was inclined to think that these ovens are not pottery kilns, but
furnaces for metal smelting. His objections, however, do not hold. The
ovens are not too large for pottery, and the climbing to the top for
the regulation of the draught is a well-known proceeding. Moreover,
the scene (fig. 80) showing the stacked vases, the little pots painted
on figs. 75 and 78 as if to indicate the purpose of the ovens, and
the representations of potters at work on other tablets, make the
interpretation as pottery kilns the most likely. These pictures are of
special importance since no actual Greek kilns have yet been discovered,
though several Etruscan and numerous Roman ones have come to light (cf.
Montelius, Civilisation primitive, pl. 107, 11, and Blümner, op. cit.,
II, pp. 23 ff.).
[Illustration: Fig. 80. Vases stacked in potter’s kiln
_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. VIII, No. 19b]
MISCELLANEOUS SCENES
_1. Engraved gem, present whereabouts not known._
Millin, Peintures de vases antiques, II, title vignette.
[Illustration: Fig. 81. Youth removing vase from oven with two sticks
Millin, _Peintures de vases_, II, title vignette]
A youth is sitting in front of an oven removing with two sticks a
two-handled vase which has been placed there for drying. He is using
the sticks instead of his fingers because the pot is too hot to touch;
not in order to avoid injuring the fresh glaze on the vase, as has been
suggested (cf. Blümner, Technologie u. Terminologie II, 1895, p. 52), for
the sticks would mark the glaze as much as the fingers would. Modern
potters often use sticks for removing hot ware from the kilns (cf. p. 36).
_2. Engraved gem, present whereabouts not known._
Millin, Peintures de vases antiques, I, vignette.
Blümner, Technologie u. Terminologie, II, p. 52, fig. 13.
[Illustration: Fig. 82. Youth working on vases (?)
Millin, _Peintures de vases_, I, vignette]
A youth is sitting on a low tripod in front of an oven. He holds a jug by
the handle, and seems to be working on it with an instrument. It is not
clear what he is doing; the way he holds the vase by one handle suggests
that the vase has been fired. On the oven are a kylix and an oinochoë,
perhaps placed there for drying.
_3. Archaic Greek stele in the Akropolis Museum, Athens._
Lechat, _La Sculpture attique avant Pheidias_, p. 367, fig. 29.
Dickins, Catalogue of the Akropolis Museum at Athens, p. 272,
No. 1332.
[Illustration: Fig. 83. Master potter (?)
Lechat, _La Sculpture attique avant Phidias_, p. 367, fig. 29]
A bearded man is represented seated, holding in his left hand two
kylikes, one by the handle, the other by the foot. A large part of the
stele is missing. The figure has been interpreted, with some probability,
as a “master potter.”
_4. Greek stele in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York._
Richter, Handbook of the Classical Collection, p. 209, fig. 125.
[Illustration: Fig. 84. Woman potter (?)
Met. Mus. Acc. No. 08.258.42]
A woman is represented seated with a pyxis on her lap and a lekythos in
one hand. On the analogy of the Akropolis stele, it is possible that here
too we have a votive offering of a potter.
_5. Interior of a kylix in the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore._
Hartwig, Die griechischen Meisterschalen, pl. XVII, I, and
title vignette.
Hoppin, A Handbook of Attic Red-Figured Vases, II, p. 355.
[Illustration: Fig. 85. Client in potter’s shop
Hartwig, _Die griechischen Meisterschalen_, title vignette]
A client in a potter’s shop is examining the stacked ware, and holds his
purse ready to pay for what he will select.
_6. Fragment of a Corinthian pinax in the Berlin Museum._
Antike Denkmäler, I, 1886, pl. 8, 3a.
Furtwängler, Beschreibung der Vasensammlung zu Berlin, I, No.
831b.
[Illustration: Fig. 86. Ship with cargo of pottery
_Antike Denkmäler_, I, pl. 8, 3a]
Sailing-ship with a sheet wound round the mast, and a row of jugs painted
in the field above. The latter apparently indicate the cargo of the ship,
and the tablet is probably an offering of a merchant to the sea-god
Poseidon for the safe conduct of his precious consignment to foreign
lands.
This is the only picture we have of the transport of Greek vases, which
we know played so significant a part in Greek ceramic industry. Even in
the seventh century B.C., when most important localities produced their
own wares, such shipments must have been frequent, since, for instance,
large numbers of Corinthian vases have been unearthed in Etruria, and
Laconian vases are found scattered far and wide. In the sixth and fifth
centuries B.C., when Athens supplied a large part of the Greek world
with her pottery, the trade must have been an exceedingly active one; so
that we must imagine ship after ship laden with pottery sailing from the
Piraeus for distant lands.
REPRESENTATIONS WRONGLY INTERPRETED AS POTTERY SCENES
From time to time various representations have been interpreted as
pottery scenes which probably have no such significance. The following
are the two most important.
_1. Interior of a kylix in the Metropolitan Museum of Art._
A satyr is stoking the fire of an oven on which is a skyphos. This scene
is figured in many of the books on vases (cf. e.g. Walters, History of
Ancient Pottery, I, p. 216, fig. 68) and interpreted as a satyr firing
pottery; probably he is simply cooking his dinner.
_2. Interior of a kylix._
Gerhard, Auserlesene Vasenbilder, pls. CLXXX-CLXXXI.
Youth holding the rim of a large krater with both hands. He is sometimes
interpreted as a potter working on a vase; but there is no clear
connection with pottery work.
POTTER’S IMPLEMENTS
Unfortunately very few potter’s implements of classical Greek times have
survived. We have no Athenian wheel or kiln or turning tools. And even
from other periods the list of such utensils is a slim one. But what has
survived here and there from other periods is in line with the general
trend of the evidence—that the techniques in ancient times were very
similar to what they are today. Perhaps the most interesting pieces are
the terracotta disks found at Gournia, Arezzo, and elsewhere,[57] which
are wheel-heads[58] on which the pottery was thrown and turned. On the
under side of some of these is a hole for insertion in the pivot (fig.
87).
[Illustration: Fig. 87. Wheel-head
British Museum, _Guide to Greek and Roman Life_ (2d Edition), p. 181,
fig. 217]
The potter’s tools found at Arezzo (fig. 88)[59] are not unlike our
modern modeling tools and were doubtless used for various finishing
processes.
[Illustration: Fig. 88. Tools found at Arezzo
Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_,
p. 1122, fig. 3036]
In the British Museum (Nos. 74.7-10,302) are terracotta stilts used for
supporting vases in the kilns, very like the stilts used by potters
today. It is unlikely that they were used by the Athenian potters, since
the Greek black glaze is so thin it would not be apt to run, but for the
Roman ware with metallic glaze they were essential, and the marks they
left are visible on the feet of the vases.[60] On one of the British
Museum stilts (fig. 89) are remains of a greenish glaze from such a vase.
No moulds for the Athenian plastic ware have to my knowledge been found.
But moulds for the later wares, such as the Arretine, are of course
plentiful. They are invariably made of burnt clay. The kilns which have
survived all date from Roman times (cf. Blümner, op. cit., II, pp. 23
ff.).
[Illustration: Fig. 89. Stilt]
III. REFERENCES TO THE POTTERY CRAFT IN ANCIENT LITERATURE
The information derived from ancient literature on the subject of the
technique of Athenian vases is decidedly meagre; and naturally so. The
only people who could have given us valuable data regarding technical
questions were the potters themselves, and they were not writers.
Outsiders knew as little of the technique of the craft as they do today.
So we obtain from them only general remarks; and these on the whole bear
out the points we have already made. Occasionally, however, they throw
fresh light on a question, or give us information on some point on which
the vases themselves cannot speak, such as the status of the ancient
potters, the value placed on the vases, etc. It is important, therefore,
to examine the chief references in Greek and Roman literature on this
subject.
PREPARATION OF THE CLAY
_Geoponica_, II, 49.
3. It is most necessary for every reason to have potters (on
a farm), since we are convinced that it is possible to find
potter’s clay on any land; for either on the surface, or deep
down, or in out-of-the-way places on the land you will find
earth suitable for making pottery.
3. Ἀναγκαιότατον δὲ καὶ κεραμέας ἔχειν πάντων ἕνεκα,
πεπεισμένον ὅτι ἐν πάσῃ τῇ γῇ ἔστιν εὑρεῖν κεραμικὴν γῆν, ἢ γὰρ
ἐπιπολάσιον, ἢ ἐν βάθει, ἢ ἐν ἀποκεκρυμμένοις μέρεσι καὶ τόποις
τοῦ χωρίου ἐπιτηδείαν γῆν πρὸς κατασκευὴν κεράμων εὑρήσεις.
The abundance of clay on Greek soil must have helped the manufacture of
the many local varieties before Athens obtained the monopoly in the sixth
century B.C.
_Geoponica_, VI, 3.
_On making pithoi_
1. Not all earth is suitable for pottery, but with regard to
potter’s clay, some prefer the yellowish red, some the white,
and others mix the two. 2. Some in judging of a well-made
pithos are satisfied if, when struck, it gives forth a sharp,
clear sound. 3. That, however, is not enough, but the person
in charge ought to be present while the work is going on, and
see to it that the clay has been well worked, and not let it be
put on the wheel before the clay shows what sort of pot it will
make when fired.
