Message sticks—The common origin of the dialects—Remarkably complicated
grammar—The language on Herbert river—Comparison of a few dialects.
A race so uncivilised as the Australian natives has of course no written
language. Still they are able to make themselves understood by a kind of
sign language. Now and then the natives send information to other
tribes, and this is done by the aid of figures scratched on a “message
stick” made of wood, about four to seven inches long, and one inch wide.
Some of them are flat, while others are round and about as thick as a
man’s finger; they often are painted in different colours. I myself saw
one of these sticks which came to a native among my acquaintances on
Herbert river. The man told me that he understood the inscription
perfectly well, and he even prepared a similar stick, on which he wrote
an answer. The message stick shown on page 304 is from Central
Queensland. One side is meant to represent an enclosed piece of ground.
There is a gate in the fence, and the dots mean grass and sheep. I am
also fortunate in being able to give an illustration of another message
stick (p. 304), with the interpretation of its inscription, which
conveys a message from a black woman named Nowwanjung to her husband
Carralinga of the Woongo tribe. Other message sticks are engraved with
straight or circular lines in regular patterns as in embroidery; this
has caused an entirely different view of their significance, which
supposes them to be merely cards to identify the messenger. This view
may be correct, but it is not corroborated by my experience on Herbert
river.
Nearly every tribe has its own language, or at least its own dialect, so
that the members of different tribes are unable to understand each
other. The reason for this is to a great extent the hostility existing
between the tribes. Of course every tribe is familiar with the language
of its nearest neighbours, and makes use of nearly the same dialect when
they talk with a friendly tribe, but they treat a hostile tribe with
scorn, and ridicule their language. The language, not being written, is
constantly undergoing change, and there is even a difference between the
speech of the old people and the children. If you put the same question
to a black man three or four times, his last answer will be expressed
differently, though he uses the same words.
[Illustration:
A MESSAGE STICK FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND.
]
[Illustration:
REVERSE SIDE OF THE SAME.
]
[Illustration:
Carralinga
come here to-morrow and take
Nowwanjung.
MESSAGE STICK, WITH INTERPRETATION OF INSCRIPTION.
]
In spite of difference between the languages spoken in the various parts
of the continent, an intimate relation is believed to exist between
them, and it is the prevailing opinion that they spring from a common
root language. At all events it is a fact that many words are the same
in very large districts, even in places so far apart that they cannot
possibly have influenced each other by communication. I know a case
where a black man from Clermont understood the language spoken in Aramac
and on Georgina river, and yet he had never been there.
This similarity of vocabulary must not be confounded with those words
which are used everywhere, and which have been spread by Europeans. Many
of these are not Australian in their origin. The colonist, who moves
from one part of the country to another, generally takes with him some
of the words of the language of the blacks, and thus these are
transplanted into new soil. In this manner many words have emigrated
from Victoria and New South Wales, and have taken root with the new
civilisation. There are now a number of such words which are in vogue
throughout the civilised part of the continent—for example, _yariman_,
horse; _dillibag_, basket; _kabra_,[18] head; _bingee_, belly; _gin_,
woman; _gramma_, to steal; _bael_, not; _boodgary_, excellent;
_korroboree_, festive dance; _dingo_, dog, etc. We can even trace words
which the Europeans have imported from the natives of other
countries—for example, _picaninny_, a child. This word is said to have
come originally from the negroes of Africa through white immigrants. In
America the children of negroes are called _picaninny_. When the white
men came to Australia, they applied this word to the children of the
natives of this continent.
Footnote 18:
According to a word-list from the beginning of the century this word
was used in Port Macquarie (_cahbrah_), and Port Jackson (_cabbra_).
Such “civilised” words, however, seldom take root in the language of the
blacks. They simply use them in conversation with the white man. Though
a few words are carried in this manner from one district to another,
this method of transplanting is not of any great importance.
