Note: Images of the original pages are available through
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Transcriber's note:
Greek words and phrases in the Greek alphabet have been
transliterated and are surrounded by plus signs (+) in
this transcription (example: +spêlaiôn+).
Footnotes in the original publication were numbered at the
page level. E.g., if a page had three footnotes, they were
numbered 1, 2 & 3, and footnote numbering began with 1 on
each page on which notes appeared. For this transcription,
all 903 footnotes have been renumbered sequentially, from 1
to 903, and footnotes for a given chapter have been placed
at the end of the chapter.
JERUSALEM EXPLORED
Being a Description of the Ancient and Modern City.
[Illustration: University Press Logo]
Cambridge:
Printed by C. J. Clay, M.A.
At the University Press.
JERUSALEM EXPLORED
Being a Description of the Ancient and Modern City,
With Numerous Illustrations
Consisting of Views, Ground Plans, and Sections,
by
ERMETE PIEROTTI,
Doctor of Mathematics, and Architect-Engineer, Civil and Military, to
His Excellency Surraya Pasha of Jerusalem.
Translated by Thomas George Bonney, M.A., F.G.S.
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
VOLUME I.--TEXT.
[Illustration: Printer's Logo]
London: Bell and Daldy, Fleet Street.
Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, and Co.
M.DCCC.LXIV.
[The right of Translation is reserved.]
TO HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY
NAPOLEON III.
Emperor of the French,
PROTECTOR OF THE HOLY PLACES,
THIS CONTRIBUTION
TO ARCHÆOLOGICAL SCIENCE,
IN WHICH HE IS HIMSELF A PROFICIENT,
IS BY HIS MAJESTY'S AUGUST PERMISSION INSCRIBED,
BY HIS OBEDIENT SERVANT,
ERMETE PIEROTTI.
_PALAIS DES TUILERIES, LE 26 NOV. 1861._
_CABINET DE L'EMPEREUR._
_MONSIEUR,_
_L'EMPEREUR ME CHARGE D'AVOIR L'HONNEUR DE VOUS INFORMER QUE, SELON VOS
DÉSIRS, SA MAJESTÉ VEUT BIEN ACCEPTER LA DÉDICACE DE VOTRE OUVRAGE SUR
LES MONUMENTS ET LES LOCALITÉS DE LA PALESTINE[1]._
_AGRÉEZ, MONSIEUR, L'ASSURANCE DE MA CONSIDÉRATION DISTINGUÉE._
_POUR LE SECRÉTAIRE DE L'EMPEREUR, CHEF DU CABINET ET PAR AUTORISATION._
_LE Ss. CHEF._
_JACALEY._
_LE DR. E. PIEROTTI._
_11 RUE DES DEUX BOULES, PARIS._
[1] Of which Work this is intended as the first part.
PREFACE.
On the subject of Jerusalem many books in various languages have already
been published; but I venture to think that there is still room for
another, as most of them are open to objections of different kinds. Some
authors have erred in being carried away by their subject, and
disappoint the reader by substituting their own reflexions for the
information that he desires to acquire. Some, with the eye of fancy,
seem to behold the shades of Kings, of Prophets, and of Heroes,
wandering among their tombs, or haunting the ruins of Sion; others,
after a short stay in Jerusalem, return to their own homes and publish
books, composed of fragments of classic lore, and the traditions they
have gathered from the guides who have accompanied them in the visits to
the Holy Places; some indeed going so far as to denounce as heretics and
infidels all who do not lend a ready belief to these tales. Lastly,
there are some who, without visiting Jerusalem, and consequently without
a minute knowledge of its topography, rely upon the information they
have gathered from the accounts of others, to reconstruct the ancient
walls, the Temple, and other buildings, and endeavour to overthrow the
conclusions which have been formed after a prolonged residence in the
country and much careful observation.
In the works of all these authors there is much that is interesting, but
the description of what is really to be seen is always more or less
defective. I have accordingly endeavoured to supply this want during my
residence in the Holy City, and now present to my readers the fruits of
eight years of continual labour, devoted to a study of the topography of
Jerusalem upon the spot, in which I have been constantly occupied in
excavating and removing the rubbish accumulated over the place during so
many centuries, in retracing the walls, in examining the monuments and
ancient remains, and in penetrating and traversing the conduits and
vaults; so that I trust I am in a position to throw some fresh light
upon the subject of Jewish Archæology. In arranging the plan of my work,
I have rested chiefly upon the Bible, the traditions of the Rabbis, and
the works of Josephus, and have made but little use of any other
authorities upon the ancient topography of the city; but, to compensate
for this, I have made excavations and watched those made by others, have
formed intimacies with the inhabitants of the country, have sought for
information on the spot, regardless of personal risk, have worked with
my own hands under the ground, and so have obtained much knowledge of
that which lies below the surface of the soil in Jerusalem; and have
pursued my purpose, at one time with bribes, at another with force, and
always with patience, perseverance, and courage.
But my efforts would have been of little avail had it not been for the
constant protection and assistance of His Excellency Surraya Pasha, of
M. de Barrère, the French Consul, and his Chancellor, M. Aimé Dequié,
who lost no opportunity of publicly testifying their esteem and regard
for me. I must not forget to express my gratitude to the Ecclesiastical
authorities, who have also shewn me great kindness.
That I have been able to publish my book in England is due to the Rev.
George Williams, Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, who, when he had
heard of my discoveries in the Holy City,--a place so dear and so full
of interest to him,--invited me to this University, gave me a truly
English welcome, and aided me to the utmost of his power in
accomplishing my desire.
For the translation of my Italian manuscript into English, I am indebted
to the Rev. T. G. Bonney, Fellow of St John's College, whom I have also
to thank for several useful suggestions and corrections. I must also
express my obligations to Mr R. W. Taylor, Fellow of the same College,
who, in order to expedite the publication of the book, kindly undertook
to assist his friend by translating the Notes.
The proof-sheets have been corrected by Mr Bonney, and revised by Mr
Williams, and by the Rev. John E. B. Mayor, Fellow of S. John's College,
who has not only been at the pains to collate them with my manuscript,
but has also aided me with his great learning and experience. I cannot
find terms adequate to express my gratitude to these three gentlemen for
their constant kindness and friendly care. Nor can I refrain from
thanking my numerous friends in this University, who have contributed to
render my sojourn among them at once pleasant and profitable; with whom
I have spent many happy hours, the memory of which will not leave me
during the rest of my life.
