_Description of the Inhabitants of West Barbary — their Dress —
Religious Ceremonies and Opinions — their Character — Manners
and Customs — Diseases — Funerals — Etiquette of the Court
— Sources of Revenue._
The inhabitants of the Emperor of Marocco’s dominions may be
divided into four classes, namely, Moors, Arabs, Berebbers, (which
latter are probably the aborigines,) and Shelluhs.
The _Moors_ are the descendants of those who were driven out of Spain;
they inhabit the cities of Marocco, Fas, Mequinas, and all the coast
towns, as far southward as the province of Haha. Their language
is a corrupt Arabic, intermixed with Spanish. In my transactions
with these people, I have generally observed in them a misanthropic
insolence whenever they are addressed with courtesy and respect,
but much civility when treated with dignity. They seem to imagine
suavity of manners to be an indication of fear.
The _Arabs_ have their original stock in Sahara, from whence they
emigrate to the plains of Marocco, whenever the plague, famine, or any
other calamity depopulates the country so as to admit of a new colony,
without injuring the territory of the former inhabitants. These
Arabs live in tents, inhabiting the fertile and extensive plains,
and indeed the whole territory west of Atlas, and as far south as
Mogodor, or the confines of the Arab province of Shedma. (See the map
of Marocco). These populous tribes travel over the whole of Africa;
and are the agriculturists of Barbary and of Bled-el-jerrêde. They
speak the Korannick Arabic somewhat corrupted. They are a restless and
turbulent people, continually at war with each other: in one province
a rebellious kabyle, or clan, will fight against a neighbouring
loyal one, and will thus plunder and destroy one another, till,
fatigued by the toils of war, they mutually cease, when, the next
year perhaps, the rebellious clan will be found fighting for the
Emperor against the former loyal one, now become rebellious. This
plan of setting one tribe against another is an act of policy of the
Emperor, because, if he did not, in this manner, quell the broils
continually breaking out amongst them, he would be compelled, in
order to preserve tranquillity in his dominions, to employ his own
army for that purpose, which is generally occupied in more important
business. Hospitality is a prominent feature in the character of
these people, insomuch that if an enemy be driven to the necessity
of seeking an asylum among them, hostility is immediately forgotten.
The _Berebbers_ inhabit the mountains of Atlas north of the city
of Marocco, living generally in tents; they are a robust, nervous,
and warlike people, having a language peculiar to themselves, which
differs more from the Arabic, or general language of Africa, than
any two languages of Europe differ from each other; it is probably
a dialect of the ancient Carthaginian. In travelling through the
Berebber Kabyles of Ait Imure, and Zemure Shelluh, I noticed many of
the inhabitants who possessed the old Roman physiognomy. The general
occupation of these people is husbandry, and the rearing of bees
for honey and wax. They possess much cunning and duplicity, and are
never outwitted by the Moors, or entirely worsted by the troops of the
Emperor, with whom they have had very frequent encounters, but have
never been permanently subdued: they esteem it the greatest advantage
possible to fight on their own territory. Their allegiance to the
Emperor has often been secured by retaining their chiefs at court,
conferring favours on them, appointing them to offices of state,
and to seats in the Diwan; thus making them hostages, as it were,
for the peaceable conduct of their respective Kabyles.
The _Shelluhs_ inhabit the Atlas mountains, and their various branches
south of Marocco; they live generally in walled habitations, or in
towns, and are, for the most part, occupied in husbandry like the
Berebbers, though differing from them in their language,[126] dress,
and manners; they live almost entirely on (Assoua) barley meal made
into gruel, and (Zimeta) barley roasted or granulated, which they
mix with cold water, when travelling. They occasionally indulge in
(_cuscasoe_) a nutritive farinaceous food, made of granulated flour,
and afterwards boiled by steam, and mixed with butter, mutton, fowls,
and vegetables. Many families among these people are reported to be
descended from the Portuguese, who formerly possessed the ports on the
coast; but who, after the discovery of America, gradually withdrew
thither. East of Marocco, near Dimenet, on the Atlas mountains,
there is still remaining a church, having inscriptions in Latin
over the entrance, supposed to have been built by the Portuguese,
which, being superstitiously reported to be haunted, has escaped
destruction. The language of the Shelluhs is called Amazirk.
The Shelluhs are a crafty people; they are, perhaps, better disposed
towards Christians than the Moors or the Arabs. The term Kabyle
applies to all cultivators of land, and to those who rear the cattle
and flocks. Sometimes we discover, in traversing this country, an
encampment of Bedouin Arabs, who, in their migrations to far distant
countries, pitch their tents wherever they find the country productive
and unoccupied; here they sojourn till their flocks have consumed
all the pasture, when they strike their tents and proceed on their
long journey. These people live, for the most part, on camel’s
milk; they are an indolent race, and neither cultivate the earth,
nor do any kind of work, attacking and plundering caravans whenever
they can do it with impunity. It is these Bedouins, or Saharawans,
who sometimes plunder the Akkabahs and caravans whilst traversing
the Great Desert of Africa. The Arabs of Woled Abbusebah[127] place a
string over the crown of the head, bringing it down behind the ears,
and shave the front hair, to prevent, as is pretended, their enemies
from catching hold of them. The same custom predominates among the
independant Shelluhs of Idautenan, inhabitants of Atlas near Cape
de Geer. See the Map of Marocco, lat. N. 30° 30′.
