have special names conferred
upon them. Think of ten other things that may have special names, and
write two names for each one.
IV. VERBS
=11.= Just as the subject of a sentence may consist of only one word, so
may the predicate. Hence it is that a declarative sentence may contain
only two words, one being the subject and the other the predicate; as in
the sentence, “Water runs.” Here the noun _water_ names the thing about
which something is told, and the word _runs_ tells something about water.
=12.= In every predicate, no matter how long it is, there is always one
word, or a little group of words, which does more of the telling than all
the rest of the predicate. In fact, without this word or group of words,
there would be no statement at all. In the sentence, “A red sash with
fringes of gold wraps his waist several times,” the predicate consists of
five words, but the one word that counts for most in making the statement
is the word _wraps_. This word is called a verb. A verb is a part of
speech.
A verb, being the essential part of a predicate, is called the =simple
predicate=.
=13.= Sometimes a verb consists of two, or three, or even four words.
What is the verb in each of the following sentences?—
All the cherries had been picked from the trees near the house.
The watchman on the roof was listening for the first sounds of
day.
A tall, dark figure might have been seen at the end of the
avenue.
=14.= When the verb in a given sentence has been found, the subject may
be discovered by asking the question formed by placing the word _who_
or _what_ before the verb. For example, in the sentence, “The parrot’s
story, with the various pauses and interruptions, occupied a good deal of
time,” _occupied_ is the verb because it is the telling word. Asking the
question _what occupied_? we get the answer, _the parrot’s story, with
the various pauses and interruptions_, hence this group of words is the
subject. What is the simple subject?
=15.= In grammar we often use the word _assertion_ instead of
_statement_, and the word _assert_ instead of _make a statement_.
=Summary.=—A =verb= is an asserting word.
A verb may consist of one word, two, three, or four words, but never of
more than four words.
A verb is the necessary part of every predicate, hence it is called the
=simple predicate=.
To find the subject of a verb, ask the question made by using the word
_who_ or _what_ before the verb.
=Exercise.=—Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate.
Select the predicate verb, and tell why it is a verb. Find the simple
subject of each sentence. Tell what part of speech it is, and why.
1. The procession moved from the palace to the church with
great pomp.
2. The blue eyes of the Greek sparkled.
3. The magnificent buildings of the hospital stand on level
land near the river.
4. The gentle young bride was frightened by the silent,
mysterious ways of the old Indian.
5.
The poorest twig on the elm tree
Was ridged inch deep with pearl.
6. The great hall of the palace was illuminated with a thousand
lamps.
7. His anvil makes no music on Sunday.
8. The raccoon’s story was received with general approbation.
9. This old hunter must have told many tales.
10. Our conference under the peepul tree had been growing
noisier and noisier.
11. One great name can make a country great.
12. The camels slept.
13. No European could have made five miles a day over the ice
rubbish and the sharp-edged drifts.
14. The cows should have been milked before sundown.
15.
The deep waters of the bay
Stir with the breath of hurrying day.
16. Wully could not have imagined any greater being than his
master.
17. Everything out of doors was sheathed in silver mail.
18. The duck mother would have liked the eel’s head herself.
In sentence 18 is _herself_ in the subject or in the predicate?
V. PRONOUNS
=16.= When a person makes an assertion about himself he uses for the
subject of his sentence, not his name, but the word _I_ instead. Will
Dunlap does not say, “Will Dunlap saw a flock of wild geese this morning,
and heard them too.” He says, “I saw a flock of wild geese this morning,
and heard them too.” The word _I_, which is used instead of a name, or
noun, is called a =pronoun=. A pronoun is a part of speech.
What pronoun besides _I_ do you find in the sentence quoted? For what
noun is it used?
=17.= Pronouns are used a good deal, especially in conversation, for
often instead of using the name of the person we are speaking to, we use
the pronoun _you_; and in speaking _of_ persons, we use, provided their
names are already known to our listeners, the pronouns _he_, _she_, or
_they_.