A natural affinity between the languages can with certainty be pointed
out. Some words are almost identical throughout the continent. An
excellent illustration of this is found in the word for _eye_.
In Caledon Bay, on the Gulf of Carpentaria, it is _mail_; Endeavour
river, on the north-west coast (16° S. lat.), _meul_; Moreton Bay (29°
S. lat.), _mill_; Port Macquarie (33° S. lat.), 68 miles south from
Sydney, _me_; Port Jackson (Sydney), _mi_ or _me_; Limestone Creek (140
miles west of Sydney), _milla_; Yarra tribe, Victoria, _mii_; King
George Sound (south-west coast, 35° S. lat.), _mil_; Herbert river (18°
S. lat.), _mill_.
An equally interesting example is found in the numeral 2, which is
tolerably constant throughout the continent—_bular_, _bulara_,
_buloara_, _budelar_, _burla_, _bulla_, _buled_, _boolray_, _pulette_,
_pular_, _pollai_, _bolita_, _bulicht_, _bollowin_, etc. Even in
Tasmania the word is found, _pualih_. The words for 1 and 3 are, on the
other hand, always different. For comparison I give the following table—
NUMERALS.
┌─────────────┬───────┬─────────┬─────────────┬───────────────────┬───────┐
│ │ 1 │ 2 │ 3 │ 4 │ 5 │
├─────────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────────┼───────────────────┼───────┤
│Near │kumande│purlaitye│marnkutye │purlaitye-purlaitye│ │
│ Adelaide, │ │ │ │ │ │
│ South │ │ │ │ │ │
│ Australia │ │ │ │ │ │
├─────────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────────┼───────────────────┼───────┤
│Moreton Bay, │ganar │burla │burla ganar │burla burla │korumba│
│ Southern │ │ │ │ │(much) │
│ Queensland │ │ │ │ │ │
├─────────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────────┼───────────────────┼───────┤
│Boraipar, │keiarpe│pulette │pulekvia │pulette-pulette │ │
│ West │ │ │ │ │ │
│ Australia │ │ │ │ │ │
├─────────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────────┼───────────────────┼───────┤
│Burapper, S. │kiarp │bullait │bullait-kiarp│bullait bullait │ │
│ E. │ │ │ │ │ │
│ Australia, │ │ │ │ │ │
│ near Murray│ │ │ │ │ │
│ river │ │ │ │ │ │
├─────────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────────┼───────────────────┼───────┤
│Mount Elliot,│woggin │boolray │goodjoo │munwool │murgai │
│ Northern │ │ │ │ │ │
│ Queensland,│ │ │ │ │ │
│ 19° S. lat.│ │ │ │ │ │
├─────────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────────┼───────────────────┼───────┤
│Tasmania, │marrava│pûalih │ │wullyava │ │
│ south coast│ │ │ │ │ │
└─────────────┴───────┴─────────┴─────────────┴───────────────────┴───────┘
A common root can also be shown in the personal pronoun. _I_ is called
_ngaia_, _nganya_, _ngatoa_, _ngaii_, _ngai_, _ngie_, _ngan_, _ngu_,
_ngipa_, _ngâpe_, etc. _Thou_—_inta_, _nginta_, _nginte_, _nginda_,
_ngin_, _ninna_, _nindu_, _nginne_, etc.
Upon the whole, though the various languages have but little in common,
there are certain peculiarities which may be regarded as characteristic
of them all. They are polysyllabic, the accent is usually on the
penultimate or antepenultimate, and the words are, therefore, not
unpleasant to the ear. Indeed, many of them are full of euphony and
harmony. The large number of vowels contributes much to this result.
Guttural sounds are particularly prominent. The _s_ sound appears to be
very rare. On Herbert river I heard only two words which contained the
letter _s_—_suttungo_, tobacco, and _sinchen_, syphilis, and so far as I
know, _s_ is found only in the beginning of words.
