Muslin, one yard 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Matches, boxes 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Soap, one cake 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Above weights of food are net in avoirdupois ounces. Each complete
ration with its tin container weighed nearly twenty-seven pounds. The
five pounds over net weight of daily ration was taken up in tin
necessary for protection of food. The weight of component parts of
daily ration had to be governed to some extent by the size of the
commercial package in which the food could be purchased on short
notice. Austin, Nichols & Co., of New York, who supplied the food
stores for my polar expedition, worked day and night to complete the
packing of the rations on time.
The food cases described above were used on Colonel Roosevelt's
descent of the Rio da Duvida and also by the party who journeyed down
the Gy-Parana and Madeira Rivers. Leo Miller, the naturalist, who was
a member of the last-named party, arrived in Manaos, Brazil, while I
was there and, in answer to my question, told me that the food served
admirably and was good, but that the native cooks had a habit of
opening a number of cases at a time to satisfy their personal desire
for special delicacies. Bacon was the article most sought for.
Speaking critically, for a strenuous piece of work like the
exploration of the Duvida, the food was somewhat bulky. A ration
arrangement such as I used on my sledge trips North would have
contained more nutritious elements in a smaller space. We could have
done without many of the luxuries. But the exploration of the Duvida
had not been contemplated and had no place in the itinerary mapped out
in New York. The change of plan and the decision to explore the Duvida
River came about in Rio Janeiro, long after our rations had been made
out and shipped.
"Matte" the tea of Brazil and Paraguay, used in most of the states of
South America, should not be forgotten. It is a valuable beverage.
With it a native can do a wonderful amount of work on little food.
Upon the tired traveller it has a very refreshing effect.
Doctor Peckolt, celebrated chemist of Rio de Janeiro, has compared the
analysis of matte with those of green tea, black tea, and coffee and
obtained the following result:
IN 1,000 PARTS OF GREEN TEA BLACK TEA COFFEE MATTE
Natural oil 7.90 0.06 0.41 0.01
Chlorophyl 22.20 18.14 13.66 62.00
Resin 22.20 34.40 13.66 20.69
Tannin 178.09 128.80 16.39 12.28
Alkaloids:
Mateina 4.50 4.30 2.66 2.50
Extractive substances 464.00 390.00 270.67 238.83
Cellulose and fibres 175.80 283.20 178.83 180.00
Ashes 85.60 25.61 25.61 38.11
Manner of preparation: The matte tea is prepared in the same manner as
the Indian tea, that is to say, by pouring upon it boiling water
during ten to fifteen minutes before using. To obtain a good infusion
five spoonfuls of matte are sufficient for a litre of water.
Some experiments have been made lately with the use of matte in the
German army, and probably it would be a valuable beverage for the use
of our own troops. Two plates and a cup, knife, fork, and spoon should
be provided for each member of the party. The United States Army mess-
kit would serve admirably. Each man's mess-kit should be numbered to
correspond with the number on his duffel-bag.
An aluminum (for lightness) cooking outfit, or the Dutch oven
mentioned, with three or four kettles nested within, a coffee pot or a
teapot would suffice. The necessary large spoons and forks for the
cook, a small meat grinder, and a half dozen skinning knives could all
be included in the fibre case. These outfits are usually sold with the
cups, plates, etc., for the table. As before suggested, each member of
the party should have his own mess-kit. It should not be carried with
the general cooking outfit. By separating the eating equipments thus,
one of the problems of hygiene and cleanliness is simplified.