=Summary.=—A =pronoun= is a word used instead of a noun.
A pronoun can be the subject of a sentence.
By the use of pronouns we avoid the repetition of nouns and the use of
clumsy expressions.
=Exercise.=—In the following conversation select all the pronouns.
Rewrite a portion of the conversation, using the nouns that the pronouns
stand for. In changing pronouns to nouns it is sometimes necessary to
make a change in the verb also. After using nouns for pronouns, tell what
you think about the usefulness of pronouns.
“What do you think, Tirzah? I am going away.”
Tirzah dropped her hands with amazement.
“Going away! When? Where? For what?”
Judah laughed, then said, “Three questions, all in a breath.
What a body you are!” Next instant he became serious. “You know
the law requires me to follow some occupation. Our good father
set me an example. Even you would despise me if I spent in
idleness the results of his industry and knowledge. I am going
to Rome.”
“Oh, I will go with you.”
“You must stay with Mother. If both of us leave her, she will
die.”
The brightness faded from her face.
“Ah, yes, yes! But—must you go? Here in Jerusalem you can learn
all that is needed to be a merchant—if that is what you are
thinking of.”
“But that is not what I am thinking of. The law does not
require the son to be what the father was.”
“What else can you be?”
“A soldier,” he replied, with a certain pride of voice.
Tears came into her eyes.
“You will be killed.”
“If God’s will, be it so. But, Tirzah, the soldiers are not all
killed.”
She threw her arms around his neck, as if to hold him back.
“We are so happy! Stay at home, my brother.”
“Home cannot always be what it is. You yourself will be going
away before long.”
“Never!”
He smiled at her earnestness.
“A prince will come soon and claim my Tirzah, and ride away
with her, to be the light of another house.”
She answered with sobs.
“War is a trade,” he continued, more soberly. “To learn it
thoroughly, one must go to school, and there is no school like
a Roman camp.”
—LEW WALLACE.
VI. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE
=18.= It frequently happens that a person performs several actions at
the same time, and that all of them are worth telling. In such a case we
do not make several separate sentences, but one sentence with several
predicates; as, “I looked at my plate and winked back the tears.” Here we
have two predicate verbs, _looked_ and _winked_, hence two assertions. In
such a sentence we say that there is a =compound predicate=.
=19.= The compound predicate is used also when we tell of a number of
actions performed in succession by one subject; as, “Father Wolf woke up
from his day’s rest, scratched himself, yawned, and spread out his paws
one after the other to get rid of the sleepy feeling in the tips.” How
many predicates are there in this sentence? What mark separates them?
Two or more predicates in succession, having the same subject, form what
is called a =series=. Words or groups of words in a series are separated
from each other by the comma unless some joining word is used; but when
only the last two of a series are joined by some word, the comma is used
before this word.
=20.= We frequently wish to make the same assertion about several persons
or things, but we do not make several sentences, repeating the predicate
each time, for that would be tedious. Instead, we make one sentence with
several subjects; as, “The fresh fruit and milk and the slices of cold
chicken looked very nice.” This sentence has three distinct subjects.
What are they? In such a sentence we say that there is a =compound
subject=. Why is no comma used in this sentence?
=Summary.=—A =compound subject= is one that consists of two or more
distinct subjects united into one.
A =compound predicate= is one that consists of two or more distinct
predicates united into one.
Two parts of a compound predicate are separated from each other by a
comma unless they are very short. When there are more than two parts, and
the last two are joined by some such word as _and_, a comma is placed
after each part, even before the joining word.
When a compound subject consists of more than two parts, a comma is
placed after each part, unless all the parts are joined by some word.
Any sentence may have a compound subject, or a compound predicate, or
both.
=Exercise.=—Tell why the following sentences are declarative. Tell
whether each has a compound subject, or a compound predicate, or both.
