1988 to end the war that began on 22 September 1980--troop withdrawal,
freedom of navigation, sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway and
prisoner-of-war exchange are the major issues for negotiation; Kurdish
question among Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and the USSR; occupies three
islands in the Persian Gulf claimed by UAE (Jazireh-ye Abu Musa
or Abu Musa, Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Bozorg or Greater Tunb,
and Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Kuchek or Lesser Tunb); periodic disputes with
Afghanistan over Helmand water rights; Boluch question with Afghanistan
and Pakistan
Climate: mostly arid or semiarid, subtropical along Caspian coast
Terrain: rugged, mountainous rim; high, central basin with deserts,
mountains; small, discontinuous plains along both coasts
Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper,
iron ore, lead, manganese, zinc, sulfur
Land use: 8% arable land; NEGL% permanent crops; 27% meadows and
pastures; 11% forest and woodland; 54% other; includes 2% irrigated
Environment: deforestation; overgrazing; desertification
- People
Population: 55,647,001 (July 1990), growth rate 3.1% (1990)
Birth rate: 45 births/1,000 population (1990)
Death rate: 10 deaths/1,000 population (1990)
Net migration rate: - 5 migrants/1,000 population (1990)
Infant mortality rate: 91 deaths/1,000 live births (1990)
Life expectancy at birth: 62 years male, 63 years female (1990)
Total fertility rate: 6.3 children born/woman (1990)
Nationality: noun--Iranian(s); adjective--Iranian
Ethnic divisions: 51% Persian, 25% Azerbaijani, 9% Kurd, 8% Gilaki
and Mazandarani, 2% Lur, 1% Baloch, 1% Arab, 3% other
Religion: 95% Shia Muslim, 4% Sunni Muslim, 2% Zoroastrian, Jewish,
Christian, and Bahai
Language: 58% Persian and Persian dialects, 26% Turkic and Turkic
dialects, 9% Kurdish, 2% Luri, 1% Baloch, 1% Arabic, 1% Turkish, 2% other
Literacy: 48% (est.)
Labor force: 15,400,000; 33% agriculture, 21% manufacturing; shortage of
skilled labor (1988 est.)
Organized labor: none
- Government
Long-form name: Islamic Republic of Iran
Type: theocratic republic
Capital: Tehran
Administrative divisions: 24 provinces (ostanha, singular--ostan);
Azarbayjan-e Bakhtari, Azarbayjan-e Khavari,
Bakhtaran, Bushehr, Chahar Mahall va Bakhtiari,
Esfahan, Fars, Gilan, Hamadan, Hormozgan, Ilam,
Kerman, Khorasan, Khuzestan,
Kohkiluyeh va Buyer Ahmadi, Kordestan,
Lorestan, Markazi, Mazandaran, Semnan,
Sistan va Baluchestan, Tehran, Yazd, Zanjan
Independence: 1 April 1979, Islamic Republic of Iran proclaimed
Constitution: 2-3 December 1979; revised 1989 to expand powers of
the presidency
Legal system: the new Constitution codifies Islamic principles of
government
National holiday: Islamic Republic Day, 1 April (1979)
Executive branch: cleric (faqih), president, Council of Cabinet Ministers
Legislative branch: unicameral Islamic Consultative Assembly
(Majlis-e-Shura-e-Islami)
Judicial branch: Supreme Court
Leaders:
Cleric and functional Chief of State--Leader of the Islamic
Revolution Ayatollah Ali Hoseini-KHAMENEI (since 3 June 1989);
Head of Government--President Ali Akbar RAFSANJANI (since 3 August
1989);
Political parties and leaders: there are at least seven licensed
parties; the two most important are--Militant Clerics Association, Mehdi
Mahdavi-Karubi and Mohammad Asqar Musavi-Khoinima; Fedaiyin Islam
Organization, Sadeq Khalkhali
Suffrage: universal at age 15
Elections:
President--last held NA July 1989 (next to be held April 1993);
results--Ali Akbar Rafsanjani was elected with only token opposition;
Islamic Consultative Assembly--last held 8 April and 13 May
1988 (next to be held April 1992); results--percent of vote by party
NA;
seats--(270 seats total) number of seats by party NA
Communists: 1,000 to 2,000 est. hardcore; 15,000 to 20,000 est.
sympathizers; crackdown in 1983 crippled the party; trials of captured leaders
began in late 1983 and remain incomplete
Other political or pressure groups: groups that generally
support the Islamic Republic include Hizballah,
Hojjatiyeh Society, Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution, Muslim Students
Following the Line of the Imam, and Tehran Militant Clergy Association;
Mojahedin Khalq Organization (MKO), People's Fedayeen, and Kurdish Democratic
Party are armed political groups that have been almost completely repressed by
the government
Member of: CCC, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, IDB, IFC,
ILO, IMF, IMO, INTELSAT, IPU, OIC, OPEC, UN, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNIDO,
WHO
Diplomatic representation: none; protecting power in the US is
Algeria--Iranian Interests Section, 2209 Wisconsin Avenue NW,
Washington DC 20007; telephone (202) 965-4990;
US--protecting power in Iran is Switzerland
Flag: three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red; the
national emblem (a stylized representation of the word Allah) in red is centered
in the white band; Allah Akbar (God is Great) in white Arabic script is
repeated 11 times along the bottom edge of the green band and 11 times along the
top edge of the red band
- Economy
Overview: Since the 1979 revolution, the banks, petroleum industry,
transportation, utilities, and mining have been nationalized, but the
new five-year plan--the first since the revolution--passed in January
1990, calls for the transfer of many government-controlled enterprises
to the private sector. War-related disruptions, massive corruption,
mismanagement, demographic pressures, and ideological rigidities have kept
economic growth at depressed levels. Oil accounts for 90% of export
revenues. A combination of war damage and low oil prices brought a 2%
drop in GNP in 1988. GNP probably rose slightly in 1989, considerably
short of the 3.4% population growth rate in 1989. Heating oil and gasoline
are rationed. Agriculture has suffered from the war, land reform, and shortages
of equipment and materials. The five-year plan seeks to reinvigorate the
economy by increasing the role of the private sector, boosting nonoil
income, and securing foreign loans. The plan is overly ambitious but
probably will generate some short-term relief.