The Moors, as well as the other natives of this country, are generally
of a middle stature: they have not so much nerve as the Europeans,
and are, for the most part, thick and clumsy about the legs and
ancles, insomuch that a well-formed leg is seldom seen among them;
this may proceed from their constantly sitting cross legged, with
their legs under them, like the tailors of Europe, or perhaps from
their wearing no covering to their legs, which are thus exposed to
all weathers. Deformed persons are rarely met with; the loose Arabian
dress covers deformity, and their mode of bringing up children, (every
thing being left to follow nature,) generally prevents it. Corns and
deformed feet are unknown; the toes take their natural growth, and are
as useful to the mechanics as their fingers. Lame people are seldom
seen; but the blind are more numerous than in Europe. Both sexes
have remarkably fine teeth; they universally use a dentifrice,[128]
which is procured from vegetables from the interior country. Their
complexion, from frequent intermarriage, or intercourse with the
Soudanic race, is of all shades, from black to white. The women
of Fas are as fair as the Europeans, with the exception of their
eyes and hair, which are universally dark.[129] Those of Mequinas
are in general so handsome, that it is a rare thing to see a young
woman in that city who is not lovely or pretty. With large, black,
and expressive sparkling eyes, they possess a healthy countenance,
uniting the colours of the lily and the rose, that beautiful red and
white so much admired by foreigners in our English ladies; indeed
their beauty is proverbial, as the term _Mequinasia_[130] is applied
to any beautiful woman of elegant form, with black sparkling eyes,
and white teeth; they also possess a modesty and suavity of manners
rarely met with elsewhere. It is extraordinary that the inhabitants
of two great and populous cities, situated within thirty miles of
each other, should discover such a physiognomical difference, as is
apparent between the females of Fas and those of Mequinas, the former
being generally of a sallow or pale complexion. The women of Duquella
are ordinary and diminutive, whilst the men are the reverse; being
tall, and well-limbed, with regular features. The men of Temsena,
and Shawia, are a strong, robust race, of a copper colour: the women
possess much beauty, and have features highly expressive; and the
animation of the female countenance is encreased by the use of El
kahol filelly, with which they tinge the eye lashes and eye brows,
as already described. In these provinces they are particularly
fond of dying their hands and feet with a decoction or preparation
of the herb Henna,[131] which gives them an orange colour, and, in
hot weather, imparts a pleasing coolness and softness to the hands,
by obstructing, in a certain degree, the quickness of perspiration.
The Moorish dress resembles that of the ancient patriarchs, as
represented in paintings; that of the men consists of a red cap
and turban, a (Kumja) shirt, which hangs outside of the drawers,
and comes down below the knee, a (Caftan) coat, which buttons close
before, and down to the bottom, with large open sleeves; over which,
when they go out of doors, they throw carelessly, and sometimes
elegantly, a hayk or garment of white cotton, silk, or wool, five
or six yards long, and five feet wide: the Arabs, however, often
dispense with the caftan, and even with the shirt, wearing nothing
but the hayk. The Berebbers wear drawers, and a cloak of dark blue
cloth, called a Silham. The poor and penurious are contented with the
Burnose, or black cloak of woollen cloth, of a close texture, made
so as to resist the rain. To this dress is added a pair of yellow
sandals. The dress of the women nearly resembles that of the men,
except in the adjustment of the hayk, or surtout covering, and in the
(Rahayat) slippers, which are scarlet or red. The hair is concealed
in a black silk handkerchief, over which they wear shawls of silk or
handkerchiefs of various gay colours; they wear bracelets, and armlets
above the elbow, and massive rings of silver round their ancles;
their ear-rings are of gold about the thickness of a goose’s quill,
and set with precious stones, or coloured glass, the ring being about
six inches in circumference; these ear-rings have a gaudy appearance,
or, as the French express it, _“font beaucoup de parure;”_ they
wear also a number of necklaces, generally of amber beads or coral,
some large, and others small, and a variety of rings on their fingers.
In their dress, they are partial to striped silks, ginghams, and
cottons of particular patterns.
The people belonging to the court have a particular dress, never
appearing before the Emperor in a hayk, but in a silham, or large
hooded cloak of white woollen cloth; and in presence of a bashaw,
or governor, the hayk is thrown down on the shoulders, which at other
times covers the cap, a mode of salutation similar to that of taking
off the hat among Europeans.
The religion of the Emperor of Marocco’s dominions is Islaemism,
or Mohammedism,[132] which was first planted in West Barbary by
the renowned Muley Dris Zerone, on the spot where the town and
sanctuary of that name is built, being east of Mequinas, at the
western declivity of the Atlas, near an ancient and magnificent ruin,
called by the Arabs (Kasser Farawan)[133] the Ruins of Pharoah;
from hence assuming the name of (Deene-el-Wasah) the unconfined law,
it quickly spread itself to the shores of the Atlantic ocean, to
Bled-el-jerrêde, Sigin-Messa, Suse, and Sahara. At the beginning
of the present reign of Seedy Soliman ben Mohammed, a considerable
body of people, who professed Deism, sprung up, and spread themselves
over the northern provinces, exclaiming (la Illah ila Allah) There
is no God but the true God; in distinction from the Mohammedan,
whose creed is (la Illah ila Allah, wa Mohammed, arrasule, Allah),
There is no God but the true God, and Mohammed is his prophet. The
Emperor, however, by discouraging such tenets, found no difficulty
in annihilating this sect.
Throughout the country are discovered buildings of an octagonal form,
with domes of stone, or plastered with lime; these are called (Zawiat)
Sanctuaries: and attached to each is a piece of ground, uninclosed,
for the interment of the dead. The priest or saint, who is called el
fakeer, or maraboot, superintends divine service and the burial of
the dead, and is often referred to for the adjusting of disputes or
controversies. Criminals taking refuge in these consecrated places are
screened from the hand of justice; and the opulent men of the country
often, for security, deposit their treasure in them. The toleration
of the western Arabs and Moors is such, that the Emperor (although
religiously disposed himself) will allow, on proper application
being made, any sect which does not acknowledge a plurality of gods,
to appropriate a place to public worship;[134] and even the more
ignorant and bigotted Mohammedans maintain, that every man should be
allowed to worship God according to his own conscience, or agreeably
to the religion of his ancestors. They have a rooted contempt for all
who change their religion, even if it be to Islaemism; such people
are distinguished by the appellation of (el Aluge) Renegades, who,
after having embraced the Mohammedan faith, are obliged to practise
a system of dissimulation, and to affect more than ordinary contempt
for Christians, in order to appear islaemized, and to prevent their
being harassed and upbraided for their want of faith in Mohammed.