περὶ κατασκευῆς πίθων
1. Γῆ οὐ πᾶσα ἐπιτήδειος πρὸς κεραμείαν, ἀλλὰ τῆς κεραμίτιδος
γῆς οἱ μὲν προκρίνουσι τὴν πυρρὰν τὸ χρῶμα, οἱ δὲ τὴν λευκήν,
οἱ δὲ ἀμφοτέρας συμμιγνύουσι. 2. Τινὲς μὲν οὖν ἀρκοῦνται ἐν
τῇ δοκιμασίᾳ τοῦ καλῶς κεκεραμευμένου πίθου, τῷ κρουσθέντα
αὐτὸν ἀποδοῦναι ἦχόν τινα ὀξὺν καὶ πορόν. 3. Οὐκ ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο
αὔταρκες, ἀλλὰ χρῆ τὸν κατασκευάζοντα παρεῖναι τῇ κεραμείᾳ, καὶ
ὅπως ὁ πηλὸς καλῶς εἰργασμένος εἴη προνοῆσαι, καὶ μὴ πρὶν ἐᾶσαι
ἐπὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἀναβιβάσαι, πρὶν τὸν πηλὸν διαδεῖξαι ὁποῖος
ἔσται ὁ πίθος ὀπτηθείς.
Good potters were evidently well aware, then as now, of the importance
of the right composition and consistency of their clay. It is also
interesting to note that potters in modern Athens still regularly use a
mixture of red and white clay (cf. p. 40, note 2).
_Sophokles_, _Fragments_, 438.
First begin to work the clay with your hands.
Καὶ πρῶτον ἄρχου πηλὸν ὀργάξειν χερσῖν.
_Hesychius_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ ὀργάσαι.
ὀργάσαι: to make ready; or as is said, to knead the clay, which
is to prepare it, to mix it, to wet it, to work it into a
plastic mass.
ὀργάσαι· ἑτοιμάσαι, καὶ τὸν πηλὸν ὀργάσαι φασίν, ὅ ἐστιν
ἑτοίμασαι, φυρᾶσαι, βρέξαι, ἀνάδευσαι.
Ὀργάσαι in other words was the Greek expression for wedging the clay and
getting it ready for throwing.
FASHIONING THE VASES
(1) WHEELWORK
_Diodorus Siculus_, IV, 76.
Talos, the son of Daedalus’ sister, was brought up as a child
by Daedalus, and being cleverer than his teacher, he invented
the potter’s wheel.
Τῆς ἀδελφῆς τῆς Δαιδάλου γενόμενος υἱὸς Τάλως ἐπαιδεύετο παρὰ
Δαιδάλῳ παῖς ὢν τὴν ἡλικίαν, εὐφυέστερος δ’ ὢν τοῦ διδασκάλου
τὸν κεραμευτικὸν τροχὸν εὗρε.
_Strabo_, _Geography_, VII, p. 303.
Ephoros says that Anacharsis’ inventions were the bellows, the
double-fluked anchor, and the potter’s wheel. I repeat this
statement, although I am well aware that this writer is not
very accurate, and especially in the account of Anacharsis,
for how could the potter’s wheel be an invention of his, while
Homer[61] who was of an earlier time knew of it?
Ὁ Ἔφορος ... εὑρήματά τε αὐτοῦ λέγει τά τε ζώπυρα καὶ τὴν
ἀμφίβολον ἄγκυραν καὶ τὸν κεραμικὸν τροχόν. ταῦτα δὲ λέγω σαφῶς
μὲν εἰδὼς ὅτι καὶ οὗτος αὐτὸς οὐ τἀληθέστατα λέγει περὶ πάντων,
καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Ἀναχάρσιδος. πῶς γὰρ ὁ τροχὸς εὕρημα αὐτοῦ,
ὃν οἶδεν Ὅμηρος πρεσβύτερος ὤν;
_Pliny_, _Natural History_, VII, 198.
Coroebus the Athenian invented earthen pots, and among the
inventors, the Scythian Anacharsis, or as others say, Hyperbius
the Corinthian, discovered the potter’s wheel.
... figlinas (invenit) Coroebus Atheniensis, in iis orbem
Anacharsis Scythes, ut alii, Hyperbius Corinthus.
_Critias_, _Elegies_, I, 12-14 (Bergk).
The child of the wheel and the earth and the kiln, the famous
pottery, useful house servant, that city invented which set up
the glorious trophy at Marathon.
Τὸν δὲ τροχοῦ γαίης τε καμίνου τ’ ἔκγονον εὗρεν,
κλεινότατον κέραμον, χρήσιμον οἰκονόμον,
ἡ τὸ καλὸν Μαραθῶνι καταστήσασα τρόπαιον.
It is natural that the ancients should have attributed the great
invention of the potter’s wheel to various individuals or cities, but
they themselves realized the anomaly of ascribing it to a comparatively
recent period, when it was known to Homer (see below). Actual remains of
wheel-thrown vases show that the wheel was known in Crete and Greece in
the Early Minoan and Early Helladic III periods (before 2200 B.C.) and in
Egypt in the third and fourth dynasties[62] (about 3000 B.C.).
_Homer_, _Iliad_, XVIII, 599-601.
And now they would run round with deft feet exceeding lightly,
as when a potter sitting by his wheel that fitteth between his
hands maketh trial of it whether it run. (Lang, Leaf and Myers.)
Οἱ δ’ ὁτὲ μὲν θρέξασκον ἐπισταμένουσι πόδεσσιν,
ῥεῖα μαλ’, ὡς ὅτε τις τροχὸν ἄρμενον ἐν παλάμῃσιν.
ἑζόμενος κεραμεὺς πειρήσεται, αἵ κε θέῃσιν.
_Plutarch_, _De genio Socratis_, p. 588f.
One ought not to be surprised at seeing the movement of large
merchant-vessels controlled by small helms, nor the whirling of
the potter’s wheel moving regularly at the mere touch of the
tips of his fingers.
Οὐ δεῖ δὲ θαυμάζειν ὁρῶντας τοῦτο μὲν ὑπὸ μικροῖς οἴαξι μεγάλων
περιαγωγὰς ὀλκάδων, τοῦτο δὲ τροχῶν κεραμεικῶν δίνησιν ἄκρας
παραψαύσει χειρὸς ὁμαλῶς περιφερομένων.
_Persius_, _Satires_, III, 23-24.
[Advice to an idle young man of good position.]
You are wet, soft clay; at this very moment you should be
hastening to shape yourself on the swift wheel.
udum et molle lutum es, nunc nunc properandus et acri fingendus
sine fine rota.
_Hippokrates_, Περὶ Διαίτης, I, _Littré_, VI, p. 494, §22.
Potters turn the wheel which moves neither backward nor forward
and at the same time imitates the rotation of the universe, and
on this same wheel as it whirls they make things of all kinds,
no one of them like another, from the same materials with the
same tools.
Κεραμέες τροχὸν δινέουσι, καὶ οὔτε ὀπίσω οὔτε πρώσω προχωρέει
καὶ ἀμφοτέρωσε ἅμα τοῦ ὅλου μιμητὴς τῆς περιφορῆς· ἐν δὲ τῷ αὐτῷ
ἐργάζονται περιφερομένῳ παντοδαπά, οὐδὲν ὅμοιον τὸ ἕτερον τῷ
ἑτέρῳ ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν τοῖσιν αὐτοῖσιν ὀργάνουσιν.
The fascination of a pot shaped on a rapidly turning wheel appealed to
the ancients as it does to us; and the parallelism between a pot in
the making and man shaped by life is too obvious to have escaped them.
Hippokrates’ remark that of the vases produced on the wheel no two are
alike is characteristic of the Greek love of variety.
_Ecclesiasticus_, 38, 32.
So does the potter sitting at his work and turning his wheel
round with his feet, who is always painstaking with his task;
and all his work is done by number. He moulds the clay with
his arm, and his feet. [Literal translation of the Greek text
written by a Hebrew and evidently colored by his own idiom.]
Οὕτω κεραμεὺς καθήμενος ἐν ἔργῳ αὐτοῦ, καὶ συστρέφων ἐν ποσὶν
αὐτοῦ τροχόν, ὃς ἐν μερίμνῃ κεῖται διὰ παντὸς ἐπὶ τὸ ἔργον
αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐναρίθμιος πᾶσα ἡ ἐργασία αὐτοῦ.
Ἐν βραχίονι αὐτοῦ τυπώσει πηλόν, καὶ πρὸ ποδῶν κάμψει ἰσχὺν
αὐτοῦ.
This is the only place in ancient literature in which the action of
the foot in wheelwork is referred to. In the second century B.C.,
therefore, we might assume the knowledge of the kick-wheel, though it
may well have been in use long before then, since it is a simple and
obvious device. Where labor, however, was cheap and plentiful, as in
fifth-century Athens, a slave boy turning the wheel for the potter, whose
whole strength and attention could then be expended on his work, would
be preferable; and this is the manner in which wheelwork is depicted in
Athenian vase paintings (cf. pp. 64 ff).
_Athenaeus_, XI, p. 480 c.
These kylikes are clay drinking-cups, and are so called from
being turned on the wheel.
Ταῦτα δ’ ἐστὶ κεράμεα ποτήρια καὶ λέγεται ἀπὸ τοῦ κυλίεσθαι τῷ
τροχῷ.
The kylix is, of course, the wheel-made vase par excellence. Nothing so
light and graceful or with such a fine flow of line could be produced by
handwork.
_Plato_, _Gorgias_, p. 514 e.
