the colour of the object it reflects, and contains as many images as
there are objects before it. Therefore realize, O painter, that thou
canst not succeed unless thou art the universal master of imitating by
thy art every variety of nature's forms, and this thou canst not do
save by perceiving them and retaining them in thy mind; wherefore when
thou walkest in the country let thy mind play on various objects,
observe now this thing and now that thing, making a store of various
objects selected and chosen from those of lesser value. And thou shalt
not do as some painters, who, when weary of plying {103} their fancy,
dismiss their work from their mind and take exercise in walking for
relaxation, but retain fatigue in the mind, which, though they see
various objects, does not apprehend them, but often when they meet
friends and relations and are saluted by them, they are no more
conscious of them than if they had met empty air.
[Sidenote: Precepts]
48.
And thou, O painter, seek to bring about that thy works may attract
those who gaze upon them and arrest them with great admiration and
delight; and so that they may not attract and forthwith repel them, as
the air does to him who in the night season leaps naked from his bed to
gaze upon the cloudy and serene sky and forthwith is driven back by the
cold, and returns to the bed whence he rose. But let thy works be like
the air which draws men from their beds in the hot season, and retains
them to taste with delight the cool of the summer; and he who will do
well by his art will not strive to be more skilful than learned, nor
let greed get the better of glory. Seest thou not among human beauties
that it is the beautiful faces which stop the passers-by, and not the
richness of their ornaments? And this I say to thee who adornest thy
figures with gold and other rich ornaments: Seest thou not splendid,
youthful beauties, who diminish their excellence by the excess and
elaboration of their {104} ornaments? Hast thou not seen women of the
mountains dressed in rough and poor clothes richer in beauty than those
who are adorned? Make no use of the affected arrangements and
headdresses such as those adopted by loutish maids, who, by placing one
lock of hair more on one side than the other, credit themselves with
having committed a great enormity, and think that the bystanders will
forget their own thoughts to talk of them alone, and to blame them.
For such persons have always the looking-glass and the comb, and the
wind, which ruffles elaborate headdresses, is their worst enemy. In
thy heads let the hair sport with the wind thou depictest around
youthful countenances, and adorn them gracefully with various turns,
and do not as those who plaster their faces with gum and make the faces
seem as if they were of glass. This is a human folly which is always
on the increase, and the mariners do not satisfy it who bring arabic
gums from the East, so as to prevent the smoothness of the hair from
being ruffled by the wind,--but they pursue their investigations still
further in this direction.
49.
I cannot but mention among these precepts a new means of study, which,
although it may seem trivial and almost ridiculous, is nevertheless
extremely useful in arousing the mind to {105} various inventions. It
is as follows: when you look at walls mottled with various stains or
stones made of diverse substances, if you have to invent some scene,
you may discover on them the likeness of various countries, adorned
with mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, plains, great valleys and hills
in diverse arrangement; again, you may be able to see battles and
figures in action and strange effects of physiognomy and costumes, and
infinite objects which you could reduce to complete and harmonious
forms. And the effect produced by these mottled walls is like that of
the sound of bells, in the vibrating of which you may recognize any
name or word you choose to imagine. I have seen blots in the clouds
and in mottled walls which have stimulated me to the invention of
various objects, and although the blots themselves were altogether
devoid of perfection in any one of their parts, they lacked not
perfection in their movement and circumstance.
50.
Obtain knowledge first, and then proceed to practice, which is born of
knowledge.
[Sidenote: Theory and Practice]
51.
Knowledge is the captain, and practice the soldiers.
52.
The painter who draws by practice and by the {106} eye, without the
guide of reason, is like the mirror, which reflects all the objects
which are placed before it and knows not that they exist.
53.
Many will consider they can reasonably blame me by alleging that my
proofs are contrary to the authority of many men held in great esteem
by their inexperienced judgements: overlooking the fact that my works
are solely and simply the offspring of experience, which is the
veritable master.
54.
