in all large factories, and some of them will come under observation in
their proper places.
In the mean time we shall confine our observations to the old system,
which still prevails in most small factories and all small towns.
Our honest forefathers, the manufacturers in former times, would insist
upon making hats to wear not for a season, as with us, but for many
years, being afraid of damaging the trade to do otherwise, but now a
hat for city wear, of scarcely three ounces weight, and lasting two or
it may be three months, is quite a common thing.
The usual quantity of stuff given out for a regular felt hat, modified
of course to a very great extent by the market, we shall suppose to be
three ounces of fur. It may or may not be a mixture of different kinds
and qualities of stuff previously prepared by carroting, and may or may
not be refined by the winnowing machine, which separates the different
qualities of fur. These three ounces, however, are sometimes increased
by unprincipled men to four and a quarter or four and a half ounces,
by the addition of other and cheaper ingredients, which are all laid
upon a platform of boards about five feet square, called a hurdle, over
which a large bow of about six feet long strung with cat-gut, Fig. 1,
is suspended. This bow is held by the left hand of the hatter, and with
the right he holds a small piece of wood with a head or knot upon it,
Fig. 2, with which he tugs the string of the bow and makes it vibrate
upon the stuff, and into it, with great dexterity and with the nicest
judgment. This operation has always been considered a beautiful sight
to a stranger, as the performer goes on plucking the string, and the
string playing upon the top of the fur, which lies upon the left hand
side of the platform. The fur touched by the string is made to fly from
one side of the boards to the other with the greatest regularity. So
nicely is this bowing performed, the stuff flying from the bow-string
hair by hair, and flake by flake, that a hat in this loose state may
measure several inches in thickness.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.
Hat Bow.]
[Illustration: Fig. 2.
Bow-Pin.]
In this operation, the different materials are tossed about to-and-fro
repeatedly, and mixed with a much greater regularity and change of
position of the various filaments than if drawn by carding machinery.
One half of the intended hat, called a bat, is bowed at a time, and
both in nearly a triangular shape, which being gathered up, and pressed
with a flat square piece of wicker-work, Fig. 3, and afterwards with
a smooth skin or cloth, is pressed and gently rubbed with the hands
backward and forward so as to create a friction on the surface
fibres, thereby interlacing the outside filaments, by which means
the simply safe-lifting of these two half-solidified portions of the
future hat is secured. The one-half being laid upon the other, with a
triangular piece of paper or cloth between, they are joined together by
overlapping two of the three sides, thereby giving to the intended hat
the form and figure of a hollow cone or great bag, but so tender that
none but an experienced hatter could handle it.
[Illustration: Fig. 3.
Hat Basket.]
This operation of bowing is the same, with but little variation,
whether it be for coarse or fine hats.
If wholly of wool, they are now swaddled carefully in an outer cloth,
and sprinkled with water, and laid upon a warm plate of metal which
sends the steam up through the hat which is to be pressed, and slightly
rubbed, sprinkled again, and turned over. Continuing the pressing and
rubbing, and by repeating these operations for some time, the motions
are transmitted to all the inclosed fibres of wool with an irritating
feeling, as it were, exciting their propensity for travelling, till the
outer hairs, in their motions, warp themselves with each other and the
surface appears skin-like and becomes smooth.
During these actions, the hat inside of the cloth must be several
times changed in position and kept in proper form, when its swaddling
envelope and the paper within which kept the inside open and free may
be removed. These operations concluded, the tender hat must now be
subjected to a much more laborious operation, where, properly speaking,
the grand practical art of felting takes place, where thousands of
thousands of filaments are all in active though slow motion, all
travelling on their own individual course, independent of, and at the
same time dependent upon, each other for their mutual support, being
carefully guided collectively, by the hatter's good judgment.