This people have a particular aversion to the sound of bells,
originating perhaps from their being peculiar to the (Ajemi)
Barbarians,[135] as they denominate Christians; or because Mohammed
reprobated the ancient trumpet of the Jews, as well as the rattel
of the oriental Christians, and substituted the human voice to call
people to prayer: accordingly a man (denominated El Muden) goes to the
top of the tower of each (Jamâa) mosque, and exclaims with a loud
voice, first to the east, or towards Mecca, and then to the south,
west, and north, the following words (Allah kabeer! A’shed-en,
la illa ila Allah, Mohammed arrasule Allah; haiala essla, Allah
kabeer. Allah!) God is great; witness that there is no God but
one God, and Mohammed is his prophet: come to prayers: God is
great. God![136]
This religious ceremony is performed several times a day, and the
different prayers are called (Sala’at el fejir) prayers at the dawn
of day; (Sala’at el dohor) prayers at half-past one o’clock, P.M.;
(Sala’at el assar) prayers at four o’clock, P.M.; (Sala’at el
mogorb) prayers at sun-setting; and (Sala’at el ashaw) prayers an
hour and an half after sun-setting. The principal of these prayers
is the Sala’at el dohor, when all such as are desirous of being
thought true Mohammedans go to the (Jamâa) mosque, on entering
which, every one must take off his slippers. Every (Jma)[137]
Friday, the Mufti preaches a discourse on religion, similar to
the sermons of Christian priests. The mosques have square towers
adjoining the body of the building; the principal side faces Mecca,
on which is erected a flag-staff: and a white flag called (el Alem)
the Signal, is hoisted every day at twelve o’clock, to warn the
people out of hearing, or at a great distance, to prepare, by the
necessary preliminary ablutions[138], to prostrate themselves before
God at the Dohor service of prayer. At the dawn of day on every
(Jma) Friday, the (Muden) man who announces the prayers from the
summit of the principal mosque, chants a hymn out of the Koran,
which being scientifically sung, in the stillness of the morning,
makes a most pleasing impression on the mind. This hymn is concluded
with the annunciation of the unity of God, and the glory of heaven,
impressing the mind of the Mohammedan with that grand fundamental
principle of Islaemism, the unity of God.
The people of this empire being born subjects of an arbitrary despot,
they may be said to have no established laws; they know no other
than the will of the prince, which is called (_Shra el Mukkuzzen_)
military law, or (_Amer Seedna_) our Lord’s decree; and if this
should deviate, as it sometimes does, from the moral principles
laid down in the Koran, it must nevertheless be obeyed; for no
appeal can be admitted against _Amer Seedna_, unless his Imperial
Majesty should discover an error in judgment, in which case he,
and he alone, can alter the decree. Where the Emperor resides,
he administers justice, in person, generally twice, and sometimes
four times a week, in the (M’shoire) place of audience, whither
all complaints are carried:[139] here access is easy; he listens
to every one, foreigners or subjects, men or women, rich or poor;
there is no distinction, every one has a right to appear before him,
and boldly to explain the nature of his case; and although his person
is considered as sacred, and established custom obliges the subject
to prostrate himself, and to pay him rather adoration than respect,
yet every complainant may tell his story without the least hesitation
or timidity; indeed, if any one is abashed, or appears diffident,
his cause is weakened in proportion. Judgment is always prompt,
decisive, plausible, and generally correct.
Civil law is administered by the (Cadi’s) judges, who have attached
to their court several (Lokiels) attornies; some of whom manage civil
controversies, others misdemeanors, and others matters relating to
religion, marriages, divorces, &c. These controversies are decided
by the laws of the Koran, than which, and the commentaries thereon,
they have no other written law. When two persons are engaged in a
law-suit, they retain their respective attornies; if they cannot
settle the dispute, they go to the Cadi, who generally sets on the
ground at the gate of his house, where any one may be present. The two
disputants stand before him, surrounded by their respective friends;
the plaintiff speaks first, the defendant replies: in these law-suits
the respective claims of the suitors are investigated. The Arabs
(however ignorant they may be in other respects) defend themselves,
whether right or wrong, so long as they have hope of gain, or fear of
loss; but their well laid plans to conceal the truth, and elude the
purposes of justice, are often exposed and rendered abortive by the
penetrating sagacity with which their pretensions are investigated
by the Cadi. The Cadi takes the evidence of the witnesses, and
pronounces sentence, which is sometimes without appeal. The culprit
is then taken into custody till he has satisfied the law; but in
cases where he is entitled to an appeal, it is made to the Emperor,
who takes the opinion of the (L’Alemma) learned, and decides the
controversy by pronouncing judgment. If the crime be punishable by
death, the sentence is either executed, or the criminal is delivered
over to the aggrieved, and may then purchase of him his life, by
money or contrition.
In places remote from the Emperor’s court, the (Kalif) viceregent,
or bashaw, has his M’shoire, where he administers justice,
sometimes according to the laws of the Koran, and at others as his
caprice dictates; for the same imperious despotism which the Emperor
too frequently exercises over his bashaws and alkaids, is exercised
by them over those who fall under their government; and the same is
done again by their subalterns, when they have it in their power;
thus tyranny proceeds progressively from the prince to the lowest
of his officers: these petty tyrants are dispersed over the whole
empire, and often give sanction to their extortions by effecting them
in the name of their master; the accumulation of wealth is the grand
object of all their desires; when they learn from their emissaries,
or spies, that an individual has acquired considerable property,
they contrive to find out some cause of accusation against him,
and by that means extort money from him. It often happens, however,
that those who amass the greatest sums in this way enjoy their ill
gotten wealth but a very short time; some unexpected order from
the Emperor, accusing them of crimes or misdemeanors, is made a
pretext for depriving them, in their turn, of their property, which
his majesty never fails to inform them can be of no use to them,
being more than sufficient to procure the necessaries of life,
and ought therefore to belong to the (Biet el Mel el Mooselmin)
Mohammedan treasury, into which it is accordingly delivered, never
more to return to its former possessor.