RIFLES--AMMUNITION--A heavy rifle is not advised. The only animals
that can be classed as dangerous are the jaguar and white-jawed
peccary, and a 30-30 or 44 calibre is heavy enough for such game. The
44-calibre Winchester or Remington carbine is the arm generally used
throughout South America, and 44 calibre is the only ammunition that
one can depend upon securing in the field. Every man has his own
preference for an arm. However, there is no need of carrying a nine or
ten pound weapon when a rifle weighing only from six and three fourths
to seven and one half pounds will do all that is necessary. I,
personally, prefer the small-calibre rifle, as it can be used for
birds also. The three-barrelled gun, combining a double shotgun and a
rifle, is an excellent weapon, and it is particularly valuable for the
collector of natural-history specimens. A new gun has just come on the
market which may prove valuable in South America where there is such a
variety of game, a four-barrel gun, weighing only eight and one fourth
pounds. It has two shotgun barrels, one 30 to 44 calibre rifle and the
rib separating the shotgun barrels is bored for a 22-calibre rifle
cartridge. The latter is particularly adapted for the large food
birds, which a heavy rifle bullet might tear. Twenty-two calibre
ammunition is also very light and the long 22 calibre exceedingly
powerful. Unless in practice it proves too complicated, it would seem
to be a good arm for all-round use--sixteen to twenty gauge is large
enough for the shotgun barrels. Too much emphasis cannot be placed
upon the need of being provided with good weapons. After the loss of
all our arms in the rapids we secured four poor, rusty rifles which
proved of no value. We lost three deer, a tapir, and other game, and
finally gave up the use of the rifles, depending upon hook and line. A
25 or 30 calibre high power automatic pistol with six or seven inch
barrel would prove a valuable arm to carry always on the person. It
could be used for large game and yet would not be too large for food
birds. It is to be regretted that there is nothing in the market of
this character.
We had our rifle ammunition packed by the U. M. C. Co. in zinc cases
of one hundred rounds each, a metallic strip with pull ring closing
the two halves of the box. Shot-cartridge, sixteen gauge, were packed
the same way, twenty-five to the box.
The explorer would do well always to have on his person a compass, a
light waterproof bag containing matches, a waterproof box of salt, and
a strong, light, linen or silk fish-line with several hooks, a knife,
and an automatic at his belt, with several loaded magazines for the
latter in his pocket. Thus provided, if accidentally lost for several
days in the forest (which often happens to the rubber hunters in
Brazil), he will be provided with the possibility of getting game and
making himself shelter and fire at night.
FISH--For small fish like the pacu and piranha an ordinary bass hook
will do. For the latter, because of its sharp teeth, a hook with a
long shank and phosphor-bronze leader is the best; the same character
of leader is best on the hook to be used for the big fish. A tarpon
hook will hold most of the great fish of the rivers. A light rod and
reel would be a convenience in catching the pacu. We used to fish for
the latter variety in the quiet pools while allowing the canoe to
drift, and always saved some of the fish as bait for the big fellows.
We fished for the pacu as the native does, kneading a ball of mandioc
farina with water and placing it on the hook as bait. I should not be
surprised, though, if it were possible, with carefully chosen flies,
to catch some of the fish that every once in a while we saw rise to
the surface and drag some luckless insect under.
CLOTHING--Even the experienced traveller when going into a new field
will commit the crime of carrying too much luggage. Articles which he
thought to be camp necessities become camp nuisances which worry his
men and kill his mules. The lighter one can travel the better. In the
matter of clothing, before the actual wilderness is reached the
costume one would wear to business in New York in summer is practical
for most of South America, except, of course, the high mountain
regions, where a warm wrap is necessary. A white or natural linen suit
is a very comfortable garment. A light blue unlined serge is desirable
as a change and for wear in rainy weather.
Strange to relate, the South American seems to have a fondness for
stiff collars. Even in Corumba, the hottest place I have ever been in,
the native does not think he is dressed unless he wears one of these
stiff abominations around his throat. A light negligee shirt with
interchangeable or attached soft collars is vastly preferable. In the
frontier regions and along the rivers the pajama seems to be the
conventional garment for day as well as night wear. Several such suits
of light material should be carried--the more ornamented and
beautifully colored the greater favor will they find along the way. A
light cravenetted mackintosh is necessary for occasional cool evenings
and as a protection against the rain. It should have no cemented
rubber seams to open up in the warm, moist climate. Yachting oxfords
and a light pair of leather slippers complete the outfit for steamer
travel. For the field, two or three light woollen khaki-colored
shirts, made with two breast pockets with buttoned flaps, two pairs
of long khaki trousers, two pairs of riding breeches, a khaki coat cut
military fashion with four pockets with buttoned flaps, two suits of
pajamas, handkerchiefs, socks, etc., would be necessary. The poncho
should extend to below the knees and should be provided with a hood
large enough to cover the helmet. It should have no cemented seams;
the material recently adopted by the United States Army for ponchos
seems to be the best. For footgear the traveller needs two pairs of
stout, high hunting shoes, built on the moccasin form with soles. Hob
nails should be taken along to insert if the going is over rocky
places. It is also advisable to provide a pair of very light leather
slipper boots to reach to just under the knee for wear in camp. They
protect the legs and ankles from insect stings and bites. The
traveller who enters tropical South America should protect his head
with a wide-brimmed soft felt hat with ventilated headband, or the
best and lightest pith helmet that can be secured, one large enough to
shade the face and back of neck. There should be a ventilating space
all around the head-band; the wider the space the better. These
helmets can be secured in Rio and Buenos Aires. Head-nets with face
plates of horsehair are the best protection against small insect
pests. They are generally made too small and the purchaser should be
careful to get one large enough to go over his helmet and come down to
the breast. Several pairs of loose gloves rather long in the wrist
will be needed as protection against the flies, piums and boroshudas
which draw blood with every bite and are numerous in many parts of
South America. A waterproof sun umbrella, with a jointed handle about
six feet long terminating in a point, would be a decided help to the
scientist at work in the field. A fine-meshed net fitting around the
edge of the umbrella would make it insect proof. When folded it would
not be bulky and its weight would be negligible. Such an umbrella
could also be attached, with a special clamp, to the thwart of a canoe
and so prove a protection from both sun and rain.