Is not this, as they say, to learn the potter’s craft by
undertaking a pithos, ... and does not this seem to you a
foolish thing to do?
Τὸ λεγόμενον δὴ τοῦτο ἐν τῷ πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν ἐπιχειρεῖν
μανθάνειν ... οὐκ ἀνοητόν σοι δοκεῖ ἂν εἶναι οὕτω πράττειν;
_Plato_, _Laches_, p. 187 b.
For if this is your first attempt at education, you must take
care lest you try the experiment, not on a Carian slave, but on
your sons or the children of your friends, and let the proverb
fit you which says that the potter’s art is in the pithos.
Εἰ γὰρ νῦν πρῶτον ἄρξεσθε παιδεύειν, σκοπεῖν χρὴ μὴ οὐκ ἐν τῷ
Καρὶ ὑμῖν ὁ κίνδυνος κινδυνεύηται, ἀλλ’ ἐν τοῖς ὑέσι τε καὶ
ἐν τοῖς τῶν φίλων παισί, καὶ ἀτεκνῶς τὸ λεγόμενον κατὰ τὴν
παροιμίαν ὑμῖν συμβαίνῃ ἐν πίθῳ ἡ κεραμεία γιγνομένη.
_Scholiast on Plato_, _Laches_, p. 187 b.
The proverb, “in the pithos is the potter’s art,” about those
who skip the first lessons and take hold of the greatest tasks
which are properly the last.
Παροιμία, ἐν πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν, ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς πρώτας μαθήσεις
ὑπερβαινόντων, ἁπτομένων δὲ τῶν μειζόνων καὶ ἤδη τῶν
τελειοτέρων.
_Corpus Paroemiographorum Graecorum_, _Zenobius_, III, 65.
“I learn the potter’s craft on the pithos”; a proverb upon
those who skip the first lessons, and immediately attempt
greater things; as if anyone who was learning to be a potter,
before learning to mould plates or any other small thing,
should undertake a pithos.
Ἐν πίθῳ τὴν κεραμείαν μανθάνω: Παροιμία ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς πρώτας
μαθήσεις ὑπερβαινόντων, ἁπτομένων δὲ εὐθέως τῶν μειζόνων. Ὡς
εἴ τις μανθάνων κεραμεύειν, πρὶν μαθεῖν πίνακας ἢ ἄλλο τι τῶν
μικρῶν πλάττειν, πίθῳ ἐγχεροίη.
The fact that there was a Greek proverb on the folly of attempting large
vases before a thorough knowledge of the craft has been acquired, shows
how common was the realization of the difficulty of the task.
_Plutarch_, _Quaestiones conviviales_, II, p. 636 c.
Polykleitos the modeler said that the work is most difficult
when the clay stands the test of the nail (?).
Πολύκλειτος ὁ πλάστης εἶπε χαλεπώτατον εἶναι τοὔργον, ὅταν ἐν
ὄνυχι ὁ πηλὸς γένηται.
If we interpret this passage as referring to a potter, and ὅταν ἐν ὄνυχι
γένηται as meaning when the stage has been reached that the clay is hard
enough to be scratched with the nail, this may possibly be an allusion to
turning; which may well be called the most difficult process of pottery
making. But this interpretation is very uncertain. The passage is usually
taken as referring to the sculptor’s last touches on a clay model for a
bronze statue.
(2) BUILDING
_Geoponica_, VI, 3 (4).
4. Potters do not use the wheel for all pithoi, but only for
the small ones. The larger ones they build up day by day,
placing them on the ground in a warm room, and thus make them
large.
4. Οὐ πάντας δὲ τοὺς πίθους ἐπὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἀναβιβάζουσιν
οἱ κεραμεῖς, ἀλλὰ τοὺς μικρούς. τοὺς μέντοι μείζους χαμαὶ
κειμένους ὁσημέραι ἐν θερμῷ οἰκήματι ἐποικοδομοῦσι, καὶ
μεγάλους ποιοῦσιν.
_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 164.
164. That around which those who make pithoi put the clay and
shape it—this wooden core is called κάναβος.
164. Περὶ δὲ ὃ οἱ τοὺς πίθους πλάττοντες τὸν πηλὸν περιτιθέντες
πλάττουσι, τοῦτο τὸ ξυλήφιον κάναβος καλεῖται.
Such hand-built ware does not, of course, include the large painted
kraters and amphorai of Athenian make; for these have all the ear-marks
of wheel-thrown pottery. Wooden cores are still used today in the making
of cement forms. Since the clay cement shrinks upon drying and the wood
does not, care must be taken to prevent the former from cracking. The
wooden core is therefore made in collapsible form. A wedge is made in the
center and a core built around it. When the work is finished the wedge
can be drawn out and the sides of the core will fall in.[63]
FIRING THE VASES
_Geoponica_, VI, 3 (5).
5. The firing is no small part of the potter’s craft. Not too
little or too much fire should be built under the pots, but
just enough.
Οὐ μικρὸν δὲ τῆς κεραμίας ἐστὶ μέρος ἡ ὄπτησις· δεῖ δὲ μήτε
ἔλαττον, μήτε πλέον, ἀλλὰ μεμετρημένως τὸ πῦρ ὑποβάλλειν.
_Vita Herodotea_ λβ = _Epigrammata Homerica_, 14.
(Text of T. W. Allen, in Oxford University Classical Texts.)
Some potters, seeing him [Homer] setting out the next morning
while they were building a fire in a kiln of fine pottery,
called him to them, knowing that he was a poet, and they
bade him sing, promising to give him some of the pottery and
whatever else they had, and Homer sang to them the following
poem, which is called the “Kiln”:—
“If you will give me a reward I will sing to you, O potters.
Come hither, Athena, and stretch thy hand over the kiln, and
may the kotyloi blacken well and all the ... and may they be
well baked, and receive the price due to their value, many
being sold in the market, and many in the streets. May they
gain much.... But if you turn to shamelessness, and choose
falsehood, then I summon the destroyers to fall upon the kiln,
Crasher and Smasher and Unquenchable and Shatterer and Fierce
Conquerer, who would bring many evils upon this craft ... and
may the whole kiln be thrown into confusion, while the potters
lament loudly. As a horse’s jaw eats greedily, so may the kiln
devour all the pottery within it, making it brittle. Come
hither, Circe, daughter of the sun, skilled in drugs; bring
malignant poisons, afflict the men and ruin their work. Let
Cheiron bring hither many Centaurs, both those who escaped the
hands of Herakles, and those who perished. Let them harshly
smite the work and smite the kiln, and may the men themselves
see these grievous deeds with lamentations. But I shall be
happy when I see their unlucky craft. And the man who peeps
over, may his whole face burn on account of this, so that all
may know how to do what is right.”
Tῇ δὲ εἰσαύριον ἀποπορευόμενον ἰδόντες κεραμέες τινες κάμινον
ἐγκαίοντες κεράμου λεπτοῦ, προσεκαλέσαντο αὐτόν, πεπυσμένοι ὅτι
σοφὸς εἴη· καὶ ἐκέλευόν σφιν ἀεῖσαι, φάμενοι δώσειν αὐτῷ τοῦ
κεράμου καὶ ὅ τι ἂν ἄλλο ἔχωσιν. ὁ δὲ Ὅμηρος ἀείδει αὐτοῖς τὰ
ἔπεα τάδε ἃ καλέεται Κάμινος·
Εἰ μὲν δώσετε μισθὸν ἀείσω, ὦ κεραμῆες·
δεῦρ’ ἄγ’ Ἀθηναίη καὶ ὑπείρεχε χεῖρα καμίνου,
εὖ δὲ μελανθεῖεν κότυλοι καὶ πάντα μάλευρα,
φρυχθῆναί τε καλῶς καὶ τιμῆς ὦνον ἀρέσθαι,
πολλὰ μέν εἰν ἀγορῇ πωλεύμενα, πολλὰ δ’ ἀγυιᾶς,
πολλὰ δὲ κερδῆναι, ἡμῖν δὲ δὴ ὥς σφι νοῆσαι.
ἢν δ’ ἐπ’ ἀναιδείην τρεφθέντες ψεύδε’ ἄρησθε,
συγκαλέω δ’ ἤπειτα καμίνῳ δηλητῆρας,
Σύντριβ’ ὁμῶς Σμάραγόν τε καὶ Ἄσβετον ἠδέ γ’ Ἄβακτον,
Ὠμόδαμόν θ’ ὃς τῇδε τέχνῃ κακὰ πολλὰ πορίζοι.
πεῖθε πυραίθουσαν καὶ δώματα, σὺν δὲ κάμινος
πᾶσα κυκηθείη κεραμέων μέγα κωκυσάντων.
ὡς γνάθος ἱππείη βρύκει, βρύκοι δὲ κάμινος
πάντ’ ἐντοσθ’ αὐτῆς κεραμήϊα λεπτὰ ποιοῦσα.
δεῦρο καὶ ἠελίου θύγατερ πολυφάρμακε Κίρκη.
ἄγρια φάρμακα βάλλε, κάκου δ’ αὐτούς τε καὶ ἔργα.
δεῦρο δὲ καὶ Χείρων ἀγέτω πολέας Κενταύρους,
οἵ θ’ Ἡρακλείους χεῖρας φύγον, οἵ τ’ ἀπόλοντο·
τύπτοιεν τάδε ἔργα κακῶς, τύπτοι δὲ κάμινον,
αὐτοὶ δ’ οἰμῴζοντες ὁρῷατο ἔργα πονηρά.