The influence of this mode of government upon the people is such
as might naturally be expected; they are suspicious, deceitful, and
cruel; they have no respect for their neighbours, but will plunder
one another whenever it is in their power; they are strangers to every
social tie and affection, for their hearts are scarcely susceptible of
one tender impression; the father fears the son, the son the father;
and this lamentable mistrust, and want of confidence, diffuses itself
throughout the whole community.
The pride and arrogance of the Moors is unparalleled; for though
they live in the most deplorable state of ignorance, slavery, and
barbarism, yet they consider themselves the first people in the world,
and contemptuously term all others barbarians. Their sensuality knows
no bounds: by the laws of the Koran, they are allowed four wives,
and as many concubines as they are able to support, but such is
their wretched depravity, that they indulge in the most unnatural and
abominable propensities;[140] in short, every vice that is disgraceful
and degrading to human nature, is to be found amongst them.
It must be confessed, however, that some of the well educated
Moors are courteous and polite, and are possessed of great suavity
of manners. They are affable and communicative where they repose
confidence; and if in conversation the subject of discussion be
serious, and the parties become warm in dispute, they have generally
the prudence to turn the subject in a delicate manner; they are slow
at taking offence, but when irritated, are noisy and implacable.
There is one noble trait in the character of this people which
I cannot avoid mentioning, that is fortitude under misfortune;
this the Moor possesses in an eminent degree; he never despairs; no
bodily suffering, no calamity, however great, will make him complain;
he is resigned in all things to the will of God, and waits in patient
hope for an amelioration of his condition. In illustration of this,
I will take the liberty to relate the following anecdote, as it will
also tend to show the great risks to which merchants are exposed in
traversing this country, and Sahara, or the Great Desert.
A Fas merchant (with whom I had considerable transactions) went,
with all his property, on a commercial speculation from Fas to
Timbuctoo; and after remaining at the latter place a sufficient time
to dispose of and barter his effects for gold dust and gum Soudan,
he set out on his return to Fas; after passing the Desert, he began
to congratulate himself on his good fortune and great success, when
suddenly a party of Arabs attacked the (cafila) caravan, and plundered
all who belonged to it, leaving the Fas merchant destitute of every
thing but the clothes he had on his back. During the interregnum,
between the death of the Sultan Yezzid and the proclamation of the
present Sultan Soliman, this man was plundered again on his way to
Mogodor, whither he was going to discharge some debts, and to dispose
of gum and other Soudanic produce. Four wives and a numerous family
of children rendered his case peculiarly distressing; yet, when
condoling with him a few days after his misfortunes had happened,
he very patiently observed (Ash men doua, Allah bra; u la illah,
ila Allah), What remedy is there? God willed it so, and there is none
but God. This man afterwards collected together what merchandize he
could procure on credit, and proceeded again to Timbuctoo, where he
realized much property, and travelling therewith through Wangara and
Houssa to Egypt, he was plundered a third time of all he possessed,
near Cairo, and reduced to the greatest distress: this last misfortune
he bore with the same fortitude as the former. He is now, however,
one of the principal merchants established at Timbuctoo.
The Moors are equal by birth; they know no difference of rank except
such as is derived from official employments,[141] on resigning
which the individual mixes again with the common class of citizens;
the meanest man in the nation may thus aspire, without presumption,
to the hand of the daughter of the most opulent, and accident, or
the caprice of the prince, may precipitate the latter into misery,
and elevate the former to prosperity and honour.
The Moors are, for the most part, more cleanly in their persons, than
in their garments. They wash their hands before every meal, which,
as they use no knives or forks, they eat with their fingers: half a
dozen persons sit round a large bowl of _cuscasoe_, and, after the
usual ejaculation (Bismillah) “In the name of God!” each person
puts his hand to the bowl, and taking up the food, throws it, by a
dexterous jerk, into his mouth, without suffering his fingers to touch
the lips. However repugnant this may be to our ideas of cleanliness,
yet the hand being always washed, and never touching the mouth in the
act of eating, these people are by no means so dirty as Europeans have
sometimes hastily imagined. They have no chairs or tables in their
houses, but sit cross-legged on carpets and cushions; and at meals,
the dish or bowl of provisions is placed on the floor. They have an
excellent dish, which they call El Kalia; it is prepared without salt;
the meat is cut in long slips, about an inch wide, and hung in the
air for a few days, when it is put into jars, which are filled with
clarified butter (Smin): this preparation will keep several years;
it is used by the rich and affluent when crossing the Desert to
Timbuctoo, or when on a journey to Mecca, and indeed whenever they
travel through a country where food is not readily procurable. Bread
is seldom used in the traverse of the Desert, but certain flat cakes,
similar to crumpets, but without leaven, are kneaded, and put on
embers, where they are half baked, and eaten with honey and butter
by the merchants and traders who accompany the caravans.
The women are not less cleanly than the men; for besides performing
the usual ablutions before and after meals, they wash their face,
hands, arms, legs, and feet, two or three times a day, which
contributes greatly to their beauty. The poorer classes, however,
look deplorable, and excite disgust. The faces of the old women
appear shrivelled, from the immoderate use of cosmetics and paint
during their youth.
The chief delight of the women is to attend diligently to their
children, and a numerous posterity is fervently desired. In obedience
to the injunction of Mohammed, mothers suckle their children two
years.[142] When circumstances oblige them to take a nurse, she is
not treated as a servant, but becomes one of the family, and passes
her days among the children she has suckled, by whom she is _ever
afterwards_ cherished and protected; the children are taught to
consider her as their own relation, and she is called (_Emuh d’el
Hellib_) the milk mother: in case of future adversity, she never
applies ineffectually for succour to these children, who consider
it a duty incumbent on them to assist her to the utmost extent
of their power. These milk-mothers are chosen from well formed,
young, and healthy women. The new born infant is not swaddled
up in a profusion of clothes, but is laid naked on a carpet, and
exposed in a lofty and spacious apartment, where, breathing freely,
it gradually acquires strength, while daily ablution renders it
vigorous and healthy. The females are not taught to read or write,
but learn early, and from experience, the domestic offices of the
household; their body and limbs are never confined by tight dresses,
their garments are loose and easy, suffering the limbs to have free
action, and the body to take its natural form; they are occupied
in grinding the corn, baking the bread, and preparing the food
for their husbands and family. Ancient custom, and a predilection
for the manners of their primogenitors, rendering these necessary
occupations pleasant and agreeable.