Write each sentence, and draw a vertical line between subject and
predicate. Underline the simple subjects, and tell what part of speech
they are. Underline also the simple predicates, or predicate verbs.
Account for the punctuation.
1. The oars dipped, arose, poised a moment, then dipped again,
with winglike action, and in perfect time.
2. The eyes and mouths of the auditors opened wide.
3. This poor child became the scapegoat of the house, and was
blamed for everything.
4. The four cane-seated chairs, the walnut table, the haircloth
sofa, and the little stand always spoke to me of my childhood
days.
5. She took the key bravely, but opened with a trembling hand
the door of the little room.
6. Such timber and such workmanship don’t come together often
in houses built nowadays.
7. Vast crowds of spectators lined the way, or gazed upon the
scene from the housetops.
8. The rider then put his foot upon the camel’s slender neck,
and stepped upon the sand.
9. The laborers paused, sat up, wrung the water from their
hands, and returned the salutation.
10. The statue of the Indian chief or the soldiers’ monument in
the public square was given to the city by one of the pioneers.
11. Spruce bachelors looked sidelong at the pretty maidens, and
fancied that the Sabbath sunshine made them prettier than on
week days.
12. Grandmothers, mothers, and aunts sat across the end of the
hall.
13. He brought a carpet or square rug from the litter, and
covered the floor of the tent on the side from the sun.
14. Children with bright faces tripped merrily beside their
parents, or mimicked a graver gait in the conscious dignity of
their Sunday clothes.
VII. TRANSPOSED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
=21.= The sentences studied thus far have been arranged so that the
subject comes first, then the predicate. This is called the =natural
order=. Sometimes, for the sake of emphasis, we reverse this order, as in
the sentence, “In a long shed behind the church stood a score of wagons
and chaises and carryalls.” This is called the =transposed order=.
Sometimes, for the sake of a pleasing arrangement, we put only a portion
of the predicate before the subject, as in the sentence, “Over the
highest peaks a vulture sailed on broad wings into widening circles.”
Here the subject is very short and the predicate very long. The sentence
balances better with a portion of the predicate coming first. This also
is a case of transposed order.
=Summary.=—The =natural= order in a sentence is first the subject and
then the predicate.
When the words of a sentence are not in their natural order, we say that
the sentence is =transposed=.
=Exercise 1.=—Rearrange the following sentences so that they will be in
the natural order, then proceed as you did with the sentences in the
exercise on p. 21. Tell in each case whether you like the natural or the
transposed order better, and why.
1. Around him, within hand’s reach, lie osier boxes full of
almonds, grapes, figs, and pomegranates.
2. This challenge Fortunatus accepted.
3. On traveled the lady and the bull through many dreadful
forests and lonely wastes.
4. On that first Christmas morning in their own home, the
children found their gifts in little piles on two of the parlor
chairs.
5. Through the wide nostrils the camel drank the wind in great
draughts.
6. Out of the wide hall could be heard in the stillness the old
clock.
7. At full speed a genuine Syrian dromedary overtakes the
ordinary winds.
8. Very hard Johnny worked on the house.
9. “Come in,” said a warm, comfortable voice on the other side
of the door.
10.
Down will come Baby,
Bough, cradle, and all.
11. In the garret meet together all the broken-down chairs of
the household, all the spavined tables, all the seedy hats, all
the intoxicated-looking boots, all the split walking sticks
that have retired from business, “weary with the march of life.”
Account for the commas in sentences 10 and 11.
=Exercise 2.=—Change the following sentences to the transposed order.
Tell why you like them better so.
1. Pussy walked along with a slow and deliberate gait directly
behind my sister and me.
2. A red rose, a yellow rose, a woodbine, and a clematis grew
up the four walls.
3. The roll of the drum was hushed at the old man’s word and
outstretched arm.
4. A mat of long, uncombed hair hangs over his eyes and face,
and down his back.