In grammar the languages also differ widely. At all events, the authors
who have sought to discuss these matters thoroughly have arrived at very
different results.
Mr. Beveridge, who has studied the languages of Victoria, claims that
the syntax is very simple, saying that the various grammatical relations
are expressed solely by prolongations, accentuations, and changes of
position of the words. Mr. Lang, on the contrary, holds an entirely
different opinion. He supports the popular theory that the Australian
natives have in the past occupied a much higher plane of civilisation
than at present, and thinks he is able to find traces of a decayed
civilisation in the languages of the tribes, which in his opinion are
very perfect.
As a striking example he mentions the inflections of the verbs. At
Moreton Bay the verbs have far more inflections than the verbs in the
Hebrew language. They can be conjugated reflexively, reciprocally,
frequentatively, causatively, and permissively. They have not only
indicative, imperative, and subjunctive, past, present, and future,
expressed by definite inflectional endings, but each one of these
endings may assume distinct shades of meaning expressed by different
inflections. The imperfect of the verb to speak (_goal_) has not only a
form which means “spoke,” but forms which mean “spoke to-day,” “spoke
yesterday,” “spoke some days ago,” etc. The same is the case with the
future. There are three imperatives: (1) speak; (2) thou shalt speak
(emphatic); (3) speak if you can, or if you dare (ironical). The nouns
are regularly inflected by suffixes; _ngu_ means of, _go_ to, _da_ in,
_di_ from, _kunda_ with, etc. The pronouns have both dual and plural
form: _ngaia_ I, _ngulle_ we two, you and I; _ngullina_ (comp. Herbert
river, _allingpa_) we two, he and I, etc. This complicated syntax is
found in many tribes, though they may have widely different languages.
Mr. E. M. Curr, of Melbourne, has recently in a great and very
meritorious work, _The Australian Race_, pointed out a most striking
resemblance between the languages of the Australian blacks and those of
the African negroes. His opinion is that the Australian natives are
descended from the African negroes by a cross with some other race. He
admits that the Australian blacks look quite different from the natives
of Africa, but he shows that the customs, the superstitions, and above
all the languages, agree in many respects in a most remarkable manner.
He points out the striking fact that while the Papuan and the Australian
languages are almost totally different, still many of the words used by
the Australian blacks are almost identical with those employed by the
negroes of Africa.
The language of the natives on Herbert river is imperative and brief. A
single word frequently expresses a whole sentence. “Will you go with
me?” is expressed simply by the interrogation _nginta?_ (thou?), and the
answer, “I will stay where I am,” by _karri ngipa_ (I remain). “I will
go home,” _ngipa míttago_ (literally, I in respect to the hut).
The suffix _go_ literally means “with regard to,” and is usually added
to nouns to give them a verbal meaning, but it is also sometimes added
to verbs. The question _Wainta Morbora?_—that is, “Where is
Morbora?”—can be answered by saying only _títyengo_ (he has gone hunting
_títyen_) (wallaby), (literally, with respect to wallaby); or, for
example, _mittago_ he is at home (literally, with regard to the hut).
_Mottaigo_ means “he is eating” (literally, with regard to eating).
“Throw him into the water,” is expressed simply by _ngallogo_. As is
evident, this is a very convenient suffix, as it saves a number of moods
and tenses. It may also be used to express the genitive—for example,
_toolgil tomoberogo_, the bones of the ox.
There frequently is no difference between nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
_Kola_ means wrath, angry, and to get angry. _Poka_ means smell, to
smell, and rotten; _oito_ means a jest, and to jest.
“It is noon,” is _vi ōrupi_ (sun big). “It is early in the morning,” is
_vi naklam_ (sun little). “It is near sunset,” is _vi molle mongan_.
_Kolle_ is a very common word. It is, in fact, used to call attention to
a strange or remarkable sound, and means “hush!” _Kolle mal!_ “Hush,
there is a strange man!” _Kólle_ is also used to express indignation or
a protest, “far from it.” A superlative of an adjective is expressed by
repetition—for example, _krally-krally_, “very old.”
