Peter the Great
On the very day when the Grand Monarch watched his army cross the Rhine
under the generals--Turenne and Condé--a man was born possessed of the
same strong individuality as Louis XIV, a man whose rule was destined
to work vast changes in the mighty realms to the extreme east of Europe.
On 30th May, 1672, Peter, son of Alexis, was born in the palace of the
Kreml at Moscow. He was reared at first in strict seclusion behind the
silken curtains that guarded the windows of the _Térem_, where the
women lived. Then rebellion broke out after his father's death; for
Alexis had children by two marriages, and the offspring of his first
wife, Mary Miloslavski, were jealous of the influence acquired by the
relatives of Nathalie Naryshkin, Peter's mother.
Peter found a strange new freedom in the village near Moscow which gave
him shelter when the Miloslavski were predominant in the State. He
grew up wild and boisterous, the antithesis in all things of the
polished courtier of the western world, for he despised fine clothing
and hated the external pomp of state. He ruled at first with his
half-brother Ivan, and had reason to dread the power of Ivan's sister,
Sophia Miloslavski, who was Regent, and gave lavish emoluments to
Galitzin, {138} her favourite minister. There was even an attempt upon
Peter's life, which made him something of a coward in later times,
since he was taken unawares by a terrible rising that Sophia inspired
and escaped her only by a hurried flight.
The rising was put down, however; Sophia was sent to a convent, and
Galitzin banished before Peter could be said to rule. He did not care
at first for State affairs, being absorbed by youthful pleasures which
he shared with companions from the stables and the streets. He drilled
soldiers, forming pleasure regiments, and had hours of delight sailing
an old boat which he found one day, for this aroused a new enthusiasm.
There were Dutch skippers at Archangel who were glad to teach him all
they knew of navigation and the duties of their various crafts. The
Tsar insisted on working his way upward from a cabin-boy--he was
democratic, and intended to level classes in his Empire in this way.
Russian subjects complained bitterly of the Tsar's strange foreign
tastes as soon as they heard that he was fond of visiting the
_Sloboda_, that German quarter of his capital where so many foreigners
lived. There were rumours that he was not Alexis' son but the
offspring perhaps of Lefort, the Genevese favourite, who helped him to
reform. When it was reported that he was about to visit foreign lands,
discontent was louder, for the rulers of the east did not travel far
from their own dominions if they followed the customs of their fathers,
and observed their people's will. The _Streltsy_, a privileged class
of soldiers, rose on the eve of the departure for the west. Their
punishment did not descend on them at once, but Peter planned a dark
vengeance in his mind.
The monarch visited many countries in disguise, intent on learning the
civilized arts of western Europe, {139} that he might introduce them to
"barbarous Muscovy," which clung to the obsolete practices of a former
age. He spent some time at Zaandem, a village in Holland, where he was
busily engaged in boat-building. Then he was entertained at Amsterdam,
and passed on to England as the guest of William III. He occupied
Sayes Court, near Deptford, the residence of John Evelyn, the great
diarist, and wrought much havoc in that pleasant place; for his manners
were still rude and barbarous, and he had no respect for the property
of his host. Sir Godfrey Kneller painted him--a handsome giant, six
feet eight inches high, with full lips, dark skin, and curly hair that
always showed beneath his wig. The Tsar disdained to adorn his person,
and was often meanly clad, wearing coarse darned stockings, thick
shoes, and studying economy in dress.
Peter continued his study of ship-building at Deptford, but the chief
object of his visit was fulfilled when he had induced workmen of all
kinds to return with him to Russia to teach their different trades.
The Tsar was intent on securing a fleet, and hoped to gain a sea-board
for his empire by driving back the Poles and Swedes from their Baltic
ports. He would then be able to trade with Europe and have intercourse
with countries that were previously unknown. But only war could
accomplish this high ambition, and he had, as yet, no real skill in
arms. An attempt on Azov, then in Turkish hands, had led to
ignominious defeat.
Peter returned home to find that the _Streltsy_ had broken out again.
His vengeance was terrible, for he had a barbarous strain and wielded
the axe and knout with his own hands. The rebellious soldiers were
deprived of the privileges that had long been theirs, and those who
were fortunate enough to escape a cruel death were {140} banished. In
future the army was to know the discipline that such soldiers as
Patrick Gordon, a Scotch officer, had learned in their campaigns in
foreign lands. This soldier did much good work in the organization and
control of Peter's army. Their dress was to be modelled on the western
uniforms that Peter had admired. He was ashamed of the cumbersome
skirts that Russians wore after the Asiatic style, and insisted that
they should be cut off, together with the beards that were almost
sacred in the eyes of priests.
Favourites of humble origin were useful to Peter in his innovations,
which were rigorously carried out. Menshikof, once a pastry-cook's
boy, aided the Tsar to crush any discontent that might break out, and
himself shaved many wrathful nobles who were afraid to resist. It was
Peter's whim to give such lavish presents to this minister that he
could live in splendid luxury and entertain the Tsar's own guests.
Peter himself preferred simplicity, and despised the magnificence of
fine palaces. He married a serving-maid named Catherine for his second
wife, and loved her homely household ways and the cheerful spirit with
which she rode out with him to camp. His first wife was shut up in a
convent because she had a sincere distrust of all the changes that
began with Peter's reign.
Charles XII of Sweden was the monarch who had chief reason to beware of
the impatient spirit of the Tsar, ever desirous of that "window open
upon Europe," which his father too had craved. The Swede was warlike
and fearless, for he was happy only in the field. He scorned Peter's
claims at first, and inflicted shameful defeat on him. The Tsar fled
from Narva in Livonia, and all Europe branded him as coward. By 1700,
peace with Turkey had been signed in order that the {141} Russians
might march westward to the Baltic sea. Their repulse showed the
determination of the Tsar, who had learnt a lesson from the humiliation
he had endured. He began to train soldiers and sailors again, and sent
for more foreigners to teach the art of war. The very church-bells
were melted into cannon-balls that he might conquer the all-conquering
Swedes.