γηθήσω δ’ ὁρόων αὐτῶν κακοδαίμονα τέχνην.
ὃς δὲ χ’ ὑπερκύψῃ, περὶ τούτου πᾶν τὸ πρόσωπον
φλεχθείη, ὡς πάντες ἐπίσταιντ’ αἴσιμα ῥέζειν.
This is a good picture of the havoc that may happen in a kiln.
_Hippokrates_, _Epidemia_, IV, 20; _Littré_, V, p. 160.
The man who fell down from the potter’s oven, since a
cupping-glass was not applied immediately, suffered from an
internal inflammation and on the twentieth day grew worse.
Ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ κεραμέου ἴπνου καταπεσὼν, ᾧ οὐ προσβλήθη αὐτίκα
σικύη, ἐκαύθη ἔσω, καὶ εἰκοστῇ ἐπαλιγκότησεν.
This reminds us of the men we see climbing on the kilns in the
representations on Corinthian pinakes (p. 76).
_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 108.
It was the custom for bronze casters to hang something
ridiculous in front of their furnaces, or to mould something
upon them, in order to avert envy. These were called βασκάνια.
Πρὸ δὲ τῶν καμίνων τοῖς χαλκεῦσιν ἔθος ἦν γελοῖά τινα καταρτᾶν,
ἢ ἐπιπλάττειν, ἐπὶ φθόνου ἀποτροπῇ. ἐκαλεῖτο δὲ βασκάνια.
Such devices to avert the evil eye would apply equally to pottery kilns,
as we know from actual representations (cf. pp. 64 f.). It is natural
that the vagaries of a kiln should be ascribed by the superstitious
ancients to supernatural forces.
RED OCHRE WASH
_Inscriptiones Graecae_, II, 1, 546.
Be it decreed by the senate and people of the Ioulietai
concerning the representations of the envoys from Athens, that
the export of miltos shall be to Athens, and to no other place
from this day forward; if anyone exports it to any other place,
his ship and its cargo shall be confiscated and a half shall be
given to the informer; ... If the Athenians decree any other
regulations for the guarding of the miltos they shall be valid.
(Ἔδ)οξεν τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ Ἰουλιητῶν, περὶ (ὧν οἱ παρ’
Ἀθηναίων λέγουσι, δεδόχθα)ι τῇ βούλῃ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ Ἰουλιητῶν,
εἶναι τὴ(ν ἐξαγωγὴν τῆς μίλτου Ἀθήναζε), ἄλλοσε δὲ μηδαμῇ ἀπὸ
τῆσδε τῆς ἡμέρας. ἐὰν δέ τι(ς ἄλλοσε ἐξάγῃ, δημόσια εἶναι
τ)ὸ πλοῖον καὶ τὰ χρήματα τὰ ἐν τῷ πλοίῳ. τῷ δὲ φήν(αντι ἢ
ἐνδείξαντι εἶναι τὰ ἡμίσεα) ... (ἐὰν δέ τι ἄλ)λο ψηφίζωνται
Ἀθηναῖοι περὶ φυλακῆς τῆς μίλ(του ... κύρια εἶ)ναι ἃ ἂν
Ἀθηναῖοι ψηφίζωνται.
_Inscriptiones Graecae_, II, 1, 546.
Theogenes moved: be it decreed by the senate and people of the
Koresians, concerning the representations of the envoys from
Athens, the export of miltos shall be to Athens ... as it was
before; and in order that the decrees of the Athenians and
Koresians concerning miltos may be valid, it shall be exported
in a ship which they shall designate and in no other ship ...
the tax of two per cent shall be paid to the collectors by
those engaged in the trade.
(Θεογ)ένης εἶπεν. δεδόχθαι (τ)ῇ βο(υλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῷ
Κορησίων. περὶ ὧν λέγουσι οἱ παρ’ Ἀθη)ναίων, εἶναι τῆς μίλτου
τὴν ἐξ(αγωγὴν Ἀθήναζε ... κ)αθάπερ πρότερον ἦν. ὅπως δ’ ἂν
κύρια ἦ(ι τ)ὰ ψηφίσματα (... Ἀθηναίων κ)αὶ Κορησίων τὰ
περὶ τῆς μίλτου, ἐξάγειν ἐμπλοίῳ ὧ(ι ἂν ... ἀποδείξωσιν, ἐν
ἄλλῳ) δὲ πλοῖῳ μηδενί ... (τελ)εῖν δὲ τὴν πεντηκοστὴν τοῖς
πεντηκοστολόγοις τοὺς ἐργαζομένους.
It is interesting to learn how important miltos (red ochre) was to
the Athenians. We know that it was used in building for the dressing
of stones[64]; and if the appearance of one of the chief articles of
commerce of Athens, viz. the pottery, was dependent on it (cf. pp. 53
ff.), it is natural that stringent provisions should be made for its
acquisition and monopoly.
_Pliny_, _Natural History_, XXXV, 12 (43), 152.
The addition of red ochre or moulding in red clay is the
invention of Butades.
Butades inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta fingere.
_Suidas_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ Κωλιάδος κεραμῆες.
Potters of Kolias: Kolias, a place in Attica where vases are
moulded. It is said that of all the kinds of clay that are
brought to the wheel (and the wheel on which vessels are shaped
is meant), that is, of all the clay fit for making vases, the
clay of Kolias is the best, so that it is also dyed with miltos.
Κωλιάς, τόπος τῆς Ἀττικῆς, ἔνθα σκεύη πλάττονται, λέγει οὖν ὅτι
ὅσοι ἐπὶ τροχοὺς φέρονται (τροχὸν δὲ τὸν σκευοπλαστικὸν λέγει)
τουτέστιν, ὅσαι πρὸς σκευοπλασίαν ἐπιτήδειαι, πασῶν ἡ Κωλιάδος
κρείσσων· ὥστε καὶ βάπτεσθαι ὑπὸ τῆς μίλτου.
_Isidorus_, _Etymologiae_, XX, iv, 3.
It is said that pottery vases were first invented in the island
of Samos, being made of clay and hardened by fire, whence comes
the term Samian vases. A later invention was to add red ochre
and to make pottery of red clay.
Fictilia vasa in Samo insula prius inventa traduntur, facta ex
creta et indurata igni; unde et Samia vasa: postea inventum et
rubricam addere et ex rubra creta fingere.
The significance of these passages has already been discussed on pp.
53-59.
POROSITY OF GREEK POTTERY
_Pollux_, _Onomasticon_, VII, 161 ff.
162. Aristophanes says that a clay vinegar jar has leprosy,
instead of saying that it is moist (sweats?).
Λεπρᾶν δὲ κεράμειον ὀξηρόν, ἀντὶ τοῦ μυδᾶν, Ἀριστοφάνης λέγει.
This appears to refer to the fact that unglazed ware (and even painted
Athenian pottery is unglazed in parts) becomes moist when filled with
liquid, on account of its porosity.
THE STATUS OF POTTERS
_Isokrates_, _De Permutatione_, 2.
As if one should have the insolence to call Pheidias, who made
the statue of Athena, a statuette maker, or to say that Zeuxis
and Parrhasius had plied the same trade as that of the painters
of pinakes.
Ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις Φειδίαν τὸν τὸ τῆς Ἀθηνᾶς ἕδος ἐργασάμενον
τολμῷη καλεῖν κοροπλάθον, ἢ Ζεῦξιν καὶ Παρράσιον τὴν αὐτὴν
ἔχειν φαίη τέχνην τοῖς τὰ πινάκια γράφουσιν.
_Aristophanes_, _Ekklesiazousai_, 995 f.
Old Woman. Who is this?
Young Man. The man who paints lekythoi for the dead.
Γρ. οὗτος δ’ ἔστι τίς;
Νεανίας. ὃς τοῖς νεκροῖσι ζωγραφεῖ τὰς ληκύθους.
_Plutarch_, _Life of Numa_, 17.
So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and
trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths,
carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and potters
(A. H. Clough).
Ἦν δὲ ἡ διανομὴ κατὰ τὰς τέχνας, αὐλητῶν, χρυσοχόων, τεκτόνων,
βαφέων, σκυτοτόμων, σκυτοδέψων, χαλκέων, κεραμέων.
_Plato_, _Euthydemos_, 301, c, d.
What, said he, is the business of a good workman? Tell me, in
the first place, whose business is hammering?
The smith’s.
And whose the making of pots?
The potter’s.
And who has to kill and skin and mince and boil and roast?
The cook, I said.
And if a man does his business, he does rightly?
Certainly.
And the business of the cook is to cut up and skin, you have
admitted that?
Yes, I have, but you must not be too hard upon me.
Then if some one were to kill, mince, boil, roast the cook, he
would do his business, and if he were to hammer the smith, and
make a pot of the potter, he would do their business (Jowett).