They who are enamoured of practice without knowledge are like the
mariner who puts to sea in a vessel without rudder or compass, and who
navigates without a course. Practice should always be based on sound
theory; perspective is the guide and the portal of theory, and without
it nothing can be well done in the art of painting.
[Sidenote: Course of Study]
55.
The youth should first learn perspective, and then the measurements of
every object; he should then copy from some good master to accustom
himself to well-drawn forms, then from nature to acquire confirmation
of the theories he has learnt; then he should study for a time the
works of various masters, and finally attain the {107} habit of putting
into practice and producing his art.
56.
Mathematics, such as appertain to painting, are necessary to the
painter, also the absence of companions who are alien to his studies:
his brain must be versatile and susceptible to the variety of objects
which it encounters, and free from distracting cares. And if in the
contemplation and definition of one subject a second subject
intervenes,--as happens when the mind is filled with an object,--in
such cases he must decide which of the two objects is the more
difficult of definition, and pursue that one until he arrives at
perfect clearness of definition, and then turn to the definition of the
other. And above all things his mind should be like the surface of the
mirror, which shows as many colours as there are objects it reflects;
and his companions should study in the same manner, and if such cannot
be found he should meditate in solitude with himself, and he will not
find more profitable company.
[Sidenote: Perspective & Mathematics]
57.
In the study of natural causes and reasons light affords the greatest
pleasure to the student; among the great facts of mathematics the
certainty of demonstration most signally elevates the mind of the
student. Perspective must therefore be {108} placed at the head of all
human study and discipline, in the field of which the radiant line is
rendered complex by the methods of demonstration; in it resides the
glory of physics as well as of mathematics, and it is adorned with
flowers of both these sciences.
The laws of those sciences which are capable of extensive analysis I
will confine in brief conclusions, and according to the nature of the
material I will interweave mathematical demonstrations, at times
deducing results from causes, and at times tracing causes by results.
I will add to my conclusions some which are not contained in these, but
which can be deduced from them, if the Lord, the Supreme Light,
illuminates me, so that I may treat of light.
[Sidenote: Of the Method of Learning]
58.
When you will have thoroughly mastered perspective and have learnt by
heart the parts and forms of objects, strive when you go about to
observe. Note and consider the circumstances and the actions or men,
as they talk, dispute, laugh or fight together, and not only the
behaviour of the men themselves, but that of the bystanders who
separate them or look on at these things; and make a note of them, in
this way, with slight marks in your little note-book. And you should
always carry this note-book with you, and it should be of coloured
paper, so that what you {109} write may not be rubbed out; but (when it
is used up) change the old for a new one, since these things should not
be rubbed out, but preserved with great care, because such is the
infinity of the forms and circumstances of objects, that the memory is
incapable of retaining them; wherefore keep these sketches as your
guides and masters.
59.
These rules are only to be used in correcting the figures, since every
man makes some mistakes in his first composition, and he who is not
aware of them cannot correct them; but thou being conscious of thine
errors wilt correct thy work and amend errors where thou findest them,
and take care not to fall into them again. But if thou attemptest to
apply these rules in composition thou wilt never finish anything, and
confusion will enter into thy work. Through these rules thou shalt
acquire a free and sound judgement, since sound judgement and thorough
understanding proceed from reason arising from sound rules, and sound
rules are the offspring of sound experience, the common mother of all
the sciences and arts. Hence if thou bearest in mind the precepts of
my rules thou shalt be able, merely by thy corrected judgement, to
judge and recognize any lack of proportion in a work, in perspective,
in figures or anything else.
{110}
[Sidenote: Again of the Method of Learning]
60.