And now I present my book to the reader, apologizing for its many
deficiencies, and trusting that he will be an indulgent critic. It does
not profess to be more than a simple and strict record of facts, and
therefore I must ask him to pardon me if it be sometimes rather dull and
dry. I have purposely avoided, as much as possible, all that would
interfere with the main end of the work, such as personal reminiscences
and unimportant details; wishing rather to put forward facts than
theories, to rely upon sight rather than imagination. Most thankfully
shall I receive friendly correction and criticism, or suggestions and
advice for my conduct in the new investigations which I hope to make in
Palestine. As regards those which I have described in the following
pages, I can honestly say that I have spared no pains to make them as
complete as possible; and though they have cost me much time and money,
much anxiety and fatigue, still, if I succeed in throwing any additional
light upon Jewish antiquities, or in exciting a more general interest
upon such an important subject, I shall feel that I have not laboured in
vain.
ERMETE PIEROTTI.
CAMBRIDGE, _December 15th, 1863_.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I. PAGE
ORIGIN OF THE NAME JERUSALEM--HISTORY--TOPOGRAPHY AND GENERAL
ASPECT--CLIMATE--POPULATION--WATERS 1
CHAPTER II.
ANCIENT TOPOGRAPHY OF JERUSALEM--IDENTIFICATION OF THE
MOUNTAINS, HILLS AND VALLEYS--JERUSALEM IN THE TIME OF THE
JEBUSITES, DAVID, SOLOMON, JOTHAM, HEZEKIAH, MANASSEH,
NEHEMIAH, HEROD--THE TESTIMONY OF JOSEPHUS EXAMINED--THE
SIEGE BY TITUS--FORMER EXTENT OF THE CITY--JERUSALEM IN THE
TIME OF HADRIAN, THE CRUSADERS AND SOLYMAN 16
CHAPTER III.
MOUNT MORIAH AND ITS ENVIRONS--HISTORY IN THE TIME OF
ABRAHAM, JACOB, DAVID, SOLOMON, ZERUBBABEL, ALEXANDER THE
GREAT, ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES, THE MACCABEES, POMPEIUS, CRASSUS,
THE HERODS, TITUS, HADRIAN, CONSTANTINE, JULIAN THE APOSTATE,
OMAR, ABD-EL-MALEK, VALID OR ELULID, THE CRUSADERS, SALADIN,
SELIM I., SOLYMAN I.--GENERAL EXAMINATION OF MORIAH, WITH
DETAILS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS 45
CHAPTER IV.
THE CHURCH OF THE RESURRECTION, AND THE HOSPITAL OF S. JOHN,
WITH THEIR ENVIRONS--HISTORY OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE FROM THE
DEATH OF CHRIST TO THE PRESENT TIME--GENUINENESS OF THE
SEPULCHRE--GOLGOTHA--EXAMINATION OF THE EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR
OF THE CHURCH--RUINS OF THE HOSPITAL 102
CHAPTER V.
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE VIA DOLOROSA (OR THE WAY OF THE CROSS).
THE RELIGIOUS AND OTHER REMARKABLE BUILDINGS IN IT OR IN ITS
NEIGHBOURHOOD AND IN THE REST OF THE CITY, TOGETHER WITH ALL
THE CONVENTS OF THE DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES 135
CHAPTER VI.
EXCURSIONS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF THE CITY ON THE EAST,
SOUTH, AND SOUTH-WEST--THE VALLEY OF KIDRON, CALLED ALSO THE
VALLEY OF JEHOSHAPHAT, WITH ITS MONUMENTS AND REMARKABLE
PLACES--THE MOUNT OF OLIVES--BETHPHAGE--BETHANY--THE VALLEY
OF HINNOM--THE MOUNT OF EVIL COUNSEL--SOUTH-WESTERN PART OF
THE VALLEY OF GIHON--MOUNT SION--CHRISTIAN CEMETERIES--TOMB
OF DAVID, AND SUBTERRANEAN VAULTS--THE COENACULUM--THE HOUSE
OF CAIAPHAS--THE GROTTO OF S. PETER--THE LEPERS 167
CHAPTER VII.
EXCURSIONS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF THE CITY ON THE NORTH AND
WEST--THE MONUMENT OF HELENA OF ADIABENE, AND THE CHURCH
DEDICATED TO S. STEPHEN--ROYAL CAVERNS--GROTTO OF
JEREMIAH--HOUSE OF THE VINE--TOMBS OF THE KINGS--SHEIKH
JERRAH--ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE--TOMB OF SIMON THE JUST--TOMBS AT
THE HEAD OF THE KIDRON VALLEY--KIDRON POOL--VARIOUS TOMBS ON
THE NORTH-WEST--TOMBS OF THE JUDGES--SHEIKH AYMAR--RUSSIAN
BUILDINGS--VALLEY OF GIHON--BIRKET MAMILLAH--MONUMENT OF
HEROD, AND RUINS OF THE CHURCH OF S. BABYLAS--GREEK CONVENT
OF THE HOLY CROSS--PROPERTY OF THE ARCHIMANDRITE NICOFORUS 223
CHAPTER VIII.
ON THE WATERS, FIT OR UNFIT FOR DRINKING, IN JERUSALEM AND
ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD 245
CHAPTER IX.
GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE CITY OF
JERUSALEM 262
* * * * *
NOTES 281
CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 311
PRINCIPAL PASSAGES FROM THE HOLY BIBLE 315
PASSAGES FROM JOSEPHUS'S ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS 323
PASSAGES FROM JOSEPHUS'S HISTORY OF THE JEWISH WAR 327
INDEX 333
CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA.
Page 7, line 30, _for_ Hulda _read_ Huldah
Page 10, line 33, _for_ and in 1859 _read_ and in 1861
Page 14, line 2, and page 15, lines 6 and 13, _for_ Sherif _read_
Sherîf
Page 37, line 8, _for_ Barrére _read_ Barrère
Page 43, line 28, _for_ Willebrand _read_ Willibrand
Page 106, line 5, and page 117, line 14, _for_ Abbot _read_ Abbé
Page 145, line 23, _for_ then _read_ be thou
Page 155, head line, _for_ Greek Synagogue _read_ Great Synagogue
Page 207, line 18, _for_ 260 _read_ 270
Page 210, last line, _for_ Note XXII. _read_ Note XVI.