5. The whole carpet came out right on my head.
6. A little rabbit sat on a bank one morning.
7. Daylight and safety were on the other side of that door.
8. The bird flew on and on, up the steep mountain.
9. A very amusing thing in this story comes now.
10. The remains of a great elephant have been found in the
curious potholes near Cohoes, New York.
VIII. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
=22.= Most of the sentences in books are declarative sentences, written
to make statements, but in speech we frequently make use of another kind
of sentence, one that asks a question; as, “Do you know how to tell a
sheep’s age?” This is called an =interrogative= sentence.
=23.= The interrogative sentence, “What dwarfs made that armor?” is in
the natural order, but this is not the usual order in interrogative
sentences. In the sentence, “Do you know how to tell a sheep’s age?” we
find first a part of the verb, then the subject, then the other part of
the verb and the rest of the predicate. How would this sentence read if
it were in the natural order? Would it then be an interrogative sentence?
NOTE.—Since an interrogative sentence does not make a
statement, it may seem strange to define the verb in such a
sentence as an asserting word, but in making definitions we
must think of the fundamental nature and the typical use of
what we are defining. The primary office of the verb is to
assert, as in declarative sentences; hence, we define the verb
as an asserting word, though it may also be used in asking
questions.
=Summary.=—An =interrogative sentence= is one that asks a question.
An interrogative sentence is usually in the transposed order, and is
always followed by a question mark.
=Exercise.=—Tell whether the following sentences are in the natural
or the transposed order. Put into the natural order those which are
transposed. Divide each sentence into subject and predicate. Select the
simple subject and the predicate verb, or simple predicate.
1. Did you ever hear of a cat’s playing hide and seek?
2. What became of you after the Princess’s death?
3. Will no other diet serve you but poor Jack?
4. Which flower does your mother like best?
5. What harm can a naked frog do us?
6. Will the town crier tell us of an auction, or of a lost
pocket-book, or of a show of beautiful wax figures, or of some
monstrous beast more horrible than any in the caravan?
7. Why did no smile of welcome brighten upon his face?
8. What did Peterson-Sahib mean by the elephant dance?
9. How many people have ever come to know a wild animal?
10. What important business made you late to dinner?
11. What plant we in this apple tree?
12. What other man would have discovered so many virtues under
so mean a dress?
13. What do people fish for in this country?
14.
Does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave?
15. Where did you get your eyes so blue?
16. Who will exchange old lamps for new ones?
17. What makes your cheek like a warm, white rose?
IX. ADJECTIVES
=24.= From the sentence, “The road led us to a gate, and that to a
dooryard and a house,” we get a picture, but it is neither definite nor
attractive. Contrast it with the picture that we get from this sentence,
“The pleasant, elm-shaded road led us to a rustic gate, and that to a
green dooryard, and a long, low, brown house.” The difference is caused
by the descriptive words in the second sentence. Which words describe the
road? the gate? the dooryard? the house?
These descriptive words go with nouns, and describe the object named by
the noun. We call them =adjectives=. An adjective is a part of speech.
Adjectives are said to =modify= the nouns they go with, and are called
=modifiers=.
=25.= Most adjectives describe objects by telling size, shape, color,
texture, or other qualities. A few adjectives tell number or amount;
as, _five_ minutes, _much_ patience. A few merely point out; as, _this_
meadow, _next_ Christmas. The words _a_, _an_, and _the_ are adjectives.
=26.= When several adjectives modify the same noun, they form a series,
and are usually separated from each other by commas; as, “A hollow,
booming, ominous cry rang out suddenly, and startled the dark edges
of the forest.” In such a sentence as this, “Four little old French
ladies rose to dance the minuet,” no commas should be used, because the
adjectives modify more than the noun _ladies_. _Four_ modifies _little
old French ladies_; _little_ modifies _old French ladies_; _old_ modifies
_French ladies_; and _French_ modifies _ladies_.