I say that the first thing which should be learnt is the mechanism of
the limbs, and when this knowledge has been acquired their actions
should come next, according to the external circumstances of man, and
thirdly the composition of subjects, which should be taken from natural
actions, made fortuitously according to circumstances; and pay
attention to them in the streets and public places and fields, and note
them with a brief indication of outlines; that is to say, for a head
make an O, and for an arm a straight or a bent line, and the same for
the legs and body; and when thou returnest home work out these notes in
a complete form. The adversary says that to acquire practice and to do
a great deal of work, it is better that the first course of study
should be employed in copying diverse compositions done on paper or on
walls by various masters, and that thus rapidity of practice and a good
method is acquired; to which I reply that this method will be good if
it is based on works which are well composed by competent masters; and
since such masters are so rare that but few of them are to be found, it
is safer to go to nature, than to what to its deterioration is imitated
from nature, and to fall into bad habits, since he who can go to the
fountain does not go to the water-vessel.
{111}
[Sidenote: Counsel to the Painter]
61.
Every bough and every fruit is born above the insertion of its leaf,
which serves it as a mother, giving it water from the rain and moisture
from the dew which falls on it from above in the night, and often it
shields them from the heat of the sun's rays. Therefore, O painter,
who lackest such rules, be desirous, in order to escape the blame of
those who know, of copying every one of thy objects from nature, and
despise not study after the manner of those who work for gain.
[Sidenote: On Anatomy]
62.
And you who say that it would be better to see practical anatomy than
drawings of it, would be right if it were possible to see all the
things which are shown in such drawings in a single drawing, in which
you, with all your skill, will not see nor obtain knowledge of more
than a few veins; and to obtain true and complete knowledge of these
veins I have destroyed more than ten human bodies, destroying all the
other limbs, and removing, down to its minutest particles, the whole of
the flesh which surrounds these veins, without letting them bleed save
for the insensible bleeding of the capillary veins. And as one body
did not suffice for so long a time I had to proceed with several bodies
by degrees until I finished by acquiring perfect knowledge, and this I
{112} repeated twice to see the differences. And if you have a love
for such things you may be prevented by disgust, and if this does not
prevent you, you may be prevented by fear of living at night in company
with such corpses, which are cut up and flayed and fearful to see; and
if this does not prevent, you may not have a sufficient mastery of
drawing for such a demonstration, and if you have the necessary mastery
of drawing, it may not be combined with the knowledge of perspective;
and if it were you might lack the power of geometrical demonstration,
and the calculation of forces, and of the strength of the muscles, and
perhaps you will lack patience and consequently diligence. As to
whether these qualities are to be found in me or not the hundred and
twenty books I have composed will pronounce the verdict Yes or No.
Neither avarice nor negligence, but time has hindered me in these.
Farewell.
[Sidenote: On Study]
63.
I have myself proved that it is useful when you are in bed in the dark
to work with the imagination, summing up the external outlines of the
forms previously studied or other noteworthy things apprehended by
subtle speculation; and this is a laudable practice and useful in
impressing objects on the memory.
{113}
[Sidenote: On judging Pictures]
64.
We are well aware that faults are more easily recognized in the works
of others than in our own, and often in blaming the small faults of
others thou wilt ignore great ones in thyself. And to avoid such
ignorance see that in the first place thy perspective be sound, then
acquire a complete knowledge of the measurements of man and other
animals, and of good architecture; that is to say, as far as the forms
of buildings and other objects which are on the earth are concerned,
and these are infinite in number. The more of them that thou knowest,
the more praiseworthy will be thy work; and in cases where thou hast no
experience do not refuse to draw them from nature.
[Sidenote: Advice to the Painter]
65.
Certainly while a man is painting he should not be loth to hear every
opinion: since we know well that a man, although he be not a painter,
is cognizant of the forms of another man, and will be able to judge
them, whether he is hump-backed or has a shoulder too high or too low,
or whether he has a large mouth or nose, or other defects. And if we
know that men are capable of giving a correct judgement on the works of
nature, much more ought we to acknowledge their competence to judge our
faults, since we know how greatly a man may be deceived in {114} his
own work; and if thou art not conscious of this in thyself, study it in
others and thou wilt profit by their faults. Therefore be desirous to
bear with patience the opinions of others, and consider and reflect
well whether he who blames has good ground or not to blame thee, and if
thou thinkest that he has, amend thy work; and if not, act as though
thou hadst not heard him, and if he should be a man thou esteemest show
him by reasoning where his mistake lies.