The vocabulary is small. The language is rich in words describing
phenomena that attract the attention of the savage, but it lacks words
for abstract notions. The natives, being utterly unable to generalise,
have no words for kinds or classes of things, as tree, bird, fish, etc.
But each variety of these things has its own name. Strange to say, there
are words not only for the animals and plants which the natives
themselves use, but also for such as they have no use for or interest in
whatever. On Georgina river the natives have a special word for
sweetheart.
On Herbert river I found, to my surprise, various names for flame and
coals. _Vákkun_ meant camp fire, coals, or the burning stick of wood,
while the flame was called _koyílla_.
Of numerals the Australian natives have no comprehension. Many tribes
have only two numerals, viz. 1 and 2, and by combining these they can
count to five, thus—1 _keiarpe_, 2 _pulette_, 3 _pulette-keiarpe_, 4
_pulette-pulette_, 5 _pulette-pulette-keiarpe_. Several tribes have
three numerals, as, for instance, Herbert Vale tribe—1 _yóngul_, 2
_yákkan_, 3 _kárbo_, 4, etc., is usually expressed by _taggin_ (many).
Occasionally a tribe may be found which has a word for 10. The word
literally means two hands (_bolita murrung_), a remarkable parallel
existing in many other languages (from the Sandwich Island to
Madagascar) in which the word _lima_ means both hand and five.
The dialects of the natives abound in proper nouns. Every locality has
its name, every mountain, every brook, every opening in the woods. Many
of these names are remarkable for their euphony. As a curiosity I quote
the following stanza—
“I like the native names as _Paramatta_
And _Illawarra_ and _Woolloomoollo_.
_Toongabbe_, _Mittagong_, and _Coolingatta_,
And _Yurumbon_, and _Coodgiegang_, _Meroo_,
_Euranarina_, _Jackwa_, _Bulkomatta_,
_Nandowra_, _Tumbarumba_, _Woogaroo_;
The _Wollondilly_ and the _Wingycarribbee_,
The _Warragumby_, _Daby_, _Bungarribee_.”
It is a strange fact that the dialects in a great part of the country
are named after their respective negatives. _Wiraiaroi_ is a dialect in
which _wirai_ means “no,” and _Wailiwun_ is one in which _wail_ means
“no.” Thus _Kamilaroi_, _Wolaroi_, etc. _Pikumbul_ is an exception. In
this dialect _piku_ means “yes.” One cannot help thinking of the French
_Langue d’Oc_ and _Langue d’Oyl_.
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF SOME AUSTRALIAN DIALECTS.
┌──────────┬──────────┬───────────┬───────────┬───────────┬─────────┐
│ │Endeavour │ Herbert │ Mount │ Moreton │Goulbourn│
│ │ river, │ river, │ Elliot, │ Bay, │ river, │
│ │ York │ Northern │ Northern │ Southern │New South│
│ │peninsula.│Queensland.│Queensland,│Queensland.│ Wales. │
│ │ │ │19° S. lat.│ │ │
├──────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼─────────┤
│Man │bama │mal │munyah │malar │goleen │
│ │ │ │ │ │ │
│Woman │mootjel │dombi-dombi│youngoorah │jundal │badyuroo │
│Kangaroo │kangooroo │ │oodra │kurruman │marram │
│ │ │ │bourgoola │ │ │