The male children, whose mode of education is equal throughout the
empire, on attaining the eighth year (not eighth day, as some have
asserted,) are circumcised, and then begin to study the Koran. He is
taught to fear and adore God, to respect old age and his parents;
he is initiated in the principles of hospitality, which virtues
being inculcated at school, and being afterwards seen constantly
practised in his father’s family, then cannot fail to be, at the
age of puberty, indelibly engraven on his heart. His inclination
directs him to learn the useful arts, the care of the flocks, the
tillage of the soil, or the exercise of arms; those engaged in the
latter are particularly noticed by the Emperor, and if they discover
a Machiavellian or despotic policy, they are generally promoted to
the government of some province or town.
The Moors are not very fond of games or diversions; they are often
seen sitting in the streets for hours together, sometimes in a
dull lethargic humour, at others so vociferous and full of action
with each other, that a person unacquainted with their manner would
suppose they were going to fight.
Their usual games are leap-frog, jumping, and foot-ball; the last is
the favourite diversion, at which they do not seek to send the ball
to a goal, but kick it up, and amuse themselves with it, without
any definitive purpose.
Of their military exercises the (lab el Borode) riding full speed,
and firing, is the only one; this is performed by all those who
keep horses; a party starts off together, and running full gallop
fire their muskets, stopping short close to some wall, those being
considered the best horsemen who approach nearest the wall, and
stop shortest; they then return, load again, and renew the race:
this is the mode after which they charge an enemy.
In the markets and public streets are seen expert jugglers, who
perform astonishing feats of _leger-de-main_ with most curious and
unaccountable deceptions: the province of Suse is most celebrated
for these arts.
Certain theatrical orators go about the most busy parts of the cities,
and arrest the attention of the passengers by declamation. Some of
these players personify all the various characters of a drama with
exquisite spirit and humour. In the evening these amusements are laid
aside and the Assfæhna, or dancing boys, excite the attention of
the populace; these boys are accompanied by a governor, or master,
who is indispensibly of a musical turn, and is accompanied by
a kettle-drum, a flute made of a reed, and similar in sound to
the pandean pipe, and an instrument with two strings, somewhat
like the Greek lyre. These dancers are habited in gaudy attire,
and move their feet in dancing without taking them off the ground,
but gradually proceeding forwards, till they, by a signal from their
chief, vault into the air, and perform various evolutions somewhat
similar to the tumblers at Sadler’s Wells. Decency forbids the
recital of what usually occurs after this entertainment is terminated.
Amongst the Arabs the girls dance in a very superior style; the
Arabian ladies of the Mograffra tribe, as well as those of Woled
Abbusebah, eminently excel. I remember passing a night in one of
their douars, on the confines of Sahara, with a large party of Arabs,
and instead of going to sleep, the Sheik of the douar sent for six
elegant females, who engaged our admiration till the morning. Judging
of the movements of these dancing Arabs with the sentiments of an
Englishman, they would be thought somewhat lascivious; but the manners
and customs of the country reconciles to propriety these spirited
movements. Signor Andrea de Christo, a Venetian merchant, was with
me, and declared that he had never seen better dancing in Italy.
When a Mooselmin is inclined to marry, he makes enquiry of some duena
or confidential servant respecting the person of her mistress, and
if he receive a satisfactory description of the lady, an opportunity
is sometimes procured to see her at a window, or other place; this
interview generally determines whether the parties are to continue
their regards; if the suitor be satisfied with the lady, he seeks an
occasion of communicating his passion to the father, and proposes
to marry his daughter. The father’s consent being obtained,
he sends presents to the lady, according to his circumstances,
which being accepted, the parties are supposed to be betrothed,
and marriage follows.
Of the marriage ceremony much has been said by various authors. The
bridegroom is mounted on a horse, with his face covered, surrounded
by his friends, and those of the parents, who run their horses,
and fire their muskets at the feet or face of the bridegroom; the
(Tabla) kettle drum, the (Erb’eb) triangle, an instrument similar to
the Greek lyre, (having however but two strings,) and a rude kind of
flute, form the band of music; whilst the friends of the married party
dance and jump about, twirling their muskets in the air, and otherwise
discovering their satisfaction. This ceremony being terminated,
the parties go to the house of feasting, where the evening is passed
in conviviality, till the bride and bridegroom retire to rest. The
sheets are afterwards produced, somewhat indecently, as a proof of
the virginity of the bride, and exhibited in triumph to the relations.
It is not expected that the woman should have a fortune or a
settlement; but if the father be rich, he generally gives a dowry
to his daughter, and a quantity of pearls, rubies, diamonds, &c. The
dowry remains the property of the female, and in case of a divorce, by
consent of the husband, is returned to her: these separations proceed
from various causes, as barrenness, the disappointment of expectation,
incapability of performing the domestic duties, or incompatibility
of disposition. Separation, however, not originating in the above
causes, is reprobated as immoral and disreputable. A plurality of
wives is allowed in all Mohammedan countries; the lawful number is
limited by the Koran to four, in addition to which they are allowed
as many concubines as they can support; in this latitude of luxury,
however, they seldom indulge. The Emperor, the princes, and some
of the bashaws, have often four wives, but _even with them_ this
number encreases _gradually_; thus, the first wife, after having had
a child, or when her bloom has passed, or the marks of age appear,
makes way for a young one, who is taught to respect the former,
who still remains mistress of the household; when the second lady
loses her bloom, she is supplanted by a third, and the third by a
fourth; so that the rich and independant Mooselmin, however old he
be himself, has generally a young wife, or a young concubine,[143]
to cherish him; and this, they say, enables them to enjoy life longer
than the Christians; for they maintain, that as an old woman destroys
the vigour of a man, a young woman encreases it; but these luxurious
debauchees, these devotees to the pleasures of the fair sex, from
their irregular excesses, are often, about the age of fifty, and
sometimes before, totally incapable of performing the duties of the
matrimonial contract; under these circumstances, stimulating drugs,
and aromatic compositions are in vain resorted to, and the wretched
man becomes at once the victim of inflamed desire, and impotency.
