Ver.04.29.93*END*
ESSAYS, political, economical and philosophical
by Benjamin Count of Rumford
Knight of the orders of the white eagle, and St. Atanislaus;
Chamberlain, Privy Counsellor of State, and Lieutenant-General
in the Service of his Most Serene Highness the Elector Palatine,
Reigning Duke of Bavaria; Colonel of his Regiment of Artillery,
and Commander in Chief of the General Staff of his Army; F.R.S.
Acad. R Hiber. Berol. Elec. Boicoe. Palat. et Amer. Soc.
VOL. I.
Contents
Dedication
First Essay
An account of an Establishment for the Poor at Munich
Second Essay
On the Fundamental Principles on which General Establishments for
the Relief of the Poor may be formed in all Countries.
Third Essay
Of Food and Particularly of Feeding the Poor.
Fourth Essay
Of Chimney Fire-places with proposals for improving them to save
Fuel; to render dwelling-houses more Comfortable and Salubrious,
and effectually to prevent Chimnies from Smoking.
Fifth Essay
A Short Account of several public institutions lately formed in
Bavaria. together with the Appendix to the First Volume.
Dedication
To his most serene highness THE ELECTOR PALATINE reigning duke
of bavaria. etc. etc. etc.
SIR,
In requesting permission to dedicate to you most Serene
Electoral Highness these Essays, I had several important
objects in view: I was desirous of showing to the world that I
had not presumed to publish an account of public measures and
institutions, planned and executed in your Electorial
Highness's dominions,--by your orders,--and under your
immediate authority and protection, without your leave and
approbation. I was also desirous of availing myself of the
illustrious name of a Sovereign eminently distinguished by his
munificence in promoting useful knowledge, and by his solicitude
for the happiness and prosperity of his subjects, to recommend
the important objects I have undertaken to investigate, to the
attention of the Great,--the Wise,--and the Benevolent.
And lastly, I was anxious to have an opportunity of testifying,
in a public manner, my gratitude to your most Serene Electoral
Highness for all your kindness to me; and more especially for
the distinguished honour you have done me by selecting and
employing me as an instrument in your hands of doing good.
I have the honour to be, with the most profound respect,
and with unalterable attachment,
SIR,
Your Most Serene ELECTORIAL HIGHNESS's
Devoted Servant,
RUMFORD.
London,
July, 1st, 1796.
CONTENTS of ESSAY I.
an ACCOUNT of an ESTABLISHMENT FOR THE POOR AT MUNICH
together with
A Detail of various Public Measures, connected with that
Institution, which have been adopted and carried into effect for
putting an End to Mendicity, and introducing Order, and useful
Industry, among the more Indigent of the Inhabitants of Bavaria.
Introduction
CHAPTER. I.
Of the prevalence of mendicity in Bavaria at the time when the
measures for putting an end to it were adopted.
CHAPTER. II.
Various preparations made for putting an end to mendicity in bavaria.
Cantonment of the cavalry in the country towns and villages.
Formation of the committee placed at the head of the institution
for the poor at Munich.
The funds of that institution.
CHAPTER. III.
Preparations made for giving employment to the poor.
Difficulties attending that undertaking.
The measures adopted completely successful.
The poor reclaimed to habits of useful industry.
Description of the house of industry at Munich.
CHAPTER. IV.
An account of the taking up of the beggars at Munich.
The inhabitants are called upon for their assistance.
General subscription for the relief and support of the poor.
All other public and private collections for the poor abolished.
CHAPTER. V.
The different kinds of employment given to the beggars upon their
being assembled in the house of industry.
Their great awkwardness at first.
Their docility, and their progress in useful industry.
The manner in which they were treated.
The manner in which they were fed.
The Precautions used to prevent Abuses in the Public Kitchen from
which they were fed.
CHAPTER. VI.
Apology for the want of method in treating the subject under
consideration.
Of the various means used for encouraging industry among the poor.
Of the internal arrangement and government of the house of industry.
Why called the military work-house.
Of the manner in which the business is carried on there.