This stage of the operation is a wet one requiring an open boiler
surrounded by planks, which slope towards the centre, called a battery,
Fig. 4, suitable for six or eight men to work at. Each man is provided
with a rolling-pin, cloths, brushes, &c. The soft and tender hat is
laid upon one of these planks or benches, wrapped in a damp cloth, and
carefully wetted, squeezed, folded, rolled and unrolled, keeping it
constantly moistened by dipping it in the hot water of the boiler,
folding and unfolding with every variety of crossings, rolling it as
a scroll, pressing, shaking, dipping and rolling it again and again,
the hatter all the while bending over his work in front of the almost
boiling caldron, and surrounded by steam. He labors hard, ever changing
the position of the hat under his hands, so as to make it an evenly
felted and perfect piece of work, which these oft-repeated motions
ultimately accomplish.
[Illustration: Fig. 4.
Battery for Sizing Hats.]
This is the grand felting operation; the cause of which was so long
considered a mystery, and now ascertained to result from the peculiar
natural construction of the animal fibre, as already explained.
In this planking or sizing of the hat, sometimes with half a dozen
under hands at the same time, the enveloping cloth is soon thrown aside
as the hat grows in solidity. The hands of the hatter are defended from
the scalding water by thick leather shields upon the palms, and as
the hat approaches its proper size, it is scalded and belabored with
determined importunity, coiled, rolled, pressed, and pinned, backward
and forward till the size of the hat is reduced to nearly half of its
original dimensions, and the tension of the several fibres becomes so
great that the hat will felt no farther. At this stage it is impossible
for it to be torn asunder, and is still in its original form of a
hollow cone.
Such is the making department of the trade, the felting process, where
a firm piece of cloth (for such is the body of a hat) is manufactured
from loose wool or fur, independent of either spinning or weaving.
We have now explained the making of the bare body, as it is called, of
a plain hat, in as concise a manner as the subject will permit.
There are yet a variety of qualities and kinds of hats requiring a
variation more or less in the manipulation of the article, so as to
suit a fanciful and fastidious people. For instance, the quantity and
quality of fur, or an entire change of materials, produce quite a
different appearance both in the look, the wear, and the price of the
hat, while the form of the cone must be changed to admit of a high or
low crown, or of a broad or narrow brim, &c. &c.
All FELT hats, of whatever texture, nature, or name, must have
undergone the above described operations, and many have to go back
a second time to the plank kettle, and there undergo an additional
teasing and ducking in the scalding water. For instance, all those
destined to receive a coat of fur upon the outside finer than that of
which the body is made, and constituting the flowing nap of the hat,
which is merely a kind of veneering or outside plating, which will
shortly be described.
A very good hat is made having a flowing nap that is raised directly
from the body itself. Thus when the body of such a hat as has been
described is about half wrought up at the kettle, it undergoes in
another department the operation of shaving, by which means the
projecting coarse hairs are all cut off, after which, on being returned
to the kettle, the hatter, with his stiff brush, card, and comb, raises
a nap upon the half solidified body, which is constantly improved as
he continues to manipulate with the brush. The hat is, at the same
time, reduced in its dimensions by the operation of felting until at
the conclusion when it appears of the desired size, fully felted, and
adorned on the outside with its rough and flowing nap, which otherwise
would have been smooth and cloth-like. This is called the brush hat.
Shaving.
In the process of fur felting there is a constant tendency for the
strong straight hairs of the body to work to the outside, so that
whether the hat is designed to receive a BARE finish afterwards, or to
get a plated cover of beaver for a nap, those bodies must all undergo
the operation of shaving. A workman sits in another apartment with
one of them, when dry, spread over his knee, and with a long bladed
sharp knife in hand, sweeps rapidly over the surface, cutting off and
depriving it of those deteriorating superfluous intruders, after which
the hats are forwarded to the stiffening department.
Stiffening Process.
The bodies of the hats now made, dried and shaved, and the spirit
water-proofing already prepared, being thinned, or reduced to the
proper consistence, the hat is laid upon a flat sloping board, and the
stiffening is put into it with a stout brush, and soaked to that degree
of saturation known only by experience, the brims receiving a double
portion for extra stoutness, and are then set aside to dry.