Moscow, which consisted largely of wooden buildings, caught fire and
was burnt in 1701, both palace and state offices falling to the ground.
The capital had dreadful memories for the Tsar, who wished to build a
new fort looking out upon the Baltic Sea. Its ancient churches and
convents did not attract him, for religion was strongly associated in
his mind with the stubborn opposition of the priesthood, which
invariably met his plans for reform.
Petersburg rose in triumph on an island of the Neva when the estuary
had been seized by a superb effort of the Tsar. It was on a damp
unhealthy site and contained only wooden huts in its first period of
occupation, but inhabitants were quickly found. The Tsar was
autocratic enough to bid his _boyards_, or nobles, move there despite
all their complaints. He built the church of St Peter and St Paul, and
drew merchants thither by promises of trade. "Let him build towns,"
his adversary said with scorn, "there will be all the more for us to
take."
The King of Poland had allied himself with Russia against Sweden, but
proved faithless and unscrupulous as the contest waxed keen. Augustus
had found some qualities in the Tsar which appealed to him, for he was
boisterous in mirth himself and a hard drinker, but his principal
concern was for the safety of his own throne and the security of his
own dominions. After two {142} decisive defeats, he was expelled from
the throne of Poland by Charles XII, who placed Stanislaus Leszczynski
in his place. This alarmed Peter, who had relied on Poland's help.
The winter and cold proved a better ally of Russia in the end than any
service which Augustus paid. The Tsar wisely drew the Swedish army
into the desert-lands, where many thousands died of cold and hunger.
He met the forlorn remnants of a glorious band at Poltava in 1709, and
routed them with ease. Narva was avenged, for the Swedish King had to
be led from the battlefield by devoted comrades and placed in retreat
in Turkey, where he was the Sultan's guest. Charles' lucky star had
set when he received a wound the night before Poltava, for he could not
fight on foot and his men lost heart, missing the stern heroic figure
and the commanding voice that bade them gain either victory or death.
Peter might well order an annual celebration of his victory over
Sweden, writing exultantly to Admiral Apraxin at Petersburg some few
hours after battle, "Our enemy has encountered the fate of Phaethon,
and the foundation-stone of our city on the Neva is at length grimly
laid." The Swedish army had been crushed, and the Swedish hero-king
was a mere knight-errant unable to return to his own land. The
Cossacks who had tried to assert their independence of Russia under the
Hetman Mazeppa, an ally of Charles XII, failed in their opposition to
the mighty Tsar. Augustus was recognized as King of Poland again after
the defeat of the Swedish King at Poltava, as Stanislaus retired,
knowing that he could expect no further support from Sweden. Peter
renewed his alliance at Thorn with the Polish sovereign.
The new order began for Russia as soon as the Baltic coast fell into
the possession of Peter, who was {143} overjoyed by the new link with
the west. He was despotic in his sweeping changes, but he desired the
civilization of his barbarous land. He visited foreign courts,
disliking their ceremony and half-ashamed of his homely faithful wife.
He gathered new knowledge everywhere, learning many trades and
acquiring treasures that were the gifts of kings. It was long before
his ambassadors were respected, longer still before he received the
ungrudging acknowledgment of his claims as Emperor. He had resolved to
form great alliances through his daughters, who were educated and
dressed after the manner of the French.
Peter did much for the emancipation of women in Russia, though his
personal treatment of them was brutal, and he threatened even Catherine
with death it she hesitated to obey his slightest whim. They had been
reared in monotonous retirement hitherto, and never saw their
bridegrooms till the marriage-day. Their wrongs were seldom redressed
if they ventured to complain, and the convent was the only refuge from
unhappy married life. The royal princesses were not allowed to appear
in public nor drive unveiled through the streets. Suitors did not
release them from the dreary empty routine of their life, because their
religion was a barrier to alliance with princes of the west. Sophia
had dared greatly in demanding a position in the State.
Peter altered the betrothal customs, insisting that the bridal couple
should meet before the actual ceremonies took place. He gave
assemblies to which his subjects were obliged by _ukase_ or edict to
bring the women of their families, and he endeavoured to promote that
social life which had been unknown in Russia when she was cut off from
the west. He approved of dancing and music, and took part in revels of
a more boisterous {144} kind. He drank very heavily in his later days,
and was peremptory in bidding both men and women share the convivial
pleasures of his court. National feeling was suspicious of all
feminine influence till the affable Catherine entered public life. She
interceded for culprits, and could often calm her husband in his most
violent moods. Gradually the attitude changed which had made proverbs
expressing such sentiments as "A woman's hair is long, but her
understanding is short."
Peter's fierce impetuous nature bore the nation along the new channel
in which he chose that it should flow. He played at being a servant,
but he made use of the supreme authority of an Emperor. All men became
absorbed in his strong imperious personality which differed from the
general character of the Russian of his day. Relentless severity
marked his displeasure when any disaffection was likely to thwart his
favourite plans. He sacrificed his eldest son Alexis to this theory
that every man must share his tastes. "The knout is not an angel, but
it teaches men to tell the truth," he said grimly, as he examined the
guilty by torture and drew confession with the lash.
St Petersburg became the residence of the nobles. They had to desert
their old estates and follow the dictates of a Tsar whose object it was
to push continually toward the west. Labourers died in thousands while
the city was built and destroyed again by winter floods, but the past
for Russia was divided from the future utterly at Peter's death in 1725.
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