=27.= Sometimes adjectives modify a pronoun instead of a noun, as in
the sentence, “Tom missed the word, and I, happy and triumphant, took
his place at the head.” How do we know that the adjectives _happy_ and
_triumphant_ modify the pronoun _I_?
=Summary.=—An =adjective= is a word used to point out or describe an
object and modify a noun or a pronoun.
Adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify but follow the pronouns.
When several adjectives modify a single noun, they are separated by
commas.
A =modifier= is a word or a group of words that goes with another word to
affect its meaning.
=Exercise 1.=—Select all the adjectives in the following sentences, and
tell what they modify. Account for the punctuation.
1. On another side stood an old piano, a tinkling, rattling,
merrymaking old piano, played by a young lady with a melancholy
smile.
2. In the dark valley that ran down to a little river, Father
Wolf heard the dry, angry, snarly, singsong whine of a tiger.
3. A small girl, with twinkling eyes and a merry face, got up
and made her way to the front.
4. Only loving fingers could have taken those tiny, even
stitches.
5. Charles carried water for the circus men, while I, scornful
and lazy but envious, sat on the fence and watched him.
6. Mammy Tittleback is a splendid, great tortoise-shell cat.
7. I found myself sinking into some horrible, soft, slimy,
sticky substance.
8. Few ships come to Rivermouth now.
9. Cæsar has one of the finest, deepest-toned voices I ever
heard.
10. You can speak and smile cheerfully while you are enjoying
every comfort of a snug, warm fireside, but you should not
expect us, hungry, wet, and cold, to be in the same cheerful
mood.
11. Suddenly the church clock tolled a deep, dull, hollow,
melancholy “one.”
12. The next best thing to cold potato and cream is cold roast
chicken, and occasionally I found a good fat drumstick or a
curling neck from whose corrugated bones I nibbled savory
morsels.
=Exercise 2.=—Write sentences using the following words as adjectives.
Make your sentences such that they reveal the meaning of the adjectives.
awkward
brilliant
clammy
false
glassy
graceful
greedy
huge
mild
moist
pathetic
shaggy
slight
sly
soggy
=Exercise 3.=—Write sentences containing the following nouns, each
modified by two or more adjectives:—
cabbage
carpet
cloud
deed
garden
grapes
hand
hat
machine
mill
pupil
room
ship
story
teacher
=28.= In the following sentences, what word describes the statue? the
bureau? the lamp? the rings?
A bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin stood in Lafayette Park.
The mahogany bureau contained a desk with many drawers and
pigeon holes.
We grew tired of the gorgeousness of our parlor lamp.
Indians of both sexes are fond of bracelets, necklaces, and
finger rings.
These four descriptive words are name words, hence by nature they are
nouns; but in these sentences they are used as adjectives, and should
therefore be called adjectives.
=Exercise 4.=—Write sentences in which the following nouns are used as
adjectives:—
silver, copper, tin, iron, steel.
maple, oak, pine, hickory, cedar.
kitchen, hall, cellar, roof, library.
hand, head, foot, cheek, neck.
Think of ten other nouns that may be used as adjectives.
X. ADVERBS
=29.= In the sentence, “The donkey ate an armful of green grass,” we are
told what action the donkey performed, but we are not told the manner in
which he performed the action. Very often manner is worth telling, as in
the sentence, “The donkey ate leisurely an armful of green grass.”
Since the word _leisurely_ tells how the donkey ate, it must go with the
word _ate_. We say of it what we said of adjectives, that it _modifies_
the word it goes with. Since it modifies a verb, it is different from any
part of speech that we have studied before. We call it an =adverb=.
=30.= The great difference between adjectives and adverbs is this, that
the adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun, and the adverb usually
modifies a verb. Adjectives describe objects, which are named by nouns,
and adverbs usually describe actions, which are asserted by verbs.
=31.= Not all adverbs tell manner. They frequently tell time, place,
direction, degree, or other circumstances; as in these sentences:—
_Now_ the cow would be eating in one place, and _then_ she
would walk to another.