There are little personal conveniences which sometimes grow into
necessities. One of these in my own case was a little electric flash-
light taken for the purpose of reading the verniers of a theodolite or
sextant in star observations. It was used every night and for many
purposes. As a matter of necessity, where insects are numerous one
turns to the protection of his hammock and net immediately after the
evening meal. It was at such times that I found the electric lamp so
helpful. Reclining in the hammock, I held the stock of the light under
my left arm and with diary in my lap wrote up my records for the day.
I sometimes read by its soft, steady light. One charge of battery, to
my surprise, lasted nearly a month. When forced to pick out a camping
spot after dark, an experience which comes to every traveller in the
tropics in the rainy season, we found its light very helpful. Neither
rain nor wind could put it out and the light could be directed
wherever needed. The charges should be calculated on the plan of one
for every three weeks. The acetylene lamp for camp illumination is an
advance over the kerosene lantern. It has been found that for equal
weight the carbide will give more light than kerosene or candle. The
carbide should be put in small containers, for each time a box is
opened some of the contents turns into gas from contact with the moist
air.
TOOLS--Three or four good axes, several bill-hooks, a good hatchet
with hammer head and nail-puller should be in the tool kit. In
addition, each man should be provided with a belt knife and a machete
with sheath. Collins makes the best machetes. His axes, too, are
excellent. The bill-hook, called foice in Brazil, is a most valuable
tool for clearing away small trees, vines, and under-growths. It is
marvellous how quickly an experienced hand can clear the ground in a
forest with one of these instruments. All of these tools should have
handles of second-growth American hickory of first quality; and
several extra handles should be taken along. The list of tools should
be completed with a small outfit of pliers, tweezers, files, etc.--the
character, of course, depending upon the mechanical ability of the
traveller and the scientific instruments he has with him that might
need repairs.
SURVEY INSTRUMENTS--The choice of instruments will depend largely
upon the character of the work intended. If a compass survey will
suffice, there is nothing better than the cavalry sketching board used
in the United States Army for reconnaissance. With a careful hand it
approaches the high degree of perfection attained by the plane-table
method. It is particularly adapted for river survey and, after one
gets accustomed to its use, it is very simple. If the prismatic
compass is preferred, nothing smaller than two and one half inches in
diameter should be used. In the smaller sizes the magnet is not
powerful enough to move the dial quickly or accurately.
Several good pocket compasses must be provided. They should all have
good-sized needles with the north end well marked and degrees engraved
in metal. If the floating dial is preferred it should be of aluminum
and nothing smaller than two and one half inches, for the same reason
as mentioned above regarding the prismatic compass.
Expense should not be spared if it is necessary to secure good
compasses. Avoid paper dials and leather cases which absorb moisture.
The compass case should allow taking apart for cleaning and drying.
The regular chronometer movement, because of its delicacy, is out of
the question for rough land or water travel. We had with us a small-
sized half-chronometer movement recently brought out by the Waltham
Company as a yacht chronometer. It gave a surprisingly even rate under
the most adverse conditions. I was sorry to lose it in the rapids of
the Papagaio when our canoes went down.