66.
There is a certain generation of painters who, owing to the scantiness
of their studies, must needs live up to the beauty of gold and azure,
and with supreme folly declare that they will not give good work for
poor payment, and that they could do as well as others if they were
well paid. Now consider, foolish people! Cannot such men reserve some
good work and say, "This is costly; this is moderate, and this is cheap
work," and show that they have work at every price?
[Sidenote: The Painter and the Mirror]
67.
When thou wishest to see whether thy picture corresponds entirely with
the objects thou hast drawn from nature, take a mirror and let the
living reality be reflected in it, and compare the reflection with thy
picture, and consider well {115} whether the subject of the two images
are in harmony one with another.
And above all thou shouldst take the mirror for thy master,--a flat
mirror, since on its surface the objects in many respects have the same
appearance as in painting. For thou seest that a painting done on a
flat surface reveals objects which appear to be in relief, and the
mirror consisting of a flat surface produces the same effect; the
painting consists of one plane surface and the mirror likewise; the
picture is impalpable, in so far as that which appears to be round and
prominent cannot be grasped by the hands, and it is the same with the
mirror; the mirror and the painting reveal the semblance of objects
surrounded by light and shade; each of them appears to be at a distance
from its surface.
And if thou dost recognize that the mirror by means of outlines, lights
and shadows gives relief to objects, and since thou hast in thy colours
lights and shadows stronger than those of the mirror, there is no doubt
that if thou composest thy picture well, it will also have the
appearance of nature when it is reflected in a large mirror.
[Sidenote: The Painter's Mind]
68.
The mind of the painter should continually transmute the figure of the
notable objects which come before him into so many discourses; and
imprint them in his memory and classify them {116} and deduce rules
from them, taking the place, the circumstances, the light and the shade
into consideration.
[Sidenote: The Variety of Nature]
69.
I say that the universal proportions must be observed in the height of
figures and not in their size, because in the admirable and marvellous
things which appear in the works of nature there is no work of
whatsoever character in which one detail is exactly similar to another;
therefore, O thou imitator of nature, pay heed to the variety of
features.
70.
Radically wrong is the procedure of some masters who are in the habit
of repeating the same themes in the same episodes, and whose types of
beauty are likewise the same, for in nature they are never repeated, so
that if all the beauties of equal excellence were to come to life again
they would compose a larger population than that now existing in our
century, and since in the present century no one person is precisely
similar to another, so would it be among the beauties mentioned above.
71.
You must depict your figures with gestures which will show what the
figure has in his mind, otherwise your art will not be praiseworthy.
{117}
[Sidenote: Mind and Expression]
72.
No figure will be admirable if the gesture which expresses the passion
of the soul is not visible in it. The most admirable figure is that
which best expresses the passion of its mind.
73.
The good painter has two principal things to depict: man and the
purpose of his mind. The first is easy, the second is difficult, since
he must do it by the gestures and movements of the limbs, and this is
to be learnt from the dumb, who more than all other men excel in it.
[Sidenote: The Dumb Man guides the Painter]
74.
The figures of men have gestures which correspond to what they are
doing, so that in seeing them you understand what they are thinking of
and saying; and these will be learned well by him who will copy the
gestures of the dumb, for they speak by the gestures of their hands,
their eyes, their brows and their whole person, when they wish to
express the purpose of their mind. And do not mock me because I
suggest a dumb teacher for the teaching of an art of which he is
himself ignorant, because he will teach you better by his gestures than
all the others with their words. And despise not such advice because
they are the masters of gesture, and understand at a {118} distance
what a man is talking of if he suits the actions of the hands to the
words.
[Sidenote: Advice to the Painter]
75.