_Here_ and _there_ a snag lifted its nose out of the water like
a shark.
For weeks his ship sailed _onward_ over a lonely ocean.
Mother’s sudden cry frightened me _terribly_.
=32.= It was pointed out in Lesson IX that adjectives frequently tell
some quality of an object. Sometimes we wish to tell in what degree
this quality is possessed, as in the expressions, _a very tall man_,
_an exceedingly hot day_, _too ripe fruit_. Here the words _very_,
_exceedingly_, and _too_ go with the adjectives _tall_, _hot_, and _ripe_
to denote degree. Such words are said to modify the adjectives they go
with. Words that modify adjectives are also called adverbs.
NOTE.—A group of words like _very tall_ and _exceedingly hot_
may be called an =adjective element=. Its base word is an
adjective, modified by an adverb. It is the whole element, or
group of words, that modifies the noun.
Adverbs of degree may modify adverbs as well as adjectives, as in the
sentences, “The fox ran very swiftly,” “You speak too rapidly.”
=Summary.=—An =adverb= is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
Adverbs usually tell time, place, manner, direction, or degree.
Unless a sentence is transposed, the adverb should be as near as possible
to the word it modifies.
Adverbs in a series are separated from each other by commas.
=Exercise 1.=—Select all the adverbs in the following sentences. Tell
what each adverb modifies, and what it denotes.
1. People with lanterns rushed hither and thither.
2. The island is separated from the mainland by a scarcely
perceptible creek.
3.
And so the teacher turned him out,
And still he lingered near,
And waited patiently about
Till Mary did appear.
4. Faintly, in gentle whiffs, the lilies on the low marble
shelf threw off their delicate fragrance.
5. Quackalina was sitting happily among the reeds with her dear
ones under her wings, while Sir Sooty waddled proudly around
her.
6. In youth the tulip tree has a trunk peculiarly smooth.
7. On one occasion Gypsy put in her head, and lapped up six
custard pies that had been placed by the casement to cool.
8. No wild animals were ever trained by the ancients.
9. The paper was passed skillfully from desk to desk until it
finally reached my hands.
10. Messua’s husband had some remarkably fine buffaloes that
worried him exceedingly.
11. The charcoal burners went off very valiantly in single file.
12. Sometimes my head almost aches with the variety of my
knowledge.
13. Knots of gossips lingered here and there near the place.
14. This talk amused me greatly, but it went in at one ear and
out at the other.
15. My father invested his money so securely in the banking
business that he was never able to get any of it out again.
16. Yonder I shall sit down and get knowledge.
17. Then he would crawl forward inch by inch, and wait till the
seal came up to breathe.
18. No one can work well without sleep.
19. This jackal was peculiarly low, a cleaner-up of village
rubbish heaps, desperately timid, or wildly bold, everlastingly
hungry, and full of cunning that never did him any good.
20. The Black Panther raised his head and yawned—elaborately,
carefully, and ostentatiously.
Account for the commas in the last sentence.
=Exercise 2.=—Write sentences containing adverbs of manner modifying the
following verbs:—
comes
goes
plays
reads
sings
skates
speaks
studies
walks
works
=Exercise 3.=—Write sentences containing the following adverbs:—
upward, downward, forward, backward, headlong, north, southward.
everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, anywhere.
seldom, often, always, sometimes, forever.
perfectly, unusually, unspeakably, positively, miserably.
Use the last five adverbs to modify adjectives or adverbs. What will they
denote when so used?
=Exercise 4.=—Form adverbs from the following adjectives:—
careless
dreary
firm
gentle
hasty
noble
painful
sharp
slow
wide
What part of speech are the words _chilly_, _deadly_, _holy_, _kindly_,
_lively_, _lovely_? Use them in sentences to find out.