Οἶσθα οὖν, ἔφη, ὅτι προσήκει ἑκάστοις τῶν δημιουργῶν; πρῶτον
τίνα χαλκεύειν προσήκει, οἶσθα;—Ἔγωγε· ὅτι χαλκέα.—τί δέ,
κεραμεῦειν; κεραμέα.—τί δέ, σφάττειν τε καὶ ἐκδέρειν καὶ
τὰ μικρὰ κρέα κατακόψαντα ἕψειν καὶ ὀπτᾶν;—Μάγειρον, ἦν δ’
ἐγώ.—Οὐκοῦν ἐάν τις, ἔφη, τὰ προσήκοντα πράττῃ, ὀρθῶς πράξει;
Μάλιστα.—Προσήκει δέ γε, ὡς φῄς, τὸν μάγειρον κατακόπτειν
καὶ ἐκδέρειν; ὡμολόγησας ταῦτα ἢ οὔ;—Ὡμολόγησα, ἔφην, ἀλλὰ
συγγνώμην μοι ἔχε—Δῆλον τοίνυν, ἦ δ’ ὅς, ὅτι ἄν τις σφάξας τὸν
μάγειρον καὶ κατακόψας ἑψήσῃ καὶ ὀπτήσῃ, τὰ προσήκοντα ποιήσει.
καὶ ἐὰν τὸν χαλκέα τις αὐτὸν χαλκεύῃ καὶ τὸν κεραμέα κεραμεύῃ,
καὶ οὗτος τὰ προσήκοντα πράξει.
_Justinus_, _Historiae Philippicae_, XXII, 1, 1 and 2.
Agathocles, the tyrant of Sicily, who succeeded to the great
power of the elder Dionysius, came into the splendor of a
kingdom from a humble and base family. And too, being born in
Sicily of a potter, he had a boyhood not more honorable than
his origin.
Agathocles, Siciliae tyrannus, qui magnitudini prioris Dionysii
successit, ad regni maiestatem ex humili et sordido genere
pervenit. Quippe in Sicilia patre figulo natus non honestiorem
pueritiam quam principia originis habuit.
Much has been written about the lowly status of Greek potters,[65] and
the above references bear out this general idea. The craft of pottery was
evidently placed on a par with other trades, and all such manual work
was not considered a worthy occupation of free-born citizens, and left
mostly to the metics, or non-citizens. We know this not only from texts
and inscriptions on stone, but also from the non-Attic forms of the names
of the potters, as well as the inscriptions on the vases which frequently
show non-Attic spellings. It would be absurd, however, to infer that
all pottery was as contemptuously regarded as the rough little tomb
lekythoi[66] and the pinakes referred to by Aristophanes and Isokrates.
And this is borne out by the following references.
_Plato_, _Hippias Maior_, p. 288 d.
If a skilful potter had made the vessel smooth and rounded and
well baked, like some of the fine two-handled jars which hold
six choai—if he should ask us about such a vessel as this, we
should be obliged to agree that it was beautiful.
Εἴπερ ἡ χύτρα κεκεραμευμένη εἴη ὑπὸ ἀγαθοῦ κεραμέως λεία καὶ
στρογγύλη καὶ καλῶς ὠπτημένη, οἷαι τῶν καλῶν χυτρῶν εἰσί τινες
δίωτοι, τῶν ἓξ χοᾶς χωρουσῶν, πάγκαλαι, εἰ τοιαύτην ἐρωτῴη
χύτραν, καλὴν ὁμολογητέον εἶναι.
_Pliny_, _Natural History_, XXXV, 161.
At Erythrae in the temple there are shown today two amphorai
consecrated on account of their thinness, a pupil and a teacher
having contested as to which of them could draw the clay
thinner.
Erythris in templo hodieque ostenduntur amphorae duae propter
tenuitatem consecratae discipuli magistrique certamine, uter
tenuiorem humum duceret.
_Amphis_, _Ampelourgos_, I.
_Meineke_, _Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum_, III, p. 302.
There is no sweeter solace in life for human ills than
craftsmanship; for the mind, absorbed in its study, sails past
all troubles and forgets them.
Οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδὲν ἀτυχίας ἀνθρωπίνης
παραμύθιον γλυκύτερον ἐν βίῳ τέχνης·
ἐπὶ τοῦ μαθήματος γὰρ ἐστηκὼς ὁ νοῦς
αὐτοῦ λέληθε παραπλέων τὰς συμφοράς.
_Pindar_, _Nemean Odes_, X, 35, 36.
And in earthenware baked in the fire, within the closure of
figured urns, there came among the goodly folk of Hera the
prize of the olive-fruit (Myers).
γαίᾳ δὲ καυθείσᾳ πυρὶ καρπὸς ἐλαίας ἔμολεν Ἥρας τὸν εὐάνορα
λαὸν ἐν ἀγγέων ἕρκεσιν παμποικίλοις.
_Simonides_, _Fragments_, 155 (213) (Bergk).
And he won five garlands in succession at the Panathenaic
games, amphorai full of oil.
Καὶ Παναθηναίοις στεφάνους λάβε πέντ’ ἐπ’ αἔθλοις
ἑξῆς ἀμφιφορεῖς ἐλαίου.
That finely executed pottery was held in high esteem is evident from
the remarks of Plato, Pliny, and Pindar; and there certainly could be
no more enthusiastic eulogy of craftsmanship than Amphis’ beautiful
lines. Moreover, the fact that clay vases were used as prizes at the
most important games at Athens certainly points to considerable and
wide-spread appreciation of them.
_Ktesias ap. Athenaeus_, p. 464 a.
And Ktesias says, “Among Persians he whom the king wishes to
insult uses pottery vessels.”
Καὶ γὰρ Κτησίας “παρὰ Πέρσαις” φησίν, “ὃν ἂν βασιλεὺς ἀτιμάσῃ,
κεραμέοις χρῆται”.
_Plutarch_, _Life of Galba_, 12.
When he was dining with Claudius Caesar he stole a silver cup,
and Caesar, finding it out, invited him to dinner again on the
next day, but ordered his servants to bring out and put before
the guest nothing silver, but everything of pottery.
Δειπνῶν δὲ παρὰ Κλαυδίῳ Καίσαρι ποτήριον ἀργυροῦν ὑφείλετο.
πυθόμενος δὲ ὁ Καῖσαρ τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ πάλιν αὐτὸν ἐπὶ δεῖπνον
ἐκάλεσεν, ἐλθόντι δὲ ἐκέλευσεν ἐκείνῳ μηδὲν ἀργυροῦν, ἀλλὰ
κεράμεα πάντα προσφέρειν καὶ παρατιθέναι τοὺς ὑπηρέτας.
_Tibullus_, _Elegies_, I, 1, 37 f.
Come, ye gods, nor scorn the gifts from a poor man’s table,
from clean pottery vessels.
Adsitis, divi, neu vos e paupere mensa
dona nec e puris spernite fictilibus.
_Juvenal_, _Satires_, III, 168.
[Even a poor man] is ashamed to dine off pottery dishes.
fictilibus cenare pudet—
_Martial_, _Epigrams_, XIV, 98.
We advise you not overmuch to despise Arretian vases: Tuscan
earthenware was luxury to Porsena (W. E. Ker).
Arretina nimis ne spernas vasa monemus.
lautus erat Tuscis Porsena fictilibus.
_Lucian_, _Prometheus_, 1.
Then you say I am Prometheus? If, Sir, it is because I too work
in clay, I recognize the similarity and acknowledge that I am
like him, nor do I refuse to be called a potter.
Οὐκ οὖν Προμηθέα με εἶναι φῄς; εἰ μὲν κατὰ τοῦτο, ὦ ἄριστε,
ὡς πηλίνων κἀμοὶ τῶν ἔργων ὄντων, γνωρίζω τὴν εἰκόνα καί φημι
ὅμοιος εἶναι αὐτῷ, οὐδ’ ἀναίνομαι πηλοπλάθος ἀκούειν.
_Athenaeus_, XI, p. 482 b.
(_Repeated by Macrobius_, _Satires_, V, 21, 10.)
They placed a krater for the gods, not of silver nor set with
stones, but of clay from Kolias.
Κρατῆρα γὰρ ἵστασαν τοῖς θεοῖς, οὐκ ἀργυροῦν οὐδὲ λιθοκόλλητον,
ἀλλὰ γῆς Κωλιάδος.
Though the Persians and the Romans set great store by metal vases and
regarded clay vases as fit only for a poor man’s table, the Greeks had
no such feelings, as we learn from Athenaeus and from innumerable vase
paintings of banquets.
_Inscriptiones Graecae_, I, _Suppl._, 362, p. 79.
Euphronios the potter offered ... in supplication to (Athena)
Hygieia.
(Ε)ὐφρόνιος (ἀνέθηκεν ὁ) κεραμεύς (... ἱκεσί)αν Ὑγιεία(ι).
_Inscriptiones Graecae_, I, _Suppl._ 373²¹⁵, p. 101.
Mnesiades the potter and Andokides dedicated me.
(Μν)ησιάδης κεραμεύς με καὶ Ἀνδοκίδης ἀνέθηκεν.
_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 3485.
The lord of the land and sea, Imperator Caesar M. Aurelius
Severus Antoninus, Pius, Augustus, the potters have erected
from their own property.
Τὸν γῆς καὶ θαλάσσης δεσπότην Αὐτοκράτορα Καίσαρα Μ. Αὐρ(ήλιον)
Σευῆρον Ἀντωνῖνον, Εὐσεβῆ, Σεβαστόν, (ἐκ τῶν) ἰδίων ἵδ(ρυσαν)
οἱ κεραμεῖς.
_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 9188.
Sarcophagus of Theophilos and his son Tyrannos, a potter by
trade.
Σωματωτήκη Θεωφίλου (καὶ τοῦ) (α)ὐ(τ)οῦ (ὑ)οῦ Τυράννου τὴν
τέχνην κερα(μέως).