Chapter 1. The numbers of the different nations and sects that inhabit
Jerusalem were taken by the Author, in the service of Surraya Pasha, in
the year 1861.
Vols. I. and II. of the Gesta Dei per Francos, referred to in the body
of the work, form 'Tomus Primus Orientalis Historiæ.' The pages are
numbered continuously, and, according to Dr Robinson, the book usually
forms only one volume. This, however, was not observed by the translator
in verifying the references until the earlier sheets were struck off.
Sanutus' Liber Secretorum fidelium Crucis forms 'Tomus Secundus
Orientalis Historiæ.' An account of most of the earlier books referred
to in this work will be found in Dr Robinson's Biblical Researches, Vol.
III. First Appendix, pp. 3-27 (1st Edition). La Citez de Jherusalem,
contained in M. de Vogüé's work, Les Églises de la Terre Sainte, is also
printed in the Rev. G. Williams' Holy City, Vol. 1. Appendix II. pp.
134--142 (2nd Edition).
JERUSALEM EXPLORED.
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN OF THE NAME JERUSALEM--HISTORY--TOPOGRAPHY AND GENERAL
ASPECT--CLIMATE--POPULATION--WATERS.
Most authors agree in identifying the Salem of Melchizedek[2] with
Jerusalem. S. Jerome[3] however asserts that the residence of the King
of Righteousness was in the east of Judea, three leagues to the south of
the city of Scythopolis, and not far from the Jordan, supporting his
opinion by the fact that in his time a town still existed there called
Salim (_Salumias_), not far from which was Ænon[4], where S. John
Baptist baptized. The Arabs of the Jordan guided me to Salumias and to a
neighbouring valley, which I identify with "the valley of Shaveh[5]
(_the plain_), which is the king's dale." We are told that Abraham met
Melchizedek and the king of Sodom on his return from the successful
attack on the invaders, and it seems incredible that he should have gone
by Jerusalem to Hebron, thus uselessly prolonging his journey by passing
through a strange country. Nor would it be said that the king of Sodom
went out "_to meet him in the valley of the plain_," but rather "_to
seek him in the king's dale in the mountains_," nor would Melchizedek
have been received by Abraham, but they would have met in Salem[6]. For
these reasons I believe Salem and Jerusalem to be two distinct places.
There is, however, no doubt that Jerusalem was the city of the
Jebusites, a nation descended and named from Jebus, son of Canaan.
It is difficult to fix the period when it acquired the name of Jerusalem
(_Yerush-shalom_, Inheritance of Peace,) for the use of the word in
Joshua x. 1, xii. 10, Judges i. 21, does not prove that it was older
than the period of the conquest. The Emperor Hadrian called it _Ælia
Capitolina_. The City is named _El Kuds_, or _Beit el Makdus_ (the Holy
House), by the Arabic writers of the middle ages. It is possible that it
may have borne this name at a much earlier period, as Cadytis[7], a
great city of Syria, taken by Necho, king of Egypt, may be Jerusalem;
Cadytis being only a corruption of the Aramaic _Kadishtha_ (the Holy).
Some suppose that _Jerusalem_ has been formed by the union of _Jebus_
and _Salem_, the _b_ being changed into _r_, but the Hebrew form of the
word does not admit of this transformation. The derivation given by
Lysimachus[8] is amusing from its absurdity. He asserts that in the time
of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, the Jews were expelled from that country by
the order of the Sun-god, who was disgusted at the diseased and leprous
condition of the race, and visited the land with a famine; that being
led by Moses, they travelled over the desert; and "the difficulties of
the journey being over, they came to a country inhabited; and there they
abused the men, and plundered and burnt their temples; and then came
into that land which is called Judea, and there they built a city and
dwelt therein; and that their city was named _Hierosyla_, from this
robbing of the temples; but that still, upon the success they had
afterwards, they in time changed its denomination, that it might not be
a reproach to them, and called the city _Hierosolyma_, and themselves
_Hierosolymites_."
Adonizedek was king of Jerusalem at the time of the conquest under
Joshua[9]. He fell in battle against the Jews, near Gibeon, and some
time after the lower town was taken by them. The Jebusites[10], however,
still remained in it, among the descendants of Judah and Benjamin, and
were not driven from the upper town till the eighth year of David's
reign, when their stronghold was taken by storm[11], and the place
became the capital of his kingdom. Jerusalem attained to its highest
pitch of grandeur under the government of Solomon, being the centre of
commerce, civilization, and religion. After the division of the Tribes,
it continued to be the capital of the kingdom of Judah. In the fifth
year of Rehoboam it was taken and sacked by Shishak[12], king of Egypt.
In the reign of Jehoram[13] bands of Philistines and Arabs entered the
city, plundered the king's palace, and carried his wives and sons into
captivity. In the reign of Amaziah[14] it was sacked by Joash king of
Israel. It was unsuccessfully threatened by the Assyrians in the days of
Hezekiah[15]. Manasseh[16] fortified the western side of the city and
Ophel, but it was laid waste by the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar[17].
After a captivity of half a century, the Jews were permitted by Cyrus to
rebuild it, but, owing to the opposition of their enemies, the work was
not completed till the time of Nehemiah. Jerusalem was involved in the
troubles caused by the fall of the Persian Empire. The city opened its
gates to Alexander, who not only treated it with humanity, but also
conferred upon it several privileges. After his death it was taken by
Ptolemy, son of Lagus, king of Egypt. Under the Ptolemies, and for a
while under the Seleucidæ, it on the whole enjoyed peace and honour,
until the barbarity of the tyrant Antiochus Epiphanes renewed the
sorrows of the unhappy city. The heroic sons of the house of Mattathias
delivered their country from this yoke, and it remained under the
princes of the Asmonean family until Palestine was conquered by the
Romans. Pompeius the Great, who entered Jerusalem as a conqueror 63
B.C., respected the lives and property of the inhabitants. The temple
was protected by him, only to be plundered by Crassus. The liberality of
Herod the Great added much to the splendour of Jerusalem; but after his
death the spirit of sedition spread more and more every day among the
Jews, producing frequent revolts against the Romans, which were
terminated by the destruction of the city by Titus, A.D. 71. Thus were
the predictions of the prophets fulfilled.