It must not, however, be imagined, that this insatiable desire for
young females pervades the mass of the people; Mooselmin, in general,
are satisfied with one wife, and, in a tract of country possessing a
population of one hundred thousand souls, a hundred men will scarcely
be found who keep four. Such is the state of polygamy in this country.
With regard to the (Kadeem[144]) concubines, they are generally
black women, purchased originally at Timbuctoo; they reside in
the house with the wives, performing the menial offices of the
domestic establishment. The children of these concubines, when not
the master’s offspring, are born slaves, and inherited by him,
who either keeps them for the purpose of marrying them to some black
slave of his own, or sells them in the public market; this latter
mode of disposing of them, however, is seldom practised, except
in cases of necessity; for although the law gives great latitude
to masters having slaves, yet the children are generally brought
up under the mother’s care, and become members of the family;
by serving at an early age in domestic occupations, they earn their
living by their work; for in a country where the necessaries of life
are prohibited from exportation,[145] the expense of maintenance is
inconsiderable: so that a large and numerous family is a blessing,
and the more numerous the greater the blessing. Living on simple
food, for the most part of the farinaceous kind, their appetites
are easily satisfied: their wants are few, and their resources many.
This system of prohibiting the exportation of provisions does not,
however, as might be supposed, reduce their value; for it has been
observed, in the reign of Seedy Mohammed ben Abd Allah, when the
prohibition was enforced only when a scarcity was anticipated, that
during the prohibition the price of corn rose; the Arab farmers,
preferring a market and sale to Europeans for dollars, to the
tardiness of sale for domestic consumption, kept their corn in their
Matamores till an exportation was again permitted, and then brought
it to market. Neither is there policy in the prohibition, (except the
Mohammedan principle of policy be admitted, that of promoting the
poverty of the people or community), for by it the agriculturists
not having a sufficient market for the whole produce of his land,
he cultivates but a third or a fourth part, leaving the remaining
part fallow; and even this fourth part is found to produce quite as
much as is necessary for the domestic consumption. The same argument
applies to the other articles of produce, viz. sweet almonds, dates,
raisins, figs, olive oil, &c. Accordingly, since their prohibition,
the immense plantations of these articles in all the provinces,
particularly in Suse, where they abound, have been neglected, and
are gradually decreasing, the produce being more than the domestic
demand, insomuch, that the price is insufficient to pay the labour
of gathering; for among this abstemious and parsimonious people,
it would be difficult to find the individual who would give two
shillings for the same quantity of provision of one kind, that he
could procure of another kind for one shilling.
The women are not so much confined as has been generally imagined;
they frequently visit their relations and friends,[146] and
have various ways of facilitating intrigues; thus, if a lady’s
(rahayat) sandals be seen at the door of an apartment, the husband
himself dare not enter; he retires into another room, and directs
the female slave to inform him when her (Lela) lady is disengaged,
which is known by the sandals being taken away. On the other hand
when an ill-disposed husband becomes jealous or discontented with
his wife, he has too many opportunities of treating her cruelly;
he may tyrannize over her without control; no one can go to her
assistance, for no one is authorised to enter his Horem without
permission. Jealousy or hatred rises so high in the breast of a Moor,
that death is often the consequence to the wretched female who has
excited (perhaps innocently) the anger of her husband. The fate of
those women who are not so fortunate as to bear a male child is too
often to be lamented; those who do, are treated with extraordinary
respect, the father being careful not to ill-treat the mother of
his son or heir. A father, however fond of his daughter, cannot
assist her, even if informed of the ill-treatment she suffers; the
husband alone is lord paramount: if, however, he should be convicted
of murdering his wife, he would suffer death, but this is difficult
to ascertain, even should she bear on her the marks of his cruelty,
or dastardly conduct, for who is to detect it? Instances have been
known where the woman has been cruelly beaten and put to death,
and the parents have been informed of her decease as if it had
been occasioned by sickness, and she has been buried accordingly;
but this difficulty of bringing the men to justice holds only among
the powerful bashaws and persons in the highest stations; and these,
to avoid a retaliation of similar practices on _their_ children,
sometimes prefer giving their daughters in marriage to men of an
inferior station in life, who are more amenable to justice.
The etiquette of the court of Marocco does not allow any man to
mention the word Death to the Emperor; so that when it be necessary
to communicate to him the news of the decease of any Mohammedan, the
courtiers thus express themselves: (Ufah Ameruh) he has completed his
destiny or his period; to which the reply is (Allah eê erhammoh)
God be merciful to him. When a Jew dies, the Moors express it by
(Maat bel Karan), the son of a cuckold is dead. On the death of a
Christian, if he bore a good character, they say (Maat Mesquin),
the inoffensive man is dead; but if he was unpopular, or disliked,
(Maat el Kaffer) the infidel is dead.
All persons at this court who have no faith in Mohammed being
considered as infidels, a stigma is attached to their names when
uttered before the Emperor; accordingly they say (Lihudi ashawk
asseedi. El Kaffer ashawk asseedi.) He is a Jew, _ashawk_, Master. He
is an Infidel, _ashawk_, Master. This term _ashawk_ is an Arabic
idiom, and signifies, “I beg pardon for mentioning so degraded or
contemptible a name in my master’s presence.”
There is a ridiculous prejudice throughout this country, which extends
as far as the Nile El Abeede, or Nile of Soudan, in considering the
word _five_ as indecorous; it is therefore never mentioned in the
Emperor’s presence, nor even to any prince, bashaw, or powerful man:
the speaker expressing himself thus (Arbat u Wahud) i.e. Four and one.