The watches should be waterproof with strong cases, and several should
be taken. It would be well to have a dozen cheap but good watches and
the same number of compasses for use around camp and for gifts or
trade along the line of travel. Money is of no value after one leaves
the settlements. I was surprised to find that many of the rubber
hunters were not provided with compasses, and I listened to an
American who told of having been lost in the depths of the great
forest where for days he lived on monkey meat secured with his rifle
until he found his way to the river. He had no compass and could not
get one. I was sorry I had none to give; I had lost mine in the
rapids.
For the determination of latitude and longitude there is nothing
better than a small four or five inch theodolite not over fifteen
pounds in weight. It should have a good prism eyepiece with an angle
tube attached so it would not be necessary to break one's neck in
reading high altitudes. For days we travelled in the direction the sun
was going, with altitudes varying from 88° to 90°. Because of these
high altitudes of the sun the sextant with artificial horizon could
not be used unless one depended upon star observations altogether, an
uncertain dependence because of the many cloudy nights.
BAROMETERS--The Goldsmith form of direct-reading aneroid is the most
accurate portable instrument and, of course, should be compared with a
standard mercurial at the last weather-bureau station.
THERMOMETERS--A swing thermometer, with wet and dry bulbs for
determination of the amount of moisture in the air, and the maximum
and minimum thermometer of the signal-service or weather-bureau type
should be provided, with a case to protect them from injury.
A tape measure with metric scale of measurements on one side and feet
and inches on the other is most important. Two small, light waterproof
cases could be constructed and packed with scientific instruments,
data, and spare clothing and yet not exceed the weight limit of
flotation. In transit by pack-train these two cases would form but one
mule load.
PHOTOGRAPHIC--From the experience gained in several fields of
exploration it seems to me that the voyager should limit himself to
one small-sized camera, which he can always have with him, and then
carry a duplicate of it, soldered in tin, in the baggage. The
duplicate need not be equipped with as expensive a lens and shutter as
the camera carried for work; 31/4 x 41/4 is a good size. Nothing
larger than 3 1/4 x 5 1/2 is advised. We carried the 3A special Kodak
and found it a light, strong, and effective instrument. It seems to me
that the ideal form of instrument would be one with a front board
large enough to contain an adapter fitted for three lenses. For the
3 1/4 x 4 1/4:
One lens 4 or 4 1/2 focus
One lens 6 or 7 focus
One lens telephoto or telecentric 9 to 12 focus
The camera should be made of metal and fitted with focal-plane shutter
and direct view-finder.
A sole leather case with shoulder-strap should contain the camera and
lenses, with an extra roll of films, all within instant reach, so that
a lens could be changed without any loss of time.
Plates, of course, are the best, but their weight and frailty, with
difficulty of handling, rule them out of the question. The roll film
is the best, as the film pack sticks together and the stubs pull off
in the moist, hot climate. The films should be purchased in rolls of
six exposures, each roll in a tin, the cover sealed with surgical
tape. Twelve of these tubes should be soldered in a tin box. In places
where the air is charged with moisture a roll of films should not be
left in a camera over twenty-four hours.
Tank development is best for the field. The tanks provided for
developing by the Kodak Company are best for fixing also. A nest of
tanks would be a convenience; one tank should be kept separate for the
fixing-bath. As suggested in the Kodak circular, for tropical
development a large-size tank can be used for holding the freezing
mixture of hypo. This same tank would become the fixing tank after
development. In the rainy season it is a difficult matter to dry
films. Development in the field, with washing water at 80 degrees F.,
is a patience-trying operation. It has occurred to me that a small
air-pump with a supply of chloride of calcium in small tubes might
solve the problem of preserving films in the tropics. The air-pump and
supply of chloride of calcium would not be as heavy or bulky as the
tanks and powders needed for development. By means of the air-pump the
films could be sealed in tin tubes free from moisture and kept thus
until arrival at home or at a city where the air was fairly dry and
cold water for washing could be had.
While I cordially agree with most of the views expressed by Mr. Fiala,
there are some as to which I disagree; for instance, we came very
strongly to the conclusion, in descending the Duvida, where bulk was
of great consequence, that the films should be in rolls of ten or
twelve exposures. I doubt whether the four-barrel gun would be
practical; but this is a matter of personal taste.