After lying in ruins for sixty years it was rebuilt by the Emperor
Hadrian upon a part of its former site, and called Ælia Capitolina[18];
but the Jews were forbidden to enter it under pain of death. When
Christianity triumphed in the reign of Constantine, the heathen temples
were replaced by churches in honour of every memorial of the Saviour's
life and death.
Chosroes II., king of the Persians, took the city by assault, A.D. 614;
it was regained by the Emperor Heraclius A.D. 629, and again taken by
the Khalif Omar A.D. 636. After this it was successively under the
dominion of the Persian Khalifs, of the Fatimites of Egypt, and of the
Seljukians, in whose time the Crusades were commenced, owing to the
preaching of Peter the Hermit. The Christian army, led by Godfrey of
Bouillon, entered the Holy City A.D. 1099. The Latin kingdom was brought
to an end by the victories of Saladin A.D. 1187. Sultan Malek el-Kamel
ceded the city to Frederick II. of Germany, but it was recovered by the
Mohammedans under Jenghiz Khan, A.D. 1244. It then remained subject to
the different dynasties of the Sultans of Egypt and Syria, until it was
conquered by the Turks under Selim I. A.D. 1517. Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt
took possession of it A.D. 1832, but the Great Powers restored it to the
Porte A.D. 1840[19]. The spirit of the present Turkish government,
influenced as it is by the nations of Europe, induces us to think that a
happier and more peaceful future is in store for Jerusalem, and that
under their protection the furious contests, so common among the rival
sects of Christians, who struggle for the possession of the Holy
Places, will be appeased. By these quarrels only will the soil of
Jerusalem be stained with blood, not by the fanaticism of the
Mohammedan; he is, and will be, restrained by the power of the local
authorities, the energy of the Consuls, and the bribes paid by the
Convents to pacify the more restless spirits. We may also hope that
European civilization will speedily penetrate into Palestine, and that
Jerusalem will become an inviolable asylum, open to every devout man;
for all, without distinction of creed, are entitled to mourn, to hope,
and to pray, on the spot consecrated by the sacrifice of our Divine
Master.
The city of Jerusalem[20] is situated about 31° 47' north latitude and
33° east longitude (Paris) in the highest part of the mountains of
Judea, and upon the ancient boundaries of the tribes of Judah and
Benjamin (Joshua xviii. 6). It is surrounded on every side by rising
ground, and therefore cannot be seen by the traveller until he
approaches near it. The most distant view of it is obtained from the
village of _Neby Samwîl_[21] (Prophet Samuel), three hours (about twelve
miles) distant on the north-west; and it was from this height that the
first Crusaders, under Godfrey of Bouillon, saluted Jerusalem with
shouts of exultation.
On the north the city is overshadowed by the mountain of _Shafat_ (fair
prospect), the ancient Scopus. It was from this position that Titus made
his first general survey of the city, which at that time he had no
intention of destroying[22]. On the east rises Mount Olivet; on the
south, an eminence known as the Hill of Evil Counsel, and also as the
Mount of the Sepulchres, from the great number of tombs existing there.
To the west are the summits of Mount Gihon. Valleys separate all these
mountains from the city and the high table-land to the north, entirely
surrounding it except on the north-west and a small portion of the north
side, where the ground is so nearly level as to admit of an easy
approach.
On the north commences the valley of Kidron, at first not deep but
sinking as it approaches the east, and continuing to do so along the
whole of that side, until it reaches the lower extremity of the gardens
of Siloam. Here it unites with the valley of Hinnom, which runs parallel
to the south of the city. On the west is the valley of Gihon, which is
very deep at the point where it takes the name of Hinnom, on the
south-west. From this conformation of the ground, it is obvious that, in
times when only the weapons and military engines of ancient warfare were
employed, the city was an important stronghold, well defended by nature,
except on the north-west and a small portion of the north side, where
the almost level ground exposed it to an attack. From the most remote
periods of antiquity until the time of the Crusades and Saladin,
Jerusalem was invariably assaulted at these points by those who made
themselves masters of the city.
A few olive-trees, a bare argillaceous soil scattered over with stones
and flints, some ruins of ancient sepulchres, four water-tanks, some
cisterns almost entirely dilapidated, and bare rocks, some of which
exhibit traces of chiselling, are the only objects that meet the eye
throughout the whole region of the north and north-west.
On the east, along the course of the valley of Kidron, nothing is seen
but rocks and accumulations of earth and rubbish: these continue
likewise along the south, but the desolate effect is somewhat concealed
by the growth of vegetation, and by the gardens of the peasants of
Siloam. The ruins still existing, and the nature of the soil, which is
mostly grey in colour and full of lime, shew that the ground on this
side was once occupied by houses. Finally, on the west are seen the
reservoir of Mamillah, accumulations of earth and rubbish, argillaceous
soil, bare rocks, and a few recent plantations,--the work of the
improver of cultivation in Palestine, the Greek Archimandrite,
Nicoferus.
As may be inferred from this description, the environs of Jerusalem
present an appearance of wretchedness and desolation, that cannot fail
to strike the eye of the traveller: and the feeling of melancholy is
further increased by the thought that the Holy City itself is surrounded
by tombs which are daily being opened, and that the inhabitants have
only cemeteries for their public promenades. The memories of the past
alone are able to attract the traveller and the pilgrim to
Jerusalem,--not its present condition; for the miserable spectacle
presented by the monuments still existing above ground would certainly
not repay the trouble and fatigue of so long a journey. But those
memories, together with the subterranean remains, afford ample
recompense to any one possessing imagination and religious feeling, who
wishes to study the Bible in its own peculiar country, where its use
will inevitably lead him to the truth.
During the past few years several buildings have been erected in the
neighbourhood of Jerusalem, more especially on the north-west. Of these,
the most remarkable, both for their extent and for their site, which
commands the city on every side, are those belonging to Russia. This
great nation, though the last to establish a mission here, has been the
first to choose a fine situation and erect suitable buildings upon it.
The occupants have also the advantage of escaping from the bad smells of
the city. I was the first to offer this site to Cyril, Bishop of
Melitopolis, and head of the Mission, but it was declined. I renewed the
offer to His Excellency M. de Mansouroff, who at first refused it, but
afterwards gave orders that the purchase should be made.