_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, addenda 4212.
I, Sesames the potter, have bought through the board of
magistrates this burial vault for myself and my wife Elpis and
my mother-in-law Euphrosyne and for Ianoarios and our children,
and for Soterichos my father-in-law. No one else shall be
buried here, since (the violator) shall pay to the sacred
treasurer 1500 denarii.
Σ)ησάμας κεραμεὺς ὠνησάμην διὰ τῶν ἀρχείων τὸν πυργίσκον ἑαυτῷ
καὶ γυναικί μου Ἐλπίδι καὶ (τῇ) πενθερ(ίδι μου) Εὐφροσύνῃ κ(αὶ)
Ἰανοαρίῳ καὶ τ(έ)κνοις ἡ(μῶν) καὶ Σωτηρίχῳ τῷ πενθε(ρῷ). ἑτέρῳ
δὲ οὐδενὶ ἐξέσται (τεθ)ῆναι. ἐπεὶ ἀ(πο)(τ)είσει τῷ (ἱερωτάτῳ
ταμε(ί)ῳ δηναρία α̅φ̅ .
These inscriptions of dedications show that potters sometimes became
people of means and influence.
_Plato_, _Republic_, p. 467 a.
Did you never observe in the arts how the potters’ boys look on
and help, long before they touch the wheel? (Jowett).
Ἢ οὐκ ᾔσθησαι τὰ περὶ τὰς τέχνας, οἷον τοὺς τῶν κεραμέων παῖδας,
ὡς πολὺν χρόνον διακονοῦντες θεωροῦσι πρὶν ἅπτεσθαι τοῦ
κεραμεύειν;
_Quintilian_, _Institutio Oratoria_, II, 17, 3.
... For what man is there so bereft, I will not say of
learning, but of sense, that he thinks that there is an art of
constructing and of weaving, and of making vases from clay, but
that rhetoric, that greatest and noblest work, as I said above,
has risen to such sublime heights without art?
... nam quis est adeo non ab eruditione modo, sed a sensu
remotus hominis, ut fabricandi quidem et texendi et e luto vasa
ducendi artem putet, rhetoricen autem, maximum ac pulcherrimum,
ut supra diximus, opus, in tam sublime fastigium existimet sine
arte venisse?
_Suidas_, _Lexicon_, _s. v._ Κεραμεύειν.
To make pottery: commonly said instead of “to work hard.”
Κεραμεύειν. κοινῶς ἀντὶ τοῦ κατεργάζεσθαι.
_Hesiod_, _Works and Days_, 25 f.
Potter bears a grudge against potter, and carpenter against
carpenter, and beggar envies beggar, and minstrel is jealous of
minstrel.
Καὶ κεραμεὺς κεραμεῖ κοτέει καὶ τέκτονι τέκτων
καὶ πτωχὸς πτωχῷ φθονέει καὶ ἀοιδὸς ἀοιδῷ.
_Aristotle_, _Rhetoric_, 2, 4, 21, 22.
[We are friendly towards] our equals, and towards those who
have the same interests, if they do not clash with us, and if
their livelihood does not come from the same source, for thus
arises the proverb “Potter hates potter.”
Καὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους καὶ ταὐτὰ ἐπιτηδεύοντας, ἐὰν μὴ παρενοχλῶσι μὴ
δ’ ἀπὸ ταὐτοῦ ὁ βίος. γίγνεται γὰρ οὕτω τὸ κεραμεὺς κεραμεῖ.
_Aristotle_, _Nicomachaean Ethics_, 8, 1, 6.
For some define [friendship] as a kind of resemblance, and
claim that those who resemble each other are friends, whence
is the saying “Like to like,” and “Jackdaw to Jackdaw,” and so
on. Others, on the contrary, say that all such people are like
potters to each other.
Οἱ μὲν γὰρ ὁμοιότητα τινὰ τιθέασιν αὐτὴν καὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους
φίλους, ὅθεν τὸν ὅμοιόν φασιν ὡς τὸν ὅμοιον. καὶ κολοιὸν ποτὶ
κολοιόν, καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. οἱ δ’ ἐξ ἐναντίας κεραμεῖς πάντας τοὺς
τοιούτους ἀλλήλοις φασὶν εἶναι.
Evidently it was fully recognized that pottery was a craft which needed
a long apprenticeship, and in such a highly specialized art we are
not surprised to read of the keen rivalry existing among potters. The
inscription by Euthymides on one of his vases, “Never has Euphronios
painted the like of this” (cf. Hoppin, Handbook of Attic Red-Figured
Vases, p. 432), is evidence of the same spirit.
Judging from the evidence collected above it is fair to assume that
though the estimate of potters and pottery varied at different times,
in the period of Athenian vase painting it was distinctly high. Potters
had, it is true, no social status; but they were respected members of the
community, and the keen appreciation of their work had as its natural
result eager rivalry among the potters and the setting of high standards.
That their craft was regarded as a “trade” is of course nothing new.
Artists as a class have only lately been promoted to the higher social
ranks. We need only recall Albrecht Dürer’s description of the great
Procession from the Church of Our Lady at Antwerp, in which he lists the
painters and sculptors and goldsmiths with “the masons, the joiners, the
carpenters, the sailors, the fishermen, the butchers, the leatherers,
the clothmakers, the bakers, the tailors, the cordwainers,” and refers
to the group as “workmen of all kinds and many craftsmen and dealers who
work for their livelihood.” This is not so much an indignity to art as a
wholesome appreciation of all manual labor.
CONCLUSION
The following is a summary of the technical processes of the
black-figured and red-figured Athenian vases in the order which our study
of the subject has suggested.
I. THE PREPARATION OF THE CLAY
(1) Mixing the requisite ingredients (unless the natural clay was
satisfactory).
(2) Washing.
(3) Wedging or kneading.
II. THE FASHIONING OF THE VASE
(1) Throwing.
(2) Turning.
(3) Polishing.
(4) Attaching handles.
III. THE DECORATION OF THE VASE
a. Black-figured Technique.
(1) Application of red ochre over the whole surface.
Traces of the red ochre solution on black-figured vases are not common;
so that it is possible that its application was not a regular proceeding.
(2) Preliminary sketch for design.
As this was completely covered by the black glaze afterwards and there
are therefore only occasional traces of it now (cf. e.g. Furtwängler u.
Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, pl. 4), it is uncertain, though
inherently probable, that such a sketch was generally made.
(3) Painting of the design, including figures, decorative motives, and
backgrounds, in black glaze.
(4) Incision of details.
(5) Addition of purple and white accessory colors.
b. Red-figured Technique.
(1) Application of red ochre over the whole surface.
(2) Preliminary sketch for design with a blunt instrument.
(3) Painting of the design, the decorative motives, and the solid black
surfaces.
The process of the figure painting was as follows: the outlines of the
figures were indicated outside the spaces intended for them, first with a
narrow line, then with a broader contour stripe; then the details within
the red silhouette, and sometimes the outlines, were painted in black
glaze lines; finally the background was filled in with the black glaze.
(4) Addition of accessory colors if needed.
IV. THE FIRING OF THE VASE
The most important revisions of current theories on the technique of
Athenian vases which our treatment of the subject has suggested are:
(1) The use of turning as a regular process applied to the vases after
they were thrown. To this operation they owe much of their finish and
refinement.
(2) The application of a red ochre pigment on the surface of the vases in
their raw state, before they were decorated or fired. It is to this red
ochre application that the present orangey color of the Athenian vases
is due, as against the pinkish hue shown in the fractures of the clay.
Originally, however, this color was even deeper, approaching that of
bright red copper.
(3) Both the glaze and the accessory colors were applied when the vases
were in leather-hard condition, before any firing. Instead of the two,
three, or four firings often assumed by archaeologists, the evidence
points to only one fire, after total completion of the vase.
(4) The great majority of Athenian vases were made for actual use, not
for votive, decorative, or funeral purposes, as is still often assumed.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Reichhold’s theory in his Skizzenbuch griechischer Meister (1919),
p. 12, that the word ἐποίησεν (“made it”) in a signature refers to the
draughtsman of the sketch for the decoration, while its executor signed
ἔγραψεν (“painted it”), since the actual making of the vase “required no
artistic skill and could be left to every apprentice,” only shows his
exclusive preoccupation with the drawings on the vases, in the copying of
which he so much excelled.
[2] For any one who wishes to study this subject at greater length,
Charles F. Binns’s work on the Potter’s Craft is strongly recommended
(second edition, 1922).
[3] Figs. 1, 2, 6-13, 14, 21-23, 27, 39, 41.
[4] Figs. 3, 4, 35, 36, 40, 42, 50, 51, 52.
[5] In commercial potteries where a larger output and coarser wares are
produced wedging _en gros_ becomes necessary. In modern Greece it is done
by treading the clay with bare feet.
[6] Sometimes a wooden scraper is held on the outside to obtain a
smoother surface; especially in cases when the later process of turning
is dispensed with.
[7] The jigger is the technical word for the wheel on which shapes are
moulded with the aid of a jolly or profile; but it can be used for other
purposes. The difference between an ordinary wheel and a jigger is that
in the former the speed is changeable, in the latter fixed.
[8] Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, vol. I, p. 208; Herford, Greek
Vase Painting, p. 9; etc., etc.
[9] Cf. Jay Hambidge, Dynamic Symmetry, the Greek Vase, and L. D. Caskey,
Geometry of Greek Vases.