The number 5 is emblematical of the hand of power or tyranny; so that
the poor Jews, who are treated in this country somewhat worse than
dogs in Christian countries, have a hand with the fingers spread
out, painted on their doors or houses, as an amulet to charm away
oppression. Accordingly (Khumsa alik), “Five be upon thee, or the
hand of power be upon thee,” is a curse or malediction frequently
conferred by the Moors on the oppressed Jews.
The imperial revenue consists of the following imposts:
1st. (_Ska u Lashor_,) Two per cent. on camels, horses, mules,
asses, cattle, sheep, goats, &c. and ten per cent. on corn and the
produce of land. The payment of this branch of the revenue which is
the most considerable, is made either in cash or in kind, optional
in the subject.
2nd. (_Daira’s and Sokra’s_,) Fines and presents, viz. Fines
levied at discretion by the bashaws of provinces, alkaids of cities
and towns, and douars, and others employed by them; these consist
in satisfaction for offences; thus, if two men quarrel, and blood
be spilt in the fray, half the property of the aggressor is often
exacted as a fine for disturbing the peace. If a traveller be robbed,
the douar, or encampment, where the robbery was committed, is fined
in double the sum, viz. the sum stolen is returned to the robbed,
and an equal sum is paid to the bashaw for the imperial treasury. The
inhabitants of the douar are then left to discover the robbers,
and recover of them the property stolen; the beneficial effects of
this salutary law must be evident to every man, but particularly
to those who have frequently travelled through this country, and by
their own experience have seen and felt the influence which it has
on every individual, and the interest that is diffused throughout
the community to protect travellers from plunder. In an extensive
champaign country like this, where the population of the provinces
consists of encampments in the plains, open to the attack of robbers,
and undefended, there would be no security were it not for the good
effects of this law, which renders every individual a guard to the
property of the person sojourning in the district of which he is
an inhabitant.
A traveller may exact a fine from a douar for inhospitable treatment,
by making a complaint to the bashaw under whose government the Sheik
of the douar lives.
3d. Legal disputes. Considerable sums are presented to the bashaws,
alkaids, &c. to procure their attention to the interest of the
parties disputing, and to accelerate the termination. Thus a douceur
to a bashaw of a few hundred dollars, will sometimes give a man as
much advantage over his antagonist, as would be gained in England
by the retaining of an eminent counsel to plead his cause. These
douceurs are often paid to ministers by persons desirous to obtain
some privilege from the Emperor, and are usually regulated according
to the rank of the applicant, and the importance of the favour to
be conferred. The ministers, and other persons in authority, do not
conceal their operations; but will tell you what you are to pay for
such a privilege or favour, which has at least this good effect,
that you have a certain _quid pro quo_, and you are not seduced,
under false promises, to attend on ministers ineffectually: your
business is expedited generally to your satisfaction. A knowledge
of the ministers, and of the spirit of the court, as well as the
character of the Emperor, is, perhaps, indispensibly necessary to
ensure success. When these sums and douceurs have been repeatedly
given, and have, by accumulation, become considerable, a pretext is
seldom wanting to attack these bashaws, cadis, alkaids, and other
officers, for some misdemeanor, or for mal-administration of justice,
and they are accordingly heavily mulcted; but they readily pay the
fine, which thus ultimately forms a part of the imperial revenue,
that they may again enter into their oppressive offices.
In cases of dispute, which come into the province of the civil law,
the cadi determines the case; and the retaining, in such cases, able
(Lokiels) pleaders, is attended with similar advantages, as with
us. In these disputes, however, a paper or two, written in the most
concise manner, is all that is necessary; the wheels of justice are
not clogged with such volumes of cases and briefs as with us.
4th. Immense presents are occasionally made by the bashaws, alkaids,
&c. to the Emperor, to secure the imperial favor, and to enable them
to hold their places against the attacks continually made by others,
who spare no expense in presenting, through the ministers, their
claims for preferment. The bashaw Ben Hammed, who governed Duquella
in the reign of the present Emperor’s father, Seedy Mohammed,
every Friday, as the Emperor came out of the mosque, presented him
with a large wedge of pure gold of Soudan.
5thly. The fish called Shebbel (similar to salmon), the produce of the
great rivers, viz. the El Kose, the Seboo, the Morbeya, the Tensift,
and the river Suse, pay to the imperial treasury a heavy duty; but
that duly is generally farmed to some wealthy individual, who pays
about 20 per cent. on the value of the fish caught, or gives so much
per annum for the privilege of fishing in the rivers.
6th. _El Beb_, or gate-duty, an impost of from (one blanquil to two
ounces) 1½_d._ to 1_s._ on every camel-load of merchandize carried
out or brought into any city or town.
7th. (_Gizzia_,) The poll-tax levied on the Jews, viz. the pro rata
of every Jew is calculated according to his property, by a committee
appointed by themselves. This tax may amount to about ten per cent. on
their income or profits.
8th. (_El Worella_.) The hereditary tax. The Emperor is heir to
all the estates of his subjects who die without heirs; so that at
the termination of the plague, in 1800, he gained an incalculable
accession of wealth in gold, silver, and in estates, many of which
latter he has since given to the (Jamaat) mosques. This property of
the mosques is called _Wak’f_, a term significant of any thing,
the right of which continues in the original proprietor, but the
profit issuing from it belongs to some charitable institution;
so that the _mosque lands_ are now extensive, and, consequently,
the priests are amply provided for.
9th. Duties on the importation of merchandize from Europe, and on
the exportation of the produce of the country. On the former, the
regulation is generally 10 per cent., which is paid in kind, except
only on iron, steel, Buenos Ayres hydes, lead, and sulphur, which
pay a duty on importation of three dollars per quintal. The duties on
the produce of the country are regulated by the option of the Emperor.