We will now proceed to a survey of the city itself. The whole _terrain_
slopes sensibly in an easterly direction; its highest point is at the
north-western angle of the walls; but between this position and the
highest part of Sion to the south the difference of level is not so
great as to forbid us to conjecture that it was originally one hill. The
accumulations of soil have so much altered the surface of the ground
that it is impossible to recognize ancient localities in the modern city
without making excavations: this I have done to an extent that enables
me to speak confidently on the point. Believing that in an undertaking
of this kind it is useless to form an opinion without an accurate
investigation of the soil and a careful study of the subject, I could
not be content to remain merely a few days in the country.
Modern Jerusalem does not occupy the whole of the space covered by the
ancient city in the days of Herod; the greater part of Mount Sion (to
the south) being excluded, as it has been since the time when Hadrian
rebuilt the city under the name of _Ælia Capitolina_. The agreement
between the descriptions of the town, given by William of Tyre, James of
Vitri, Brocardus and many others in the middle ages, and those of modern
writers, shews that its limits have not since undergone any changes. The
wall, which now surrounds the city, was built from the foundations at
that time, and only restored in some parts by order of Sultan Solyman
the Magnificent, son of Selim I. in 1534, as declared by the
inscriptions over the gates[23]. This wall is not of uniform height, but
varies from thirty-six to forty-two feet. Its thickness also varies in
different parts, from four to five and five and a half feet. The whole
wall is crowned by battlements, and makes a great number of angles; of
these there are more on the south than on the north; while on the east
it forms nearly a straight line, and on the west, two segments, meeting
in a very obtuse angle at the Jaffa gate. Here rise some towers[24], and
the old fortress, called the Castle of David[25]. This constitutes the
feeble nucleus of the fortification of the city, and is of no importance
whatever in the present state of military science. The form of the city
is an irregular trapezium, the longest side of which is the north, the
next the south; the east is shorter than either of the former, the west
the shortest of all.
The walls contain eleven gateways[26], five of which are closed up.
1st. On the north, the gate of Damascus, called by the Arabs
_Bâb-el-'Amud_, or The Gate of the Column[27]. Through this is the road
to the ancient land of Ephraim, and so to Nablûs and Damascus. It is
also the gate of honour by which all the Mohammedan authorities who
arrive as governors or as visitors to the Holy City make their first
entry. This gate is better built than any of the others, and presents a
fine appearance; its Saracenic architecture is magnificent; the few
arabesques and ornaments are of excellent workmanship. Inside, on the
right-hand wall on entering, is a Cufic inscription.
2nd. Proceeding eastwards, about 780 feet from the gate just described,
is the gate, commonly called that of Herod, which has been walled up for
some few years, to save the expense of a guard. The Arabs call it
_Bâb-ez-Zaheri_, which some translate as Gate of Gardens. Close to this
gate is a small reservoir, called the Pilgrim's Pool, in memory of a
maiden who made a vow to walk to Jerusalem barefoot and fasting, and
died of exhaustion on reaching this spot.
3rd. Continuing along the eastern side and turning to the south, after
passing by a ditch excavated in the rock, we come to a pool and to the
Gate of Saint Mary, _Bâb-Sitti-Mariam_ of the Arabs, called by many S.
Stephen's Gate. Over the gateway are four lions in _bas relief_, said
traditionally to have been placed there by the Khalif Omar[28]. The pool
is called _Birket-Hammam-Sitti-Mariam_, or the Pool of the Bath of our
Lady Mary. This gate leads to the valley of Kidron, commonly called the
valley of Jehoshaphat, to Bethany, and to Jericho.
4th. At a short distance, towards the south, is the Golden Gate[29],
which would open upon the area of the _Haram-es-Sherîf_. This is the
most richly ornamented of all, and is remarkable for its architecture,
of which I shall presently speak at greater length. It has long been
closed up, doubtless on account of a legend, to which much importance is
attached by the natives, which states that through this gate a sovereign
from the west will enter, on a Friday, and make himself master of the
city. In consequence, many resort to the gate every Friday to offer
their mid-day prayer and to entreat God to deliver them from foreign
invasions.
5th. Within a short distance is a very small gate, also built up, which
M. de Saulcy was the first to recognize, (in my opinion wrongly,) as the
gate of Jehoshaphat of the period of the Crusades.
6th. Passing the south-east corner of the wall, and proceeding westward,
we observe a gate with a pointed arch, also walled up.
7th. Continuing in the same direction we find a triple gate, also closed
with masonry.
8th. The southern gate, called by the Mohammedans _Bâb-el-Huldah_, Gate
of Huldah[30]. This gate, now disused, is under the Mosque _el-Aksa_. Of
its ornamentation I shall speak more fully in another place.
9th. Still keeping along the southern wall in a westerly direction we
find the small Dung Gate, called by the Arabs _Bâb-el-Mogharibeh_, Gate
of the western Africans. It is not kept open throughout the year; but
when there is a scarcity of water in the city, it is used by the
water-carriers.
10th. Ascending towards Sion, we reach the Sion Gate, _Bâb-Neby-Daûd_,
(The Gate of the prophet David,) so called because it leads to the
Sepulchre of David, which is at a short distance. Through it too is the
way to the Christian and Jewish cemeteries.
11th. Lastly, on the west is the Jaffa Gate[31], or in Arabic,
_Bâb-el-Khalíl_, (Gate of Hebron,) because through this gate is the best
and shortest road to Hebron.
The appearance of Jerusalem within the walls is sombre and sad, offering
no attraction to the eye, and filling the mind with deep melancholy.
With the exception of the esplanade of the _Haram-es-Sherîf_, the city
presents but a mass of buildings without order or design, very few of
which deserve special attention. The cupolas of the Church of the
Resurrection, that of the new Jewish Synagogue, and some minarets, are
the only edifices which tower above the others, and the forms even of
these are not pleasing. The panorama of Jerusalem, as seen from
Olivet[32], is striking from the feelings it awakens and the
reminiscences it calls up; but it conveys no idea of life. It is in
truth the panorama of a Deicide city. The streets and lanes entangled in
the labyrinth of houses are irregular, narrow, dirty, and ill-paved;
through many of them flow open sewers, receiving the drainage from the
houses, and filth of all kinds abounds. There was a period when it was
even thought desirable to leave the gates of the city open at night, in
order that hyenas and jackals might enter and purify the streets by
devouring the carcases of animals that were lying about.