[10] Cf. e.g. in the Metropolitan Museum Nos. 08.258.21 and 12.236, where
the joint is visible underneath the clay ridge.
[11] Cf. also especially Metropolitan Museum Nos. G. R. 534, 09.221.47,
09.221.48, 06.1021.168, G. R. 581, 18.145.28, etc.
[12] Cf. Buschor, Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst, 1919, I/II,
pp. 1 ff.
[13] Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p.
421.
[14] “Twice fired” technically means, as already explained (p. 35),
once for biscuit, another time for glaze; the glazing itself may have
necessitated several firings, but the piece would still be spoken of as
twice fired.
[15] Cf. e.g. Walters, op. cit., pp. 221, 222, and Herford, op. cit., pp.
13, 14. Reichhold, op. cit., p. 152, felt convinced there was only one
firing.
[16] Occasionally a toothed instrument seems to have been used; as on the
pyxis, No. 06.1117, in the Metropolitan Museum.
[17] Archaeologists’ accounts are very misleading here, for some even
assume that vases are in leather-hard condition after the first firing.
(Cf. Herford, Handbook of Greek Vase Painting, p. 12.)
[18] E. Pottier has come to the same conclusion; cf. his Catalogue of the
Louvre Vases, III, p. 674.
[19] The clay of Reichhold’s pot, which he says could be dropped on the
floor without appreciable damage (Furtwängler und Reichhold, Griechische
Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152), must have been very tough indeed. Potters
I have asked have never encountered clay quite as tough as that. The
leather-hard vases I have handled were fit only for the dust bin when
they fell on the floor—a not unusual event when learning to turn.
[20] I wish here to acknowledge the great kindness of A. J. B. Wace,
director of the British School of Athens, who went to much trouble in
sending me this clay. The clay sent is that used by the Athenian potters
today. It is a mixed clay, composed of red earth from Chalandri and white
earth from Koukouvaones.
[21] Cf. also Nos. 06.1021.114, 07.286.78, 17.230.13 in the Metropolitan
Museum, and other instances quoted by Reichhold in Furtwängler u.
Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 152. If, as Reichhold assumes,
the vases were actually placed in the kiln leather hard, they must have
been allowed to dry for some days in the kiln before firing; otherwise
they would have cracked.
[22] Cf. also Furtwängler u. Reichhold, loc. cit.
[23] This is Mr. Binns’s explanation.
[24] Five are listed by Hartwig, Jahrbuch des deutschen arch. Instituts,
XIV, 1899, p. 164, note 21, one in Athens, one in Sèvres, one in
Würzburg, one in Berlin, one in Bonn. A sixth piece is a fragmentary
kylix in the Metropolitan Museum, No. 11.212.9, and a seventh one, the
cover of a toilet box, in the British Museum, Room of Greek and Roman
Life, No. 426.
[25] An interesting parallel is furnished by Chinese porcelain for which,
Mr. Bosch Reitz tells me, there is clear evidence that it is once fired.
[26] It is sometimes assumed that the accessory colors—purple and
white—were not fired and that this is the reason why they are less well
preserved and dull instead of shiny like the black glaze. That they were
fired is shown by the discoloration of the black glaze beneath the white
or purple. They are neither shiny nor durable for the simple reason that
they are not a glaze but earth colors.
[27] Cf. e.g. No. 06.1021.114, in the Metropolitan Museum.
[28] Cf. e.g. Nos. G. R. 530, 06.1021.82, 06.1021.114, etc., in the
Metropolitan Museum, and No. 379 (Salle G) as a conspicuous example in
the Louvre.
[29] Cf. e.g. Nos. 07.286.47, 07.286.81, and C. R. 541 in the
Metropolitan Museum.
[30] Cf. e.g. Reichhold in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153.
[31] This is Mr. Binns’s explanation. He does not consider that the
accidental piling together of glowing coals could account for the
carefully designed effects in the Vasiliki ware; so that Mr. Seager’s
ingenious theory (cf. Hawes, etc., Gournia, p. 50) would have to be given
up.
[32] Cf. e.g. 11.212.7, 12.336.1, G. R. 54, G. R. 1229, 06.1021.120,
06.1021.191, 12.229.15, etc., in the Metropolitan Museum.
[33] This explanation is also that offered by Reichhold in Furtwängler u.
Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, p. 153. It is to this same cause
that I should be inclined to attribute Reichhold’s “Lagerringe,” round
red spots or black spots surrounded by red rings (op. cit., p. 154).
Supports such as he describes which came into direct contact with the
glaze are inconceivable; the glaze would have stuck to them and serious
injury resulted. Furthermore, Athenian vases must have been placed in the
kiln standing on their feet, and for this purpose the under surfaces of
the feet are left unglazed so as to prevent the glaze from sticking. If
placed in the positions Reichhold suggests, the vases would have been apt
to warp, and no potter would run such risks.
[34] Cf. Salvétat in Brongniart, Traité des arts céramiques, I, p. 550;
and Tonks, Black Glaze on Greek Vases, American Journal of Archaeology,
XII, second series, 1908, pp. 420 ff. Mr. Binns in a series of
experiments has come to the same conclusion.
[35] Cf. American Journal of Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, pp.
423 f.
[36] Mr. Binns’s experiments are as yet unpublished.
[37] Under Mr. Binns’s direction I tried gum arabic, honey, water glass,
glue, white of egg, glycerine, and oil as binders, but none gave complete
satisfaction.
[38] H. B. Walters in his Ancient Pottery, I, p. 212, says that the glaze
runs best on a surface already baked. As a matter of fact, to make glaze
run at all on the baked surface, the biscuit has to be soaked in water.
[39] Reichhold in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei,
I, p. 152, forgets this when he argues that since the decorations were
applied on leather-hard clay they must have been executed within a few
days.
[40] Some archaeologists even claim that they have noticed hairs of
brushes in the glaze. It is, however, impossible that these are hairs
from the brushes with which the glaze was painted, as they would have
burned up in the fire to which the glaze was subjected.
[41] Cf. e.g. the discussions by Hartwig, Jahrbuch d. Instituts, XIV,
1899, pp. 147 ff.; Reichhold, in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
Vasenmalerei, I, Text, pp. 148 and 230; Tonks, American Journal of
Archaeology, XII, second series, 1908, p. 425; Walters, Ancient Pottery,
I, pp. 227 ff.
[42] For full quotations of these statements cf. pp. 97, 98.
[43] Cf. John, Malerei der Alten, p. 173.
[44] Cf. e.g. vol. I, pp. 140, 145.
[45] Cf. e.g. Pottier, Catalogue des vases antiques du Louvre, III, p.
682.
[46] Cf. e.g. Walters, Ancient Pottery, I, p. 218.
[47] Cf. e.g. in the Museum für Kleinkunst, Munich, the kylix with
Dionysos by Exekias, No. 2044, and the Euphronios kylix, No. 2620. These
give us an excellent idea of the original appearance of Athenian vases.
[48] Cf. especially in the British Museum, E178, E149, E282, E382; and in
the Metropolitan Museum, G. R. 604, 07.286.73, 07.286.74, 06.1021.108,
12.236.2, 07.286.65, G. R. 589, 06.1021.121, G. R. 573, 17.230.13, where
extensive traces can still be seen.
[49] Cf. e.g. in the British Museum, B.439, B.516, B.592, B.446;
Metropolitan Museum, 06.1021.56, G. R. 555.
[50] Cf. e.g. British Museum, E.74, E.72, E.307, E.382, E.149, E.333.
[51] Such red spots must not be confused with those caused by excess of
oxidation in the firing (cf. pp. 44 ff.).
[52] Imported Athenian clay (cf. p. 40) fired to the temperature to which
the ancient Greeks fired their pottery was so light and characterless in
color that some process to deepen the hue would appear almost imperative.
[53] Many modern imitations of kylikes lack just this feature, which
makes drinking out of them a very different story.
[54] Cf. Antike Denkmäler, II, pl. 8; Journal of Hellenic Studies,
XII, 1891, pl. XX, and XXXII, 1912, pl. VII; Furtwängler u. Reichhold,
Griechische Vasenmalerei, I, pls. 19 and 24, III, text, p. 19, fig. 7;
Notor, La femme dans l’antiquité, p. 253; Wiener Vorlegeblätter, 1889,
pl. XII (on Ficoroni cista); Hartwig, Griechische Meisterschalen, pl.
LXVII, 3a and 4, pl. LXIX, 2a-c; Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire IV,
part 2, p. 1160, fig. 6252; etc.
[55] Cf. e.g. Metropolitan Museum, Nos. 15.160.2-3, 19.39.20.
[56] It is interesting to compare in this connection the satyr heads on
shields, perhaps intended to frighten the enemy (cf. Gerhard, Auserlesene
Vasenbilder, pl. CLXXXVIII; Micali, Storia degli antichi popoli italiani
III, p. 63, pl. 41, 1-3).
[57] Cf. e.g. Zahn, Berichte der sächsischen Gesellschaft, 1854, p. 40,
note 46; British Museum, Guide to Greek and Roman Life (2d edition),
1920, p. 181, fig. 217 (No. 1905.6-13.1); Déchelette, Les vases
céramiques ornés de la Gaule romaine, II, 1904, p. 338.
[58] Nowadays plaster or wood is the usual material for such wheel-heads.