XI. PHRASES. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
=33.= We cannot always describe or point out objects as fully as we wish
by means of adjectives, and so we use another sort of modifier, which is
not a single word, but a group of words. In the sentence, “Broad, flat
fields without fences stretch in every direction,” we describe the fields
by the two adjectives _broad_ and _flat_, and by the group of words,
_without fences_. Thus the noun _fields_ has three modifiers, and they
are very well placed, two of them coming before the noun, and one of them
after it.
In the group of words _without fences_, the two words are closely related
to each other. In fact, neither of them could be in the sentence at all
without the other. Such a group of related words is called a =phrase=.
When a phrase modifies a noun, we say it is an =adjective phrase=.
=34.= In the same sentence there is another phrase, _in every direction_,
telling where the fields stretch. Since this phrase modifies the verb,
it performs the same office as an adverb, and we therefore call it an
=adverbial phrase=.
=35.= Phrases never consist of fewer than two words, and they may consist
of a good many, for it is possible to have one or more phrases within
a phrase. In the sentence, “I was born in a stable on the outskirts
of a small town in Maine,” the verb _was born_ is modified by a long
phrase, _in a stable on the outskirts of a small town in Maine_. The noun
_stable_ in this phrase is modified by the phrase _on the outskirts of
a small town in Maine_. The noun _outskirts_ in this second phrase is
modified by the phrase _of a small town in Maine_. The noun _town_ in
this third phrase is modified by the fourth phrase, _in Maine_.
=36.= Phrases do not always modify the word they come next to; they
modify the word whose meaning they tell something about. In the sentence,
“I scrambled through the evergreens to my friend’s little hut just before
sunset,” there is no phrase within another phrase, but there are three
entirely distinct phrases. What are they?
=37.= A series of phrases consists of two or more phrases each modifying
the same word; as, “Ours is a government _of the people_, _for the
people_, and _by the people_.” Phrases in a series are separated from
each other by a comma. Why do not the phrases in the sentence in § 35
form a series?
It might seem at first thought that the sentence in § 36 contains a
series of three phrases; but it does not, for the phrases do not modify
the same word. _Through the evergreens_ modifies _scrambled_; _to my
friend’s little hut_ modifies _scrambled through the evergreens_. What
does the third phrase modify?
In the punctuation of phrases a good deal must be left to the judgment
of the writer. That punctuation is best which most clearly reveals the
structure and meaning of the sentence.
=Summary.=—A =phrase= is a group of related words having neither a
subject nor a predicate, and used like a part of speech.
A phrase is often used like an adjective to modify a noun, or like an
adverb to modify a verb.
Phrases in a series are separated from each other by a comma.
=Exercise.=—Select all the phrases in these sentences, and tell what each
phrase modifies. Account for the punctuation of the phrases in sentences
2 and 9. Why are commas omitted in sentence 5?
1. I passed a very comfortable night in the carrot bin.
2. The four little rabbits lived with their mother, in a sand
bank, underneath the root of a very big fir tree.
3. He went along over hills and mountains, and on the third day
came to a wide forest.
4. During those long winter evenings I read six of Scott’s
novels aloud to my mother.
5. Mr. Jeremy Fisher lived in a little damp house amongst the
buttercups at the edge of a pond.
6. On that evening, before sunset, some women were washing
clothes on the upper step of the flight that led down into the
basin of the Pool of Siloam.
7. On the fourth day after our arrival came a letter from my
mamma.
8. Jelly fishes generally float near the surface of the sea,
and are often washed up on the shore by the waves.
9. Where no human hand would have dared to rest, the young
lions crawled fearlessly—across the knotty muscles of the back,
over the sinewy neck, across the death-dealing paws, even
between the frightful jaws.
10. Tom arched his back like a contortionist at a circus.
11. The women of the different provinces in Holland are known
by their head dresses.
12. The last words rang out like silver trumpets.
13. A farm without a boy would very soon come to grief.
14. In winter I get up at night.