The vaulted bazaars, which in many cities of the East are so full of
life and activity, at Jerusalem look rather like caves containing
sepulchral cells, and the visitor must be careful where he stands, lest
some portion of the ruinous wall fall upon him, where he sets his foot,
or against whom he brushes in the street. With few exceptions, the
fronts of the houses present nothing but rows of windows with iron-bars,
or heavy wooden _jalousies_, that give them the appearance of
prisons--weeds and hyssop are growing upon many--others are fast falling
to decay--the whole is a sad picture of neglect and indifference.
There are three great divisions of the city. A central valley,
commencing at the N.W., outside the Damascus gate, and terminating at
the S.E., below the Pool of Siloam, separates it into two parts, of
which that on the west of the valley may be considered as the first
division, being larger than both the others together. These are
separated one from another by a street, now called (for the greater part
of its length) the Via Dolorosa, which begins at the Gate of Saint Mary,
whence it rises westward until it meets the central valley. The hill to
the north of this street forms the second division, and the platform on
the south, occupied by the _Haram-es-Sherîf_ and its precincts, the
third division.
The first division is traversed from north to south by a street[33]
extending from the Damascus Gate to the Gate of Sion. The part to the
west of this is chiefly inhabited by Christians, and may therefore be
considered as the Christian Quarter; the part to the east, as far as the
central valley, is occupied by people of various creeds. From the Jaffa
Gate as far as the western side of the _Haram_, the city is traversed by
another street, called in the time of the Crusaders the Street of David.
The district, then, east of the street leading to the Gate of Sion, and
S.E. of the Street of David, is the Jewish Quarter; and that north of
the Street of David, together with the western side of the central
valley, the Mohammedan Quarter, although many Christians and Jews also
dwell in it.
The second division may be considered as partly a Christian and partly a
Mohammedan Quarter, because in the last few years the Christians have
become possessed of much of it, especially along the northern side of
the Via Dolorosa.
The third division is entirely a Mohammedan Quarter, except that the
Armenian Catholics possess a small plot of ground in the angle formed by
the junction of the Via Dolorosa with the central valley.
Of all these quarters, the dirtiest, most fetid, and wretched, is that
of the Jews, and this not on account of its topographical position,
which is undoubtedly the best of any, but entirely from the habits of
the people, who pay no attention to cleanliness either in their houses
or dress; they wallow in the mire, so to speak, and carry it on their
persons as though fearing to be robbed of it. They dwell in small
houses, huddled together in great numbers, like moving heaps of filth,
and seem only to use their reason for the purpose of plunging more
deeply into the dirt. I have repeatedly entered their habitations, and
observed that in the courts masses of filth were accumulating year by
year and producing various physical evils, simply because the occupants
would not spend the few _piastres_ necessary for its removal. It is
impossible to persuade them of the unhealthiness of their way of living,
because they would themselves have to pay for any improvements in it;
while, if they fall ill, the hospitals are chargeable with the expense.
Moreover, in two rooms, measuring from twelve to fourteen feet square,
it is by no means rare to find a whole family of six or eight persons.
The mere sight of these things enables one to understand, in some
measure, the statements of Josephus in his "Wars of the Jews," both as
to the number of deaths during the siege by the Romans, and the causes
which produced such mortality. In visiting this quarter, it is
impossible to forget the curse that hangs over the children of Israel,
and the words of Deuteronomy ix. 6: "Understand, therefore, that the
Lord thy God giveth thee not this good land to possess it for thy
righteousness; for thou art a stiffnecked people." Alas! no longer can
any one exclaim at sight of Jerusalem: "Beautiful for situation, the joy
of the whole earth, is mount Sion, on the sides of the north, the city
of the great King[34]."
The climate of Jerusalem would not be unhealthy, if the streets were
kept cleaner, if the heaps of refuse were deposited further from the
walls, and if the lazy agriculturists would avail themselves of it for
manuring the ground; if the houses were kept in a more cleanly state,
and the drains were better attended to; if the rain-water, by which the
cisterns are fed, passed through filters which were themselves free from
impurity; if the dead, especially among the Mohammedans, were interred
at a greater depth; if all the cemeteries were at a distance from human
habitations, and so situated, that the prevalent winds of the country
would not carry their exhalations over the city; if the carrion and
offal, now often found in the city itself, and always abounding in the
immediate vicinity, were buried; if, in short, there existed a board for
the maintenance of sanitary regulations. His Excellency Surraya Pasha
has made every effort to remedy all these evils, and something has been
done to promote the healthiness of the place since he removed the
slaughter-houses and tannery from the centre of the city. But he has
stood alone in his endeavours. His subordinates, not being animated by
the same spirit, according to their custom, have neglected to see his
commands carried into execution. Hence the result of his measures,
though very perceptible, has not yet been proportionate to just
expectation.
Although the climate is not subject to the frequent and sudden changes
that occur in western countries, yet it is necessary to guard against
the variation of temperature in the morning and evening, which is very
great, and an ordinary cause of violent attacks of fever, not
unfrequently fatal. Affections of the eyes are common among the lower
classes, who so seldom wash their faces. Those of cleanly habits rarely
suffer.
From the month of October until the end of March the temperature is much
lowered by the rains. In December and January snow occasionally falls.
From the beginning of April to the month of October there is great heat
during the day and much dew by night. At this season the greatest care
must be taken of the health.
The ordinary population of Jerusalem comprises about 20,453 souls, but
at the Easter season this number is more or less increased, according to
the concourse of pilgrims, and it is impossible to fix the numbers, even
approximately. In 1856 about 12,800 pilgrims arrived in the Holy City;
in 1859, 7000; and in 1859 not more than 1200. The following are the
religious communities in Jerusalem:--
1st. The Jews, whose numbers amount to 7,738: of these, 5,200 are called
_Sephardim_, and derive their origin from the Jews driven out of Spain
A.D. 1497, under the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic and Isabella. Their
Spanish tongue, mixed with many expressions from the Arabic and other
languages, is the sole trace they have preserved of their former
temporary home. The second branch is composed of 2,500 _Ashkenazim_,
from the countries of the north and west of Europe, who have taken up
their abode at Jerusalem: some moved solely by the desire to die in the
land of their patriarchs, others to exercise their industry, the greater
number to profit, with the _Sephardim_, by the abundant alms sent
thither by their co-religionists of Europe, and badly distributed by a
wretched administration. Finally, the _Karaites_,--a sect which sprang
up about the decline of the Jewish kingdom, and admits no human
interpretation of the Old Testament, nor any Rabbinical book--number
about 38, and are superior to all the rest in intelligence, education,
cleanliness, and probity. They belong to the country, though they may
have occasionally abandoned it for a short time during periods of
trouble.