The alkali or inferior kind of stiffening, when used, is likewise
diluted, and applied by immersing the body fully into the prepared
ingredients already described, and either wrung out with the hands,
or passed a couple of times between a pair of rollers set at a proper
width, which determines the quantity of proofing absorbed by the hat.
It should be observed, regarding this stiffening of hats, that it is
simply a varnishing of the several fibres of the fur of which the
hat is made, each hair individually has got a coat of water-proofing
varnish, for when dry it will be found that the interstices between
each and every fibre are quite open and free, and therefore susceptible
of ventilation; thus differing entirely from what would have been the
case had it been stiffened with any kind of paste.
Ruffing or Napping.
Very little of this is done at present in the United States. After the
bare body of the hat is stiffened, if a flowing nap of beaver, otter,
neutra, or other fine fur is desired, finer than that of which the
body is made, half an ounce more or less of the superior uncarroted
stuff is weighed out, sufficient to cover the whole outside surface of
the hat. The hatter lays this precious morsel with perhaps one-eighth
ounce of cotton on the hurdle, under the bow, as he did with the stuff
for the body, and with a similar but lighter instrument, these two
stuffs are completely mixed and spread upon the boards, as evenly as
his experienced hands can do it; the cotton being used merely to enable
him to handle the fur, which otherwise would be so thinly spread, and
so attenuated of itself, as to endanger the simple act of lifting it.
This mixture of fur and cotton is next spread upon the wet bare body
of the hat as it lies upon the plank at the kettle, a little water is
sprinkled over it and beat down with a brush. The hat with this surface
covering is wrapped very carefully in a piece of cloth or coarse
hair-cloth, and operated on very lightly, and nearly in the same manner
as when felting the body. The object to be attained is to get the
fibres of the fine fur to penetrate the body, and take root as it were
therein--great care and watchfulness being demanded of the workman at
every motion of his hands, in this manner of working. The points of the
fibres of the beaver fur penetrate the body of the hat, and having once
got a footing, it constantly advances, as the active careful rolling,
folding and unfolding, shaking and tossing go on, until the fur has
separated itself from the cotton; by its boring, having obtained a
firm lodgment in the solid felt of the hat body root end foremost. The
cotton with which it was mixed is left behind loose and useless, for
want of the little rough scaly property that the other possessed. An
inexperienced workman in thus ruffing a hat is liable to continue his
work too long, until the beaver napping has burrowed quite through to
the inside of the hat, where it is lost.[C]
In the various operations of the hatter with hot water, whether in
body-making, napping, or dyeing, &c., the water should not be allowed
to boil, for independent of the damage to some kinds of stiffening, as
hair contains a large portion of gelatine in its substance (to which
alone it owes its suppleness and toughness), this gelatine will be
separated from the hair. This is particularly the case with napped
hats, for when thus treated the fibre becomes much more brittle than
before, and the nap soon breaks off round the square.
Fur hats having a flowing nap are sometimes clipped very short with
revolving shears similar to those used in dressing cloth, and which is
done previous to blocking or dyeing.
[Illustration: Fig. 5.
Hat Block.]
Blocking.
Previous to dyeing, all hats must be blocked, using such blocks as
approach the intended shape of the hat, and as soon as possible after
the making department is concluded. It is a laborious operation, though
simple, as the nature of felt allows it to be stretched to a great
extent in any direction when it is wet and hot.
In the act of blocking, the conical form of the hat is lost for the
first time. The hat is now immersed in the _boiling water_ of the
kettle, and while wet and hot the tip is stretched wide, and the whole
thing simply drawn down over the block, a tight cord is run down to
where the band is to be and the brim flattened out.
Dyeing.
The next operation is that of dyeing or coloring, and if convenient,
and the hats fine, each hat should be upon its respective block when
in the color kettle, great care being observed to keep the square
from abrasion, as the least rub may deprive a napped hat of its fur at
that exposed and important part. Most generally, however, the hats are
colored without a block, the blocking being performed as soon after the
dyeing and washing as possible in _boiling_ water.
The ordinary ingredients for black are, for 12 dozen,
144 lbs. of logwood, _chipped_, or its value in extract.