[59] Cf. e.g. Fabroni, Storia degli antichi vasi fittili aretini, 1841,
pl. III, 9, 10; V, 7, 8, 9; p. 64, and Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire,
under figlinum, p. 1122, fig. 3036.
[60] Cf. e.g. Nos. 15.163.1, 17.120.250 in the Metropolitan Museum.
[61] Cf. e.g. Iliad, XVIII, 599-601, quoted below.
[62] Cf. Reisner, Naga-ed-Dêr, I, p. 133.
[63] This information I owe to Mr. Binns.
[64] Cf. G. P. Stevens in Fowler-Wheeler, Greek Archaeology, p. 102.
[65] See especially Pottier, Catalogue des Vases au Musée du Louvre, III,
pp. 690 ff.
[66] There is no reason to assume, as has been done by Walters, History
of Ancient Pottery, I, pp. 132 and others, that these lekythoi are the
beautiful white lekythoi in our collections; it is more likely that they
are the very roughly painted little jugs found in large quantities in
tombs, but rarely placed with selected museum examples.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
The technique of Greek vases has naturally been a subject of study with
most writers on Greek ceramics. The following is a selection of the most
important works in this field:
BLÜMNER, H. Technologie u. Terminologie der Gewerbe u. Künste
bei den Griechen u. Römern, II, pp. 32 ff. Leipzig, 1895.
BRONGNIART, A. Traité des arts céramiques ou des poteries, I.
Second edition, Paris, 1854.
JAHN, O. Über ein Vasenbild welches eine Töpferei vorstellt,
in Berichte der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Leipzig, 1854.
JAMOT, P., in Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités
grecques et romaines, under figlinum.
LUYNES, Duc de. De la poterie antique, in Annali
dell’Instituto, IV, pp. 138 ff. Milan, 1894.
PERROT, G., in Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art dans
l’antiquité, IX, pp. 322 ff. Paris, 1911.
POTTIER, E. Catalogue des vases antiques de terre cuite au
Musée du Louvre, III, pp. 651 ff. Paris, 1906.
RAYET, O., et Collignon, M. Histoire de la céramique grecque,
Introduction. Paris, 1888.
REICHHOLD, K., in Furtwängler u. Reichhold, Griechische
Vasenmalerei, text passim but especially I, pp. 12 ff., 19 ff.,
45, 54, 68, 82, 140, 145 ff., 181; II, pp. 199 ff. Munich, 1904.
ROBINSON, E. Catalogue of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Vases in
the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, pp. 33 ff. Boston and New
York, 1893.
WALTERS, H. B. History of Ancient Pottery, Greek, Etruscan, and
Roman, I, pp. 202 ff. London, 1905.
WHEELER, J. R., in Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archaeology, pp.
420 ff. New York, 1909.
The two following handbooks on the manufacture of modern pottery will be
found useful also by students of ancient techniques:
BINNS, C. F. The Potter’s Craft. New York, 1910 (second
edition, 1922).
COX, G. Pottery for Artisans, Craftsmen, and Teachers. New
York, 1914.
INDEX
Alumina, 47.
Binder, medium used as, 16, 47, 50.
Biscuit, 34-37, 51.
Blunging, 2.
“Bone-dry,” 11.
Brush-case, 74.
Brushes, 47, 51, 52, 70, 71-75; representations of, 70-72.
Bucchero pottery, technique of, 45.
Building, 4, 26-27, 93-94; coils, 26; literary references to,
93-94; terracotta statuette of man in act of(?), 70; wooden
core for, 93-94.
Calipers, 15, 16, 65.
Carbon, 30, 45; dioxide, 30; monoxide, 30.
Centering, 7, 8.
Clay, 1, 20, 40-44; color of, 1, 3, 45, 54, 55, 58, 87, 88;
component parts of, 1, 88; ingredients of, 1, 55, 57; literary
references to, 87, 88; plasticity of, 1, 2, 88; porosity
of, 1, 59, 61, 62; preparation of, 1, 88; varieties of, 40;
vitrification of, 1, 29, 30; washing of, 2, 3.
Color, 36, 54, 58, 59; accessory, 44; change of, through
firing, 1, 3, 31, 36, 45, 58; literary references to, _see_
Miltos.
Cones, pyrometric, 35, 36.
Decorating, 35, 39, 42, 44, 51; ancient representations of, 40,
70-75.
Design, 15; before or after firing, 37-44; preliminary, 37, 39,
58, 72.
Draught, 30, 31, 33, 76.
Drying, 10, 21.
Fashioning of vases, 4-29; literary references to, 89-94.
Finish, 25, 69; inside, 15; outer surface, 25; under handles,
25.
Firing of vases, 3, 29-47, 79; accidents through, 36, 37, 40,
41, 44-47; length of, 35, 36; literary references to, 94-96;
methods of, 34-36; number of firings, 35, 37, 41, 42, 44;
temperature of, 35; “twice-fired,” 35, 37, 39.
Foot, 11, 12, 17, 18, 26.
Fuel, 30, 33, 34, 65, 76.
Glaze, 19, 31, 34-36, 39, 47, 57, 58, 61, 62, 65, 74, 78, 86;
application of, 39, 40-44, 47-53, 57, 72; Athenian, 48-49;
composition of, 47-49; discoloration of, 45-47; preparation of,
47; varieties of, 47; wearing qualities, 47-49.
Gum tragacanth, 47.
Handles, 19-25, 56, 60, 62; attachment of, 19, 21, 67, 69;
handmade, 20, 24; moulded, 20, 28.
Implements, potter’s, 10, 11, 64, 84-86.
Incision of details, 37-39.
Jigger, 11.
Joining, 16-19, 28, 29; representation of, on pinax(?), 68, 69.
Jolly, 11.
Kiln, 21, 32-37, 41, 44-46, 86; ancient representations of, 34,
64, 65, 76-78; literary references to, 89, 94-96; packing of,
34.
“Lagerringe,” 46.
“Lasur,” _see_ Miltos.
Leather-hard, 10, 16, 25, 37, 39, 40, 44, 50, 51, 58, 65.
Lip, 11, 12, 29, 44, 60.
Metics, as potters, 100; social standing of, 100.
Miltos, 47, 53-59, 61; as wash, 58, 59; laws governing export
of, 96, 97; literary references to, 96-98; methods of applying,
55-58.
Mortar, for crushing glaze, 74.
Moulding of vases, 20, 24, 27-29.
Moulds, 4, 12, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 86; material of, 27, 29, 86.
Oven, _see_ Kiln.
Oxidation, 30, 58.
Oxide, 1; boron, 47; calcium, 1; ferric, 30, 31, 45, 46;
ferrous, 30, 31, 45, 46, 49.
Painting, 39, 40, 42, 51, 70-75, 98; brushes for, 51-53, 70-72,
75.
Paint-pots, 70, 71, 74, 75.
Pinax, 65, 67-69, 73, 75-78.
Plaster, 20, 21, 26, 27, 85.
Polishing, 19, 58; tools for, 19.
Porosity, 1, 59, 61, 62; literary reference to, 98.
Potter, 14, 15, 17-19, 25, 27, 31, 40, 44, 47, 54, 55; ancient
representations of, 5, 9, 64-77, 80, 81; implements of, 10, 11,
64, 84-86; literary references to, 87-105; “master potter,” 75,
80; miscellaneous scenes, 78-84; shop of, 81, 82; statues of
Greek, 98-100, 102-105; of Roman, 99, 102; women as, 71.
Pottery, ancient representations of, 64-70, 75, 77, 78;
literary references to, 87-104.
Proportion, 14, 26, 59.
Pyrometer, 35.
Pyrometric cones, 35, 36.
Red ochre, _see_ Miltos.
Reduction, 30, 31, 45, 46; partial, 31.
“Relief” lines, 52, 53.
Rivets, 59, 63.
Saggers, 32, 34.
Satyr, stoking oven, 83; head, to avert evil eye, 64, 65.
Sections, work in, 15-19.
Ship, with pottery, 82, 83.
Shrinkage, 16, 28.
Silicate, 47, 49.
Slip, 2, 11, 16, 19, 21, 27, 28.
Stele, votive, 80, 81; “master potter,” 80.
Stilts, 34, 85, 86.
Stoking kiln, 65, 76.
Strainer for clay, 2; for glaze, 74.
Symmetry, Dynamic, 14.
Temperature of firing, 3, 29-32, 35, 36, 55.
Templet, 27.
“Test,” 43, 44.
Throwing, 7-9, 12, 29; ancient representations of, 65, 66;
in sections, 15-19, 69; literary references to, 88-91; to
measurements, 9, 14, 15.
Turning, 10-15, 19, 40, 42; literary references to, 89-92;
tools for, 10-12, 14, 18.
Use of Greek vases, 59-63; as ornaments, 60, 61; as practical
utensils, 59-63; as votive offerings, 60.
Vases, Attic, 12, 27-29, 54, 58, 59; fragility of, 59, 62;
measurements of, 14; porosity of, 59, 61, 62; proportions of,
59; value of, 87, 100, 101; wearing qualities of, 59, 62.
Vasiliki ware, technique of, 45.
Votive offerings, 60, 67, 68, 73, 75.
Wedging, 2, 3; literary reference to, 88.
Wheel, 4-9, 27, 29, 51, 54; ancient representations of,
5, 65-68, 72, 73; invention of potter’s, 27, 89; literary
references to, 88-91, 97, 103; types of, 4-6, 91.
Wheel-head, 7, 84, 85.