The head of the whole Jewish community is the Grand Rabbi
(_Khakam-bashi_), to whom all look up, both as the head of their
religion, and as the one to whom the distribution of the alms chiefly
belongs. He it is who gives civil protection to the _Sephardim_ and
_Karaites_, and supports their interests with the local government;
while the _Ashkenazim_ are protected by the Consuls of the different
nations whose subjects they are. Their synagogues are numerous but
unimportant[35]; a hospital, a dispensary, and a house of refuge,
outside the Jaffa gate, are due to the kindness of their co-religionists
in Europe, among the most distinguished of whom are the Messrs.
Rothschild and Sir Moses Montefiore. It is to be hoped that their public
schools for both sexes will for the future be better managed and more
effective than they have hitherto been.
The Mohammedans number 7,598; thus divided, Arabs 6,854, Turks 680,
Lepers (a separate class) 64. The first are the proprietors of the
country, and govern it with moderation; less, however, from natural
inclination, than from the advantages resulting to themselves from this
course. They are aware that any excesses committed by them at Jerusalem
would not only entail severe punishment, but involve them in the
greatest distress, for but few of them live on their property or by
commerce. Many are employed in public offices or under the civil and
ecclesiastical authorities; others derive the means of subsistence from
the influx of pilgrims and travellers; and the rest subsist upon the
alms distributed by the convents, and in some cases by the Consuls. From
all these sources the Mohammedan prospers in Jerusalem, and consequently
is generally not averse to the Christian. Even at the time of the late
disasters in the Lebanon and the massacres of Damascus, His Excellency
Surraya Pasha by his activity and force of character was able to prevent
any outbreak in Palestine, thus earning the gratitude of every
Christian.
The Lepers are separated from all, and inhabit a very filthy quarter,
near the gate of Sion. The reader must not believe that they live in
abject misery; they have property of their own and beasts of burden to
fetch and carry their provisions, and each one has his special duty
assigned to him by the head of their community (chosen from among
themselves); either to provide in some way for the common wants, or, in
the case of the most diseased, to solicit alms incessantly, which is
done with so much success that no one of them would submit to be cured,
for fear of losing so profitable a profession.
The orthodox Greeks are in number about 2,700; they are chiefly subjects
of the Sublime Porte, and acknowledge as their religious head the
Patriarch of Jerusalem, who also, in virtue of his high position,
directs and counsels them in their civil affairs. The great Greek
convent of Saint Constantine at Jerusalem is the light-tower that sheds
its beneficent rays not only over the city but through the whole
country: being very rich, it exercises the greatest influence; modifies
the policy of the government; curbs fanaticism; rouses the idle; finds
work for the poor; acquires very large landed possessions, and
encourages an enlightened system of cultivation; in a word, it greatly
fosters the small amount of prosperity visible in the country.
The Greek Church has many convents, hospices, seminaries, schools, and a
hospital; but of these, and of those belonging to the other communities,
I will speak in detail in another chapter.
The number of the Latins or Roman Catholics is about 1,270. Except a few
who are under the protection of the different Consuls, they are all
subject to the Porte, but yield religious submission to a Patriarch,
delegated by the Pope, who resides in Jerusalem. The inability to lavish
money, as the Greek convent does, would limit the influence of the
Patriarch and the Franciscan Fathers of the Holy Land, but that happily
this want is largely compensated by the special protection accorded to
the Holy Places officially by France, and also by other Christian
Powers, which, though not called upon to give protection, yield it from
devotion. Chief among these is Spain, who, both in times past and
present, has liberally aided in supporting the religious communities
that have the care of the Holy Places. Hence it comes that from these
resources, in addition to those supplied by the French Government, the
Propaganda of Rome, Lyons, and other places, both the Patriarch and the
Guardian of the Holy Land are so well able to minister to the wants of
the members of their Church, to assist the sick, to entertain the
pilgrims, and to maintain seminaries and schools for the civil and
religious education of the youth of both sexes.
The Armenians do not exceed 526 in number, and belong to the Monophysite
sect, declared heretical by the Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451. They are
subject to the Porte, but yield religious submission to their Patriarch,
who sometimes gives them excellent advice in civil matters. The
Armenians are few and well governed. They are industrious and free from
abject poverty, applying themselves to trade and commerce, and may be
truly said to live by the sweat of their brows.
Of the Protestants, about 206 belong to the Anglican Church, and 62 to
the Lutheran; total 268.
The Copts are so few in number, and so entirely engrossed in their
commercial pursuits, that there is nothing whatever to be said about
them; they live a quiet unobtrusive life, and are 130 in all.
The Abyssinians are so wretchedly poor that they have ceded, or at least
leased out in perpetuity, most of their rights in the Holy Places to the
Armenians, who, in return, furnish them with the means of daily
subsistence. Their number does not exceed 80.
Notwithstanding the numerous caravans of pilgrims which Russia annually
sent to the Holy Land, that country formerly did not possess a foot of
ground in Jerusalem. But a few years before the last Eastern war, Russia
established in the Holy City an Archimandrite, for whom the Greeks
themselves supplied a fitting residence. The jealousy of the latter,
however, was soon aroused, and they were foolish enough to treat as
dangerous intruders those whom a more prudent course of conduct might
have made valuable allies. The plans of Russia have perhaps changed
since the late war; that which she has been unable to secure at once by
force of arms, she will doubtless acquire more slowly by other means,
which time will bring more fully to light. Meanwhile she is at present
taking the lead in the restoration of the cupola of the Holy Sepulchre.
In February 1858 a Russian Bishop, accompanied by his clergy, took up
his abode in Jerusalem; in October of the same year, the Russian
consulate was established, and a temporary hospice opened pending the
erection of a permanent one.
The new buildings are nearly finished, but not yet inhabited. The
community numbers 68.