12 lbs. of green sulphate of iron or copperas.
7-1/2 lbs. of French verdigris.
The kettle should never boil nor exceed 190 degrees, and during the
operation the hats must be repeatedly taken out and exposed to the
action of the oxygen of the air, so as to strike a deeper color, and
during the necessary exposure to these airings, the time is improved by
having two suits of hats going on at the same time.
From six to twelve hours are required to complete the operation. The
shorter the time the hats are in the dye, compatible with the deepness
of the color, the better will be the goods, as boiling extracts the
gelatine of the hair and makes the nap brittle, which is seen by
comparing dyed articles with those that are of a native color.
Pumicing or Pouncing.
Pouncing is a term for rubbing down the outside of a hat with a piece
of pumice stone, sand paper, or emery paper, whereby the hat is made
entirely bare, smooth, and fine, resembling a piece of very fine
cloth. These are generally called cassimere hats. This operation is
usually performed after dyeing, and previous to finishing. Some makers,
however, prefer to singe the hats instead of pouncing, but such
hats never feel so fine as the others, as the singeing of any hair
invariably produces a hard crisp burnt knob upon the end.
Finishing.[D]
When a hat arrives at that state of forwardness ready for finishing,
it is a very unsightly object to any person but a hatter. Most of its
processes have been wet ones, but now it is to assume a genteel and
prepossessing appearance, under the artistic appliances of brushes,
cloths, hot irons, and labored exercise. If a plain soft hat, it is
pulled over such a block as is required, a cord is run round the hat to
keep it tight upon the block; the tip and brim are then flattened with
the hot iron, wet sponge, brushes, and hair-cloth cushion or velure,
several wettings being necessary in finishing.
[Illustration: Fig. 6.
Hat Iron.]
The brim is next cut to the required width, and the cord run down
to the depth of the block. The side-crown is now to be finished,
along with the tip and upper and under sides of the brim, the hatter
exercising his best judgment. The block is then withdrawn, the brim
curled and set, and the finished hat sent off to the trimmer to get
lined and bound; it is then tipped off and packed for market.
The finishing of this kind of hat is a simple operation when compared
to that of a napped hat; requiring only the assuming of the proper
shape and form, the solidifying of the body, and giving it such a
lustre and finish as the quality of the material will allow.
The stiff cassimere hat being less flexible, is subjected to hot steam
preparatory to blocking, whereby it is made soft and pliable. When in
this state it is drawn down over the block, and the block withdrawn, to
insert a prepared disk of pasteboard into the crown for strength, after
which it is finished much in the same way as that already described,
but with the difference, that a cloth must always intervene between the
hot iron and the hat when finishing.
The finishing of a napped hat, whether it be brush or beaver, is a
very different process from that for either of those just described,
requiring the nicest attention and patient perseverance by the best
workmen. The hats are given out by the half dozen, which are sorted for
the different sizes and steamed one by one; the hot steam softens the
stiffening, and when pliable, the hat is drawn down over the respective
finishing blocks, the nap of each hat straightened with a wet brush,
and a half finish given to it with the water, brush, and bare hot
iron. The block is then withdrawn and the hat given to be shaved with
a razor. This seems a singular operation; but a few passes with that
instrument over the hat effectually cut off all those projecting coarse
hairs that have eluded all previous attempts at removal, and without in
the smallest degree endangering the finer fur of the nap. The hat is
now returned to the finisher to complete the process.
These coarse hairs, when left in the hat depreciating very materially
its value, were formerly plucked out by hand with a pair of pickers,
hair by hair, often to the injury of the hat. The advantage of the
razor will be obvious to all.
A pasteboard disk, well spread with dissolved shellac, is now inserted
into the tip, and the block reset. The workman with his hot iron, wet
and dry brushes, &c., lays down the nap in its proper direction, and
the hat by continuous labor becomes solidified and more elastic, the
tip is rendered stout by the adhesion of the prepared inside disk;
and by the repeated wettings, and careful ironings and brushings, all
the ripply appearance of the fur is destroyed, and the whole surface
becomes smooth and shining.