Of the various means used for preventing frauds in carrying on the
business in the different manufactures.
Of the flourishing state of those manufactures.
CHAPTER. VII.
A further account of the poor who were brought together in the
house of industry:--and of the interesting change which was
produced in their manners and dispositions.
Various proofs that the means used for making them industrious,
comfortable, and happy, were successful.
CHAPTER. VIII.
Of the means used for the relief of those poor persons who were
not beggars.
Of the large sums of money distributed to the poor in alms.
Of the means used for rendering those who received alms industrious.
Of the general utility of the house of industry to the poor,
and the distressed of all denominations.
Of public kitchens for feeding the poor, united with establishments
for giving them employment; and of the great advantages which
would be derived from forming them in every parish.
Of the manner in which the poor of Munich are lodged.
CHAPTER. IX.
Of the means used for extending the influence of the institution
for the poor at Munich, to other parts of Bavaria.
Of the progress which some of the improvements introduced at Munich
are making in other countries.
INTRODUCTION.
[ IMAGE ] view of the Military Workhouse at Munich
Situation of the Author in the Service of His Most Serene
Highness the ELECTOR PALATINE, Reigning Duke of BAVARIA.
Reasons which induced him to undertake to form an Establishment
for the Relief of the Poor.
Among the vicissitudes of a life chequered by a great variety of
incidents, and in which I have been called upon to act in many
interesting scenes, I have had an opportunity of employing my
attention upon a subject of great importance; a subject
intimately and inseparably connected with the happiness and
well-being of all civil societies; and which, from its nature,
cannot fail to interest every benevolent mind;--it is the
providing for the wants of the Poor, and the securing their
happiness and comfort by the introduction of order and industry
among them.
The subject, though it is so highly interesting to mankind, has
not yet been investigated with that success that could have been
wished. This fact is apparent, not only from the prevalence of
indolence, misery, and beggary, in almost all the countries of
Europe; but also from the great variety of opinion among those
who have taken the matter into serious consideration, and have
proposed methods for remedying those evils; so generally, and so
justly complained of.
What I have to offer upon the this subject being not merely
speculative opinion, but the genuine result of actual experiments;
of experiments made upon a very large scale, and under circumstances
which render them peculiarly interesting; I cannot help flattering
myself that my readers will find both amusement, and useful
information, from the perusal of the following sheets.
As it may perhaps appear extraordinary that a military man should
undertake a work so foreign to his profession, as that of forming
and executing a plan for providing for the Poor, I have thought
it not improper to preface the narrative of my operations, by a
short account of the motives which induced me to engage in this
undertaking. And in order to throw still more light upon the
whole transaction, I shall begin with a few words of myself,
of my situation in the country in which I reside, and of the
different objects which were had in view in the various public
measures in which I have been concerned. This information is
necessary in order to form a clear idea of the circumstances
under which the operations in question were undertaken, and the
different public measures which were adopted at the same time.
Having in the year 1784, with His Majesty's gracious permission,
engaged myself in the service of His Most Serene Highness the
Elector Palatine, Reigning Duke of Bavaria, I have since been
employed by His Electoral Highness in various public services,
and particularly in arranging his military affairs, and introducing
a new system of order, discipline, and economy among his troops.
In the execution of this commission, ever mindful of that great and
important truth, that no political arrangement can be really good,
except in so far as it contributes to the general good of society,
I have endeavoured in all my operations to unite the interest of
the soldier with the interest of civil society, and to render the
military force, even in time of peace, subservient to the PUBLIC GOOD.
To facilitate and promote these important objects, to establish a
respectable standing military force, which should do the least
possible harm to the population, morals, manufactures, and
agriculture of the country, it was necessary to make soldiers
citizens, and citizens soldiers. To this end the situation of
the soldier was made as easy, comfortable, and eligible as
possible; his pay was increased, he was comfortably, and even
elegantly clothed, and he was allowed every kind of liberty not
inconsistent with good order and due subordination; his military
exercises were simplified, his instruction rendered short and
easy, and all obsolete and useless customs and usages were
banished from the service. Great attention was paid to the
external appearance of the buildings; and nothing was left
undone, that could tend to make the men comfortable in their
dwellings. Schools were established in all the regiments,
for arithmetic; and into these schools, not only the soldiers
and their children, but also the children of the neighbouring
citizens and peasants, were admitted gratis, and even school-books,
paper[1], pens, and ink, were furnished for them, at the expense
of the Sovereign.