The Syrians, who possess a convent presided over by a Bishop, are in
number 32.
The Greek Catholics have a well-built convent. The number of those
permanently established in the city is 24.
The Armenian Catholics possess an estate, on which they intend to erect
a church, a convent, and a Bishop's house. Their number will then
increase, at present they are but 6.
The Ammonites are 8 in number, the Disciples 3, and the Sabbatarians 2:
these three sects have arrived during the last few years from America,
but have not made any proselytes.
From these numbers it results that the whole population, as I have
already stated, amounts to 20,453.
Compared with the space surrounded by the walls the population is very
small. Without including the large area of the _Haram-es-Sherîf_,
Jerusalem could easily contain at least three times as many inhabitants
as it now does. If indeed the houses were built two or three stories
high, if those belonging to the Government and the mosques were
occupied, if those now tottering or in ruins were rebuilt and made
habitable, if the numerous convents of the different religious
communities contained a number of inhabitants in proportion to their
sizes, if also the plots of land now abandoned, covered with rubbish or
occupied by gardens, were partially built over, there would be no lack
of room for a greatly increased population. From this it is evident
that, even if the city did not contain the exaggerated number of more
than a million at the time of the siege by Titus, the amount of its
inhabitants might have been considerable, especially when Ophel and the
southern part of Sion were within the enclosure, thus augmenting the
habitable space by more than a third.
To complete the description of the present state of Jerusalem, a few
words may be said about the sources of water and the sewers, which at
present so insufficiently supply the wants of the city. First come the
cisterns for rain-water, which are thickly sprinkled over Jerusalem and
its suburbs; one at least being possessed by every landholder and
community. When, during the summer-months, the supply of rain-water
fails, the peasants of the neighbouring villages, especially of Siloam
(where it is drawn from the well of Joab, _Bir-el-Eyub_), drive a
thriving trade as water-carriers. Such is the sad state of a city once
so well supplied with water from the works constructed by its former
kings and the Herods, which are now for the most part in ruins.
The conduit of Solomon (by many called that of Pilate), which constantly
supplied Jerusalem from the fountains of Etham, still exists, and by it
during the last few years (by direction of Kiamil Pasha and Surraya
Pasha) the water was, under my care, again brought into the city. Owing
to the length of the aqueduct (about three hours' journey) it was
impossible to protect it from the Arabs, whose wanton injuries before
long cut off the supply of water. On the west, the Pool of Mamillah,
though partly filled with earth, catches the rain-water, which is
conveyed from it by a dilapidated conduit into the so-called Pool of
Hezekiah, inside the city. This, during a few months of the year,
supplies a bath. The water, being mixed with dirt and the drainings from
the sepulchres round Mamillah, is not fit to drink. The Pool by St
Mary's Gate, being in bad repair, contains very little water; during
twenty or thirty days in the year it supplies the bath close to the
wall, within the city, called _Hamman-sitti-Mariam_. A similar reason to
that mentioned above renders this water also unfit for drinking. The
Pilgrims' Pool, on the north, close to Herod's Gate, is too small to be
worth further notice. The Pool at the head of the Valley of Kidron, on
the north, is filled with earth and stones. That of _Birket-es-Sultan_
on the west cannot hold water, as it escapes by the south wall. The
great Pool of Siloam is now filled with earth and converted into a
garden. The Pool of Bethesda, within the walls, is almost choked with
earth and refuse that has been thrown into it; by this time it would
have been quite filled up, had not Kiamil Pasha, at my earnest request,
put a stop to the practice in 1856. Within the _Haram-es-Sherîf_ the
great cistern at the south-east corner is not only in ruins but so
filled with rubbish as to be useless. This is the effect not so much of
time as of Vandalism and of the carelessness of Mohammedans about
keeping up ancient monuments; when they are gone they regret their loss,
but take no pains whatever to preserve them.
The waters naturally unfit for drinking are, inside the city, the
springs of the _Hammam-es-shefa_ (Bath of Shefa), situated near the
western side of the _Haram-es-Sherîf_. The water supplies the
neighbouring bath, but has a disagreeable taste. Outside the city is the
spring called the Fountain of the Virgin, that runs into the Pool of
Siloam. It is used for irrigating the gardens of Siloam and for domestic
purposes. Neither of these springs gives a copious supply of water.
The city is full of sewers, the principal being that which, beginning
from the Damascus Gate and following the line of the central valley,
goes out under the south wall at the Dung Gate, and continues along the
western side of the same valley till it comes to the great Pool of
Siloam. Another goes along the Street of David, joining the former on
the east. All are in the worst possible condition, and annually stand in
need of repair, as they frequently become choked up by the accumulated
filth.
The above brief sketch may suffice for the present; the subject will be
treated in detail, and further information given in a future chapter.
FOOTNOTES:
[2] Gen. xiv. 18.
[3] Ep. ad Evang. Presb. § 7.
[4] S. John iii. 23.
[5] Gen. xiv. 17.
[6] Advocates of the other opinion rely on 2 Sam. xviii. 18, but in this
passage _the king's dale_ only is mentioned, without the specification
of _the valley of the plain_. These last words could not be used of a
place overhung by the steep slopes of Mount Moriah and Mount Olivet.
[7] Herod, II. 159; III. 5.
[8] Josephus, c. Ap. I. 34.
[9] Josh. x. 1-27.
[10] Judg. i. 21; Josephus, Ant. V. 2, §§ 2, 3.
[11] 2 Sam. v. 6-9.
[12] 1 Kings xiv. 25, 26.
[13] 2 Chron. xxi. 16, 17.
[14] 2 Chron. xxv. 23, 24.
[15] 2 Kings xix. 35.
[16] 2 Chron. xxxiii. 14.
[17] 2 Kings xxv. 9, 10.
[18] Note I.
[19] See the Chronology in Appendix.
[20] Plates II., IV.
[21] Note II.
[22] Note III.
[23] Note IV.
[24] Plate V.
[25] Plate VI.
[26] Note V.
[27] Plate VII.
[28] Images of animals are not forbidden to Mohammedans; see for example
the Court of Lions in the Alhambra.
[29] Plate XVIII.
[30] Plate XX.
[31] Plate V.
[32] Plate I.
[33] Note VI.
[34] Psalm xlviii. 2.
[35] The Great Synagogue and the Polish are the only two worth mention.