│Stone │walbah │faringa │ │mulla │moid │
│ │ │ │ │ │yerre │
│Water │poorai │ngallo │doongalla │dabil │parn │
│Sun │gallan │vee │ingin │beeké │nummi │
│Moon │ │ballan │wurboonbura│kibbom │minnun │
│Head │wageegee │mogil │coode │magul │kowanoo │
│Hair │morye │pocka │weir │kapui │kowung │
│Hand │marigal │mallan │(pl.) │marra │munangoo │
│ │ │ │cabankabun │ │ │
│Foot │(pl.) │bingan │(pl.) │sidney │tinnanoo │
│ │edamal │ │deenah │(tchidna) │ │
│Nose │bonjo │wooroo │ │muloo │garknoo │
│ │poteer │ │ │ │ │
│Belly │melmal │vomba │booloo │gunnung │bendé │
│Excrements│ │kona │ │koodna │koornong │
│Fire │meanang │(flame) │ejugabah │kuddum │wein │
│ │ │koyilla │ │ │ │
└──────────┴──────────┴───────────┴───────────┴───────────┴─────────┘
┌──────────┬──────────┬─────────┬──────────┬──────────┐
│ │ Port │ │ Near │ │
│ │ Jackson, │ Yarra │Adelaide, │Boraipar, │
│ │New South │ tribe, │ South │ West │
│ │ Wales. │Victoria.│Australia.│Australia.│
│ │ │ │ │ │
├──────────┼──────────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────┤
│Man │mulla │kolin │(pl.) meyu│(pl.) │
│ │ │ │ │wootawolli│
│Woman │din │bajor │ngammaitya│liu │
│Kangaroo │wallibah │mirrm │nanto │ │
│ │ │ │wauwe │ │
│Stone │keba[19] │mojerr │pure │ │
│ │giber │ │ │ │
│Water │badoo │paen │kauwe │wolpool │
│Sun │goona │ngumi │tindo │nauwingy │
│Moon │yennadah │meenean │piki │mityah │
│Head │cobbra[20]│kuvang │makarta │poorpai │
│Hair │kewarra │yarré │yoka │ │
│Hand │tammirra │marnong │pemarra │mannangy │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│Foot │manoe │jenong │(pl.) │(pl.) │
│ │ │ │tidna │tchinnangy│
│Nose │nogro │kâ-ang │mudla │cheen-je │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│Belly │barrong │ │ │ │
│Excrements│ │conong │kudna │ │
│Fire │gweeyong │ween │gadla │wanappe │
│ │ │ │ │ │
└──────────┴──────────┴─────────┴──────────┴──────────┘
Footnote 19:
See the Gospel of St. John i. 42, “Thou art Simon the son of Jona:
thou shalt be called Cephas, which is by interpretation, A stone.”
Arabic: _ka-aba_ or _giber_ (Gibraltar).
Footnote 20:
Spanish: _cobra_.
COLLECTION OF WORDS FROM HERBERT RIVER
(_g_ before _i_ and _a_ pronounced hard).
Allínkpa, we two.
Ámmery, hungry.
Ámmon, breast.
Átta [Moreton Bay and Rockhampton: atta], I.
Bággoro, sword, serpent-liver.
Bállan, moon.
Bámbo, egg.
Bámpa, distant.
Bátta, take.
Bémo, brother’s son.
Bínghan, foot, footprint.
Bínna, ear.
Boongary, _Dendrolagus lumholtzii_.
Bórboby, battle, duels.
Bórrogo, a variety of _Pseudochirus_.
Deerbera, to-morrow.
Dómbi-dómbi, woman.
Era, teeth.
Etaka, tuft.
Evin, _Calamus australis_.
Farínga, stone, rock.
Gangítta, handkerchief.
Gílgla [the _l_ to be pronounced with thick palatal sound], cassowary.
G’rauan, _Megapodius tumulus_ (bird, egg, nest).
-Go [suffix, Moreton Bay: -co], in regard to.
Gómbian, _Echidna_.
Góri, blood.
Hánka, whence?
Káddera, opossum (_Irichosurus vulpecula_).
Kádjera, _Cycas media_.
Kainno, to-day.
Kainno-kainno, well, sound.
Kakavagó, go.
Kalló, come on!
Kāmin, climbing implement.
Kāmo, water.