Besides these schools of instruction, others, called schools of
industry, were established in the regiments, where the soldiers
and their children were taught various kinds of work, and from
whence they were supplied with raw materials, to work for their
own emolument.
As nothing is so certain fatal to morals, and particularly to the
morals of the lower class of mankind, as habitual idleness, every
possible measure was adopted, that could be devised, to introduce
a spirit of industry among the troops. Every encouragement was
given to the soldiers to employ their leisure time, when they
were off duty, in working for their own emolument; and among
other encouragements, the most efficacious of all, that of
allowing them full liberty to dispose of the money acquired by
their labour in any way they should think proper, without being
obliged to give any account of it to any body. They were even
furnished with working dresses, (a canvas frock and trousers,)
gratis, at their enlisting, and were afterwards permitted to
retain their old uniforms for the same purpose; and care was
taken, in all cases where they were employed, that they should be
well paid.
They commonly received from sixteen to eighteen creutzers[2] a-day
for their labour; and with this they had the advantage of being
clothed and lodged, and, in many cases, of receiving their full pay
of five creutzers, and a pound and a half (1 lb. 13 1/2; oz.
Avoirdupois) of bread per day from the Sovereign. When they did
their duty in their regiments, by mounting guard regularly
according to their tour (which commonly was every fourth day,)
and only worked those days they happened to be off guard, in that
case, they received their full pay; but when they were excused
from regimental duty, and permitted to work every day for their
own emolument, their pay (at five creutzers per day,) was
stopped, but they were still permitted to receive their bread,
and to lodge in the barracks.
In all public works, such as making and repairing highways,
--draining marshes,--repairing the banks of rivers, etc.
soldiers were employed as labourers; and in all such cases,
the greatest care was taken to provide for their comfortable
subsistence, and even for their amusement. Good lodgings were
prepared for them, and good and wholesome food, at a reasonable
price; and the greatest care was taken of them when they happened
to fall sick.
Frequently, when considerable numbers of them were at work
together, a band of music was ordered to play to them while at
work; and on holidays they were permitted, and even encouraged,
to make merry, with dancing and other innocent sports and
amusements.
To preserve good order and harmony among those who were detached
upon these working parties, a certain proportion of officers and
non-commissioned officers were always sent with them, and those
commonly served as overseers of the works, and as such were paid.
Besides this permission to work for hire in the garrison towns,
and upon detached working parties, which was readily granted to
all those who desired it, or at least to as many as could
possibly be spared from the necessary service of the garrison;
every facility and encouragement was given to the soldier who was
a native of the country, and who had a family of friends to go
to, or private concerns to take care of, to go home on furlough,
and to remain absent from his regiment from one annual exercise
to the other, that is to say, ten months and a half each year.
This arrangement was very advantageous to the agriculture and
manufactures, and even to the population of the country,
(for the soldiers were allowed to marry,) and served not a little
to the establishment of harmony and a friendly intercourse
between the soldiers and the peasantry, and to facilitate
recruiting.
Another measure which tended much to render the situation of the
soldier pleasant and agreeable, and to facilitate the recruiting
service, was the rendering the garrisons of the regiments permanent.
This measure might not be advisable in a despotic, or odious
government; for where the authority of the Sovereign must be
supported by the terror of arms, all habits of social intercourse
and friendship between the soldiers and the subjects must be
dangerous; but in all well-regulated governments, such friendly
intercourse is attended with many advantages.