It is a great fault in painters to repeat the same movements, the same
faces and manners of stuffs in one subject, and to let the greater part
of his faces resemble their creator; and this has often been a source
of wonder to me, for I have known some who in all their figures seem to
have depicted themselves. And in the figures the actions and ways of
the painter were visible. And if they are prompt in action and in
their ways the figures are likewise prompt; and if the painter is
pious, the figures with their twisted necks appear pious likewise, and
if the painter is lazy the figures seem like laziness personified, and
if the painter is deformed so are his figures, and if he is mad it is
amply visible in figures of his subjects, which are devoid of intention
and appear to be heedless of their action, some looking in one
direction, some in another, as though they were dreaming; and therefore
every manifestation in the picture corresponds to a peculiarity in the
painter. And as I have often thought over the cause of this fault, it
seems to me that we must conclude that the spirit which directs and
governs everybody is that which forms our intellect, or rather, it is
our intellect itself. It has {119} devised the whole figure of man
according as it has thought fit that it should be, either with long or
a short and turned-up nose, and thus it has determined its height and
figure; and so powerful is the intellect that it gives motion to the
arms of the painter and causes him to reproduce himself, since it
appears to the spirit that this is the true method of portraying man,
and he that does otherwise is in error. And should this spirit find
any one who resembles its body, which it has formed, it loves it and
becomes enamoured with it, and for this reason many men fall in love
and marry wives which resemble themselves, and often the children which
are born of the issue resemble their parents.
76.
The painter should portray his figure according to the measurements of
a natural body, which shall be of universal proper proportions; in
addition to this he should measure himself and see in which part his
own figure varies greatly or less from the aforesaid pattern of
excellence, and when he has ascertained this he should try his utmost
to avoid the defects which exist in his own person in the figures he
portrays.
And know that thou must contend with all thy might against this fault
inasmuch as it is a defect which originated with the intellect; because
the {120} spirit which governs thy body is that which is thine own
intellect, and it is inclined to take pleasure in works similar to that
which it accomplished in forming its body. And this is the reason that
there is no woman, however ugly, who does not find a lover, unless she
be monstrous. So remember to ascertain the defects of thy person and
to avoid reproducing them in the figures thou dost compose.
77.
That painter who has coarse hands will portray the like in his works,
and the same thing will occur in every limb unless he avoids this
pitfall by long study. Therefore, O painter, look well on that part of
thy person which is most ugly, and by thy study make ample reparation
for it, because if thou art bestial, bestial and without intellect will
be thy figures, and similarly both the good and ill which thou hast in
thee will be partially visible in thy compositions.
78.
Men and words are already made, and thou, painter, who knowest not how
to make thy figures move, art like the orator who knows not how to
employ his words.
79.
The movements of men are as varied as the {121} circumstances which
pass through their minds; and men will be more or less actuated by
every circumstance in itself according as they are more or less
powerful and according to age; because in the same circumstance an old
man or a youth will make a different movement.
[Sidenote: Power of Expression in Painting]
80.
The imagination does not perceive such excellent things as the eye,
because the eye receives the images or semblances from objects, and
transmits them to the perception, and from thence to the brain; and
there they are comprehended. But the imagination does not issue forth
from the brain, with the exception of that part of it which is
transmitted to the memory, and in the brain it remains and dies, if the
thing imagined is not of high quality. And in this case poetry is
formed in the mind or in the imagination of the poet, who depicts the
same objects as the painter, and by reason of the work of his fancy he
wishes to rival the painter, but in reality he is greatly inferior to
him, as we have shown above. Therefore with regard to the work of
fancy we will say that there is the same proportion between the art of
painting and that of poetry as exists between the body and the shadow
proceeding from it, and the proportion is still greater, inasmuch as
the shadow of such a body at least penetrates to {122} the brain
through the eye, but the imaginative embodiment of such a body does not
enter into the eye, but is born in the dark brain. Ah! What
difference there is between imagining such a light in the darkness of
the brain and seeing it in concrete shape set free from all darkness.