The crown being finished is then papered up, and the same operations
that were bestowed upon the crown are now to be repeated on the brim,
both on the upper and under side, which having been accomplished, a
gauge is applied and the brim cut to the required width ready for the
trimming.
There is a beautiful invention for preserving the form of all hats
having flat or soft supple brims by means of a flattened wire, upon
which two small twists are made, and when joined as a hoop, the proper
concave is produced. This hoop is attached to the outer edge of the
brim, and covered with the binding, and thus the unsightly slouch that
often deformed, particularly the soft brimmed hat, is permanently
prevented, and the graceful curve completely secured.
Silk Hatting.
The art of silk hatting is comparatively of modern invention,
consisting simply of a cover of silk plush over a body of some other
material. As much sleight of hand is required in this department, it
naturally follows that a good workman is a valuable and appreciated
artisan.
The bodies used for this kind of hat have been so various, that a full,
or even succinct, description of them would be quite superfluous. Wool
and fur bodies, straw and leghorn, cork, whalebone and muslin, &c.,
even stretchers similar to umbrellas without a body at all have been
adopted, and all of them have had their day. At present, however, the
trade seems to have settled down to the two kinds--fur and muslin.
The fur body of a silk hat, called a shell previous to coming into
the hands of the silk finisher, is made much in the same manner as
that of a plain soft hat, by felting and sizing it down to the proper
dimensions in the plank kettle. It is quite light and thin, and when
blocked or otherwise, and dried, is then ready for _stiffening_ by the
finisher.
The different substances for this purpose, and the various methods of
doing it, have been as numerous as the varieties of bodies that have
been adopted. The whole of them, however, now have been abandoned for
shellac.
The most simple and the best stiffening for any hat is shellac
dissolved in alcohol, and thinned down to a proper consistence. A
cheaper, however, and at the same time good stiffening, is the ammonia
stiff already described. Either of these is applied in a like manner
and with the like operations. The soft body or shell, as it is often
called, is immersed in the liquid in a basin, then wrung out and pulled
upon a block, the brim being flattened, a brush is dipped into another
vessel containing a thicker lac, and applied to the square and brim for
extra strength; after this the block is withdrawn, and the body set to
dry.
These felted bodies or shells, as they are called, when dry are steamed
generally over the hatter's hot iron, and pulled when warm and soft
over the finishing block. A cord is then run tight round the shell, and
the block withdrawn; the prepared pasteboard tip is inserted into the
crown, and the block reset; after which the body receives a regular hot
ironing all over. In this operation the inserted tip adheres to the
felt, and the whole body assumes the exact counterpart of the block,
both crown and brim. The rough hairs are now to be removed by sand or
emery paper and the block withdrawn. The body next receives a coat of
the best size, and when dry two coats of seed-lac, or copal varnish
which finishes the making of this kind of body.
Those bodies that are made of muslin, when first invented, were called
gossamer, from their extreme lightness, and though they have increased
in weight, they still retain the name of gossamer hats.
In preparing for the body, a few yards of muslin are extended upon a
frame, and saturated with liquefied shellac, or water stiff, which when
dry is cut bias into strips for sides, tips, and brims. One side of
these side and tip pieces of muslin is overlaid with the silk intended
for the inside lining of the hat, and pressed to adhesion; or this may
be done while in the web before being cut into strips. The block being
set upon the bottom-board, one of these extra prepared sides is wound
tight round the side-crown of it, and the two ends stuck together by
overlapping. A piece of the prepared tips is next laid on, and made to
adhere to the side-crown.
The brim consists of three thicknesses of stout muslin of a circular
form, each with a hole in the centre, all of which are slipped over
the crown down to their place of destination with a quarter of an inch
of the edge rising up on the side. A second side-crown and another tip
are now applied, covering the others, and the whole of these cemented
together with the hot iron, the shellac with which they were stiffened
acting as a cement. After receiving a coat of size and one of varnish,
this body will be ready, like the other FUR body, for the finisher. In
preparing these bodies, cover the block with a soft shell.