A peasant would more readily consent to his son's engaging
himself to serve as a soldier in a regiment permanently stationed
in his neighbourhood, than in one at a great distance, or whose
destination was uncertain; and when the station of a regiment is
permanent, and it receives its recruits from the district of
country immediately surrounding its head-quarters, the men who go
home on furlough have but a short journey to make, and are easily
assembled in case of any emergency; and it was the more necessary
to give every facility to the soldiers to go home on furlough in
Bavaria, as labourers are so very scarce in that country that the
husbandman would not be able without them to cultivate his ground.
The habits of industry and of order which the soldier acquired
when in garrison, rendered him so much the more useful as a
labourer when on furlough; but not contented with merely
furnishing labours for the assistance of the husbandman, I was
desirous of making use of the army, as a means of introducing
useful improvements into the country.
Though agriculture is carried to the highest perfection in some
parts of the Elector's dominions, yet in others, and particularly
in Bavaria, it is still much behind-hand. Very few of the new
improvements in that art, such as the introduction of new and
useful plants--the cultivation of clover and of turnips--the
regular succession of crops, etc. have yet found their way into
general practice in that country; and even the potatoe, that most
useful of all the products of the ground, is scarcely known there.
It was principally with a view to introduce the culture of
potatoes in that country that the military gardens were formed.
These gardens (of which there is one in every garrison belonging
to the Elector's dominion, Dusseldorf and Amberg only
excepted[3]) are pieces of ground, in, or adjoining to the
garrison towns, which are regularly laid out, and exclusively
appropriated to the use of the non-commissioned officers and
private soldiers belonging to the regiments in garrison.
The ground is regularly divided into districts of regiments,
battalions, companies, and corporalities (corporalschafts,)
of which last divisions there are four to each company; and the
quantity of ground allotted to each corporality is such that each
man belonging to it, whether non-commissioned officer or private,
has a bed 365 square feet in superficies.
This piece of ground remains his sole property as long as he
continues to serve in the regiment, and he is at full liberty to
cultivate it in any way, and to dispose of the produce of it in
any manner he may think proper. He must however cultivate it,
and plant it, and keep it neat and free from weeds; otherwise,
if he should be idle, and neglect it, it would be taken from him
and given to one of his more industrious comrades.
The divisions of these military gardens are marked by broader and
smaller alleys, covered with gravel, and neatly kept; and in
order that every one who chooses it, may be a spectator of this
interesting scene of industry, all the principal alleys, which
are made large for that purpose, are always open as a public
walk. The effect which this establishment has already produced
in the short time (little more than five years) since it was
begun, is very striking, and much greater and more important than
I could have expected.
The soldiers, from being the most indolent of mortals, and from
having very little knowledge of gardening, or of the produce of a
garden, for use, are now becoming industrious and skilful
cultivators, and they are grown so fond of vegetables,
particularly of potatoes, which they raise in great quantities,
that these useful and wholesome productions now constitutes a
very essential part of their daily food. And these improvements
are also spreading very fast among the farmers and peasants,
throughout the whole country. There is hardly a soldier that
goes on furlough, or that returns home at the expiration of his
time of service, that does not carry with him a few potatoes for
planting, and a little collection of garden-seeds; and I have no
doubt but in a very few years we shall see potatoes as much
cultivated in Bavaria as in other countries; and that the use of
vegetables for food will be generally introduced among the common
people. I have already had the satisfaction to see little
gardens here and there making their appearance, in different
parts of the country, and I hope that very soon no farmer's house
will be found without one.
To assist the soldiers in the cultivation of their gardens,
they are furnished with garden utensils gratis; they are likewise
furnished from time to time with a certain quantity of manure,
and with an assortment of garden-feeds; but they do not rely
solely upon these supplies; those who are industrious collect
materials in their barracks, and in the streets, for making
manure, and even sometimes purchase it, and they raise in their
own gardens most of the garden-seeds they stand in need of.
To enable them to avail themselves of their gardens as early in
the spring as possible, in supplying their tables with green
vegetables, each company is furnished with a hot-bed for raising
early plants.