The duty on Wax now is 12²⁄₁₂ per cent.
on Bitter Almonds 2
on Gum 3
Oil }
}
Sweet Almonds }
}
Raisins }
}
Figs } now prohibited from exportation.
}
Dates }
}
Corn }
}
And all kinds }
of Provisions }
10th. All ambassadors, envoys, consuls, merchants, and, in short,
every individual who presents himself to the Emperor, whether in a
public or private capacity, must necessarily be accompanied with
a present, a custom established from time immemorial in Africa,
as well as in the East; and these presents are in proportion to
the magnitude of the negociation. The king of Spain, during the
reign of Seedy Mohammed ben Abd Allah, the father of the reigning
Emperor, sent presents to an enormous amount, in order to purchase
the friendly alliance of the Emperor, and to induce him to continue
the exportation of grain to Spain.
11th. In addition to all these sources of revenue, may be mentioned
the duties on the exportation of cattle and vegetables to our garrison
of Gibraltar, and on a few similar supplies to Spain and Portugal.
Before the present Emperor ascended the throne, the produce of the
country was allowed to be exported from all the ports on the coast,
and formed a very considerable source of revenue; the duties on
grain alone, from Dar El Beida, in one year, amounted to 722,000
dollars. The exportation from the ports of Arzilla, El Araiche,
Mamora, Rabat, Fedella, Azamor, Mazagan, Saffy, Mogodor, and Santa
Cruz, in Suse, were not quite so considerable. The present prohibition
of the exportation of grain, together with all the articles enumerated
above, to which may be added, wool, flax, and cotton, cannot be a
proof of the Emperor’s avarice, a passion ascribed to him by many;
as, by allowing their exportation, and encouraging their cultivation,
an accession of several millions would annually be added to the
revenue of his empire.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 126: Some persons have affirmed that the Berebber and
Shelluh languages are one and the same. I had considerable difficulty
in procuring incontestible proofs to the contrary; a specimen of
the difference will be seen by the vocabulary in the chapter on
languages.]
[Footnote 127: Lat. N. 22°. See Map of the tract across the Desert.]
[Footnote 128: This dentifrice has been imported lately, and is sold
at Bacon’s Medicinal Warehouse, No. 150, Oxford Street.]
[Footnote 129: Whenever a blue, or gray-eyed Mooress is seen, she
is always suspected to be the descendant of some Christian renegade.]
[Footnote 130: _Mequinasia_, a woman of Mequinas.]
[Footnote 131: This is the _Lawsonia inermis_ of Linnæus.]
[Footnote 132: See some observations on this religion in a subsequent
chapter.]
[Footnote 133: When I visited these ruins, in my journey from the
Sanctuary of Muley Dris Zerone, near to which they are situated,
in the plains below, the jealousy of the (_Stata_) protecting
guide sent by the Fakeers to see me safe to the confines of their
district was excited, and he endeavoured to deter me from making any
observations, by insinuating that the place was the haunt of large
and venomous serpents, scorpions, &c. A great number of cauldrons
and kettles filled with gold and silver coins have been excavated
from these ruins.]
[Footnote 134: Besides the Catholic establishments in Marocco and
Mequinas, before mentioned, there is one at Tangier, and another
at Mogodor.]
[Footnote 135: Ajem in Arabic signifies Barbarian. Ajemi in the same
language signifies the Europeans; Wosh kat douee bel Ajemi? Do you
speak the Barbarian or European language?]
[Footnote 136: Mohammedans utter the word Allah with great respect,
sounding it long, and making a full stop after uttering it; they never
use the pronoun to signify the Supreme Being, but always repeat the
noun, and generally begin and end all religious sentences with the
word Allah.]
[Footnote 137: Jma signifies the conclusion of any thing; as the
conclusion of the week, and is the Arabic name appropriated to
Friday, or the Mohammedan day of rest; from the radical word Jamaa,
to collect or gather together. The Mohammedans name the days of
the week, first day, second day, and so on, calling Sunday El hed,
i.e. the first day; El thenine the second day, or Monday, &c. They do
not entirely shut their shops on Friday, but work less than on any
other day; they refuse, however, altogether to work for Christians,
unless particularly or clandestinely feed, when they will condescend
to do almost any thing.]
[Footnote 138: O believers! before ye pray, wash your faces, your
hands, and your arms to the elbows, and wipe yourselves from head
to feet. Vide _Koran_.]
[Footnote 139: It is customary here, as in the East, for every person
to accompany his complaint with (el Heddia) a present suited to his
condition; and none must appear without something, as it would be not
only contrary to the established usages, but highly disrespectful;
even such a trifle as three or more eggs is accepted.]
[Footnote 140: By the laws of the Koran, these crimes are punishable
by death; but they are so generally indulged in, as to be mutually
connived at.]
[Footnote 141: Persons bearing the name of Mohammed, which is
generally given to the first male child born in marriage, are always
addressed by the title of Seedy, which answers to Signor, or Monsieur;
even the Emperor himself observes this towards the meanest subject
that may happen to appear before him; when the name is Achmet, Aly,
Said, Kossem, &c. this honourable distinction is observed or not,
according to the situation and character of the person addressed. The
Jews, however, whatever their condition, must address every Mooselmin
with the term Seedy, or incur the danger of being knocked down;
while, on the other hand, the lowest Mooselmin would consider it a
degradation to address a Jew of the highest rank or respectability
by this title.]
[Footnote 142: “Let the mother suckle her child full two years,
if the child does not quit the breast; but she shall be permitted
to wean it with the consent of the husband.” Vide Koran.]
[Footnote 143: These young wives and concubines often find
opportunities clandestinely to cuckold their men or husbands.]
[Footnote 144: The k guttural, for when not guttural, the word
signifies _old_ or _worn out_.]
[Footnote 145: The supply of the garrison of Gibraltar, with bullocks,
&c. excepted.]
[Footnote 146: Women of rank, who reside in the towns, seldom walk
abroad, it being considered a degradation to the wife of a gentleman
to be seen walking in the street; when, however, they are going to
pay a visit, they have a servant, or slave, to accompany them.]