Kárbo, 3.
Kárri, remain.
Kawan, nausea.
Káwri, axe.
Kedool, cold.
Kelán, old man, sir [word of address].
Kóbi, arts of witchcraft.
Kóla [subst. and adj.], anger, angry.
Kólle, hush!
Komórbory, many, large multitude.
Kóna, excrements.
Kónka, unharmed, raw, not roasted.
Kóntagan, nice weather.
Kontáhberan, dark, dark night.
Koonduno, thunder.
Koráddan, a kind of fruit.
Koyílla, flame.
Králly, old.
Kuroonguy, thirsty.
Kootjary, _Talegalla lathami_.
Kvíkkal, _Perameles nasuta_.
Kvíngan, evil spirit, devil.
Mah,
Maja, not, no.
Mal [Moreton Bay: malar. Yelta: mallé], man, especially of a strange
and hostile tribe.
Mállan, hand.
Mally, good, excellent.
Mami, master.
Mánta, _membrum virile_.
Manta korán, an oath of uncertain meaning, also a word of abuse.
Márbo, louse.
Márgin, gun.
Máwa, crawfish.
Mílka [verb], produce rain.
Míll, eye.
Minná [cf. Moreton Bay: menäh], how?
Minná-minnana-gó, how in the world?
Mítta, hut.
Mogil [Moreton Bay: magul], head.
Mólle, near.
Móngan, mountain.
Móngan, _Pseudochirus herbertensis_.
Móttai [verb and subst.], eat, food.
Móyo, _anus_.
Nahyee, no.
Naiko [verb], own.
Naklam [the _l_ to be pronounced with thick palatal sound], little.
Ngallo, water.
Ngalloa, _Dactylopsila trivirgata_.
Nginta, you.
Ngipa, I.
Nongáshly, only.
Nili, girl.
Oito, jest.
Oonda, see.
Ōrupi, large.
Peera [subst. and adj.], fear, afraid.
Pipo [from the English], pipe.
Póka, hair; smell [Echuca: boka].
Pókkan, grass-land, grass.
Pul [verb], smell.
Púlli, flea.
Sinchen, rash, syphilis.
Suttúngo, tobacco.
Tággin, many, much, also the numeral 4.
Takólgoro [a word of exclamation], poor fellow!
Tálgoro, human flesh.
Tállan, tongue.
Tamin, fat.
Tchígga, sit.
Títyen, wallaby.
Tobola, a kind of fruit.
Tomóbero, cattle, meat.
Toollah, _Pseudochirus archeri_.
Toolgil, bone, bones.
Toolgin, scrub.
Toongna, drink.
Toongu, sweet.
Towdala, _Orthonyx spaldingii_.
Vákkun, coals.
Vaneera, hot.
Vee, sun.
Veera, a kind of fig which grows on grass-land.
Vikku, bad.
Víndcheh, snake.
Vómba, belly.
Vóndo, an edible root of a climbing plant.
Vooly [adj.], dead.
Vooroo, nose.
Vótel, sleep.
Vukka, thigh.
Wainta, where?
Yábby, _Pseudochirus lemuroides_.
Yákkan, 2.
Yálla, remain.
Yamina, a monster (p. 201).
Yanky, a kind of fig.
Yárri, _Dasyurus_.
Yári, honey.
Yeergilíngera, star.
Yókkan, fog, rain.
Yóngul, 1.
Yópolo, _Hypsiprymnodon moschatus_.
NAMES OF MEN.
Eergon.
Ganindály.
Góngola.
Kāl-Dúbbaroh.
Kawri.
Mángola-Mággi.
Mangóran.
Mawa.
Mórbora.
Nángo-Maddal.
Nílgora.
Píngaro.
Póko.
Yánky.
Yáwra.
Yókkai.
NAMES OF WOMEN.
Gónbaro.
Kélanmi.
Mólle-Mólle.
Olánga.