To attach the soldiers more strongly to these their little
possessions, by increasing their comfort and convenience in the
cultivation and enjoyment of them, a number of little summer-houses,
or rather huts, one to each company, have been erected for the
purpose of shelter, where they can retire when it rains, or when
they are fatigued.
All the officers of the regiments, from the highest to the lowest,
are ordered to give the men every assistance in the cultivation
of these their gardens; but they are forbidden, upon pain of the
severest punishment, to appropriate to themselves any part of the
produce of them, or even to receive any part of it in presents.
CHAPTER. I.
Of the prevalence of mendicity in Bavaria at the time when the
measures for putting an end to it were adopted.
Among the various measures that occurred to me by which the
military establishment of the country might be made subservient
to the public good in time of peace, none appeared to be of so
much importance as that of employing the army in clearing the
country of beggers, thieves and other vagabonds; and in watching
over the public tranquillity.
But in order to clear the country of beggers, (the number of whom
in Bavaria had become quite intolerable,) it was necessary to
adopt general and efficacious measures for maintaining and
supporting the Poor. Laws were not wanting to oblige each
community in the country to provide for its own Poor; but these
laws had been so long neglected, and beggary had become so
general, that extraordinary measures, and the most indefatigable
exertions, were necessary to put a stop to this evil. The number
of itinerant beggars, of both sexes, and all ages, as well
foreigners as natives, who strolled about the country in all
directions. levying contributions from the industrious
inhabitants, stealing and robbing, and leading a life of
indolence, and the most shameless debauchery, was quite
incredible; and so numerous were the swarms of beggars in all the
great towns, and particularly in the capital, so great their
impudence, and so persevering their importunity, that it was
almost impossible to cross the streets without being attacked,
and absolutely forced to satisfy their clamorous demands.
And these beggars were in general by no means such as from age
or bodily infirmities were unable by their labour to earn their
livelihood; but they were for the most part, stout, strong,
healthy, sturdy beggars, who, lost to every sense of shame,
had embraced the profession from choice, not necessity; and who,
not unfrequently, added insolence and threats to their importunity,
and extorted that from fear, which they could not procure by
their arts of dissimulation.
These beggars not only infested all the streets, public walks,
and public places, but they even made a practice of going into
private houses, where they never failed to steal whatever fell in
their way, if they found the doors open, and nobody at home; and
the churches were so full of them that it was quite a nuisance,
and a public scandal during the performance of divine service.
People at their devotions were continually interrupted by them,
and were frequently obliged to satisfy their demands in order to
be permitted to finish their prayers in peace and quite.
In short, these detestable vermin swarmed every where, and not
only their impudence and clamorous importunity were without any
bounds, but they had recourse to the most diabolical arts,
and most horrid crimes, in the prosecution of their infamous trade.
Young children were stolen from their parents by these wretches,
and their eyes put out, or their tender limbs broken and distorted,
in order, by exposing them thus maimed, to excite the pity and
commiseration of the public; and every species of artifice was
made use of to agitate the sensibility, and to extort the
contributions of the humane and charitable.
Some of these monsters were so void of all feeling as to expose
even their own children, naked, and almost starved, in the streets,
in order that, by their cries and unaffected expressions of
distress, they might move those who passed by to pity and relieve
them; and in order to make them act their part more naturally,
they were unmercifully beaten when they came home, by their
inhuman parents, if they did not bring with them a certain sum,
which they were ordered to collect.
I have frequently seen a poor child of five or six years of age,
late at night, in the most inclement season, sitting down almost
naked at the corner of a street, and crying most bitterly; if he
were asked what was the matter with him, he would answer, "I am
cold and hungry, and afraid to go home; my mother told me to
bring home twelve creutzers, and I have only been able to beg
five. My mother will certainly beat me if I don't carry home
twelve creutzers." Who could refuse so small a sum to relieve
so much unaffected distress?--But what horrid arts are these,
to work upon the feelings of the public, and levy involuntary
contributions for the support of idleness and debauchery!
But the evils arising from the prevalence of mendicity did not
stop here. The public, worn out and vanquished by the numbers
and persevering importunity of the beggars; and frequently
disappointed in their hopes of being relieved from their
depredations, by the failure of the numberless schemes that were
formed and set on foot for that purpose, began at last to
consider the case as quite desperate; and to submit patiently to
an evil for which they saw no remedy. The consequences of this
submission are easy to be conceived; the beggars, encouraged by
their success, were attached still more strongly to their
infamous profession; and others, allured by their indolent lives,
encouraged by their successful frauds, and emboldened by their
impunity, joined them. The habit of submission on the part of
the public, gave them a sort of right to pursue their
depredations;-- their growing numbers and their success gave a
kind of eclat to their profession; and the habit of begging
became so general, that it ceased to be considered as infamous;
and was by degrees in a manner interwoven with the internal
regulations of society. Herdsmen and shepherds, who attended
their flocks by the road-side, were known to derive considerable
advantage from the contributions which their situation enabled
them to levy from passengers; and I have been assured, that the
wages they received from their employers were often regulated
accordingly. The children in every country village, and those
even of the best farmers, made a constant practice of begging from
all strangers who passed; and one hardly ever met a person on
foot upon the road, particularly a woman, who did not hold out
her hand and ask for charity.
In the great towns, besides the children of the poorer sort,
who almost all made a custom of begging, the professional beggars
formed a distinct class, or cast, among the inhabitants; and in
general a very numerous one. There was even a kind of political
connection between the members of this formidable body;
and certain general maxims were adopted, and regulations observed,
in the warfare they carried on against the public. Each beggar had
his particular beat, or district, in the possession of which it
was not thought lawful to disturb him; and certain rules were
observed in disposing of the districts in case of vacancies by
deaths or resignations, promotions or removals. A battle, it is
true, frequently decided the contest between the candidates; but
when the possession was once obtained, whether by force of arms,
or by any other means, the right was ever after considered as
indisputable. Alliances by marriage were by no means uncommon in
this community; and, strange as it may appear, means were found
to procure legal permission from the civil magistrates for the
celebration of these nuptials! The children were of course
trained up in the profession of their parents; and having the
advantage of an early education, were commonly great proficients
in their trade.
As there is no very essential difference between depriving a
person of his property by stealth, and extorting it from him
against his will, by dint of clamorous importunity, or under
false pretence of feigned distress and misfortune; so the
transition from begging to stealing is not only easy,
but perfectly natural. That total insensibility to shame,
and all those other qualifications which are necessary in the
profession of a beggar, are likewise essential to form an
accomplished thief; and both these professions derive very
considerable advantages from their union. A beggar who goes
about from house to house to ask for alms, has many opportunities
to steal, which another would not so easily find; and his
profession as a beggar gives him a great facility in disposing of
what he steals; for he can always say it was given him in
charity. No wonder then that thieving and robbing should be
prevalent where beggars are numerous.
That this was the case in Bavaria will not be doubted by those
who are informed that in the four years immediately succeeding
the introduction of the measures adopted for putting an end to
mendicity, and clearing the country of beggars, thieves, robbers,
etc. above TEN THOUSAND of these vagabonds, foreigners and
natives, were actually arrested and delivered over to the civil
magistrates; and that in taking up the beggars in Munich, and
providing for those who stood in need of public assistance,
no less than 2600 of the one description and the other, were
entered upon the lists in one week; though the whole number of
the inhabitants of the city of Munich probably does not amount
to more than 60,000, even including the suburbs.
These facts are so very extraordinary, that were they not
notorious, I should hardly have ventured to mention them,
for fear of being suspected of exaggeration; but they are perfectly
known in the country, by every body; having been published by
authority in the news-papers at the time, with all their various
details and specifications, for the information of the public.
What has been said, will, I fancy, be thought quite sufficient to
show the necessity of applying a remedy to the evils described;
and of introducing order and a spirit of industry among the lower
classes of the people. I shall therefore proceed, without any
farther preface, to give an account of the measures which were
adopted and carried into execution for that purpose.