GNP: $97.6 billion, per capita $1,800; real growth rate 0-1% (1989)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 50-80% (1989)
Unemployment rate: 30% (1989)
Budget: revenues $NA; expenditures $55.1 billion, including capital
expenditures of $11.5 billion (FY88 est.)
Exports: $12.3 billion (f.o.b., 1988);
commodities--petroleum 90%, carpets, fruits, nuts, hides;
partners--Japan, Turkey, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, France, FRG
Imports: $12.0 billion (c.i.f., 1988); commodities--machinery,
military supplies, metal works, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, technical services,
refined oil products; partners--FRG, Japan, Turkey, UK, Italy
External debt: $4-5 billion (1989)
Industrial production: growth rate NA%
Electricity: 14,579,000 kW capacity; 40,000 million kWh produced,
740 kWh per capita (1989)
Industries: petroleum, petrochemicals, textiles, cement and other building
materials, food processing (particularly sugar refining and vegetable oil
production), metal fabricating (steel and copper)
Agriculture: principal products--rice, other grains, sugar beets, fruits,
nuts, cotton, dairy products, wool, caviar; not self-sufficient in food
Illicit drugs: illicit producer of opium poppy for the domestic and
international drug trade
Aid: US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-80), $1.0 billion; Western
(non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-87), $1.5 billion;
Communist countries (1970-88), $976 million; note--aid fell sharply
following the 1979 revolution
Currency: Iranian rial (plural--rials); 1 Iranian rial (IR) = 100 dinars;
note--domestic figures are generally referred to in terms of the toman
(plural--tomans), which equals 10 rials
Exchange rates: Iranian rials (IR) per US$1--70.019 (January 1990),
72.015 (1989), 68.683 (1988), 71.460 (1987), 78.760 (1986), 91.052 (1985)
Fiscal year: 21 March-20 March
- Communications
Railroads: 4,601 km total; 4,509 km 1.432-meter gauge, 92 km 1.676-meter
gauge; 730 km under construction from Bafq to Bandar Abbas
Highways: 140,072 km total; 46,866 km gravel and crushed stone; 49,440 km
improved earth; 42,566 km bituminous and bituminous-treated surfaces;
1,200 km (est.) of rural road network
Inland waterways: 904 km; the Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by
maritime traffic for about 130 km, but closed since September 1980 because
of Iran-Iraq war
Pipelines: crude oil, 5,900 km; refined products, 3,900 km; natural gas,
3,300 km
Ports: Abadan (largely destroyed in fighting during 1980-88 war),
Bandar Beheshti, Bandar-e Abbas, Bandar-e Bushehr, Bandar-e Khomeyni,
Bandar-e Shahid Rajai, Khorramshahr (largely destroyed in fighting
during 1980-88 war)
Merchant marine: 133 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 4,631,836
GRT/8,662,454 DWT; includes 36 cargo, 6 roll-on/roll-off cargo, 33 petroleum,
oils, and lubricants (POL) tanker, 4 chemical tanker, 3 refrigerated cargo,
49 bulk, 2 combination bulk
Civil air: 42 major transport aircraft
Airports: 201 total, 175 usable; 82 with permanent-surface runways; 17
with runways over 3,659 m; 17 with runways 2,440-3,659 m; 68 with runways
1,220-2,439 m
Telecommunications: radio relay extends throughout country; system
centered in Tehran; 2,143,000 telephones; stations--62 AM, 30 FM, 250 TV;
satellite earth stations--2 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT and 1 Indian Ocean INTELSAT;
HF and microwave to Turkey, Pakistan, Syria, Kuwait, and USSR
- Defense Forces
Branches: Islamic Republic of Iran Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force,
and Revolutionary Guard Corps (includes Basij militia and own ground, air, and
naval forces), Gendarmerie
Military manpower: males 15-49, 12,302,967; 7,332,614 fit for military
service; 569,647 reach military age (21) annually
Defense expenditures: 8% of GNP, or $7.8 billion (1989 est.)
----------------------------------------------------
Country: Iraq
- Geography
Total area: 434,920 km2; land area: 433,970 km2
Comparative area: slightly more than twice the size of Idaho
Land boundaries: 3,454 km total; Iran 1,458 km, Iraq - Saudi Arabia
Neutral Zone 191 km, Jordan 134 km, Kuwait 240 km, Saudi Arabia 495 km,
Syria 605 km, Turkey 331 km
Coastline: 58 km
Maritime claims:
Continental shelf: not specific;
Territorial sea: 12 nm
Disputes: Iraq began formal UN peace negotiations with Iran in August
1988 to end the war that began on 22 September 1980--sovereignty over the Shatt
al Arab waterway, troop withdrawal, freedom of navigation, and
prisoner of war exchange are the major issues for negotiation; Kurdish
question among Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and the USSR; shares Neutral Zone with
Saudi Arabia--in July 1975, Iraq and Saudi Arabia signed an agreement
to divide the zone between them, but the agreement must be ratified
before it becomes effective; disputes Kuwaiti ownership of Warbah and
Bubiyan islands; periodic disputes with upstream riparian
Syria over Euphrates water rights; potential dispute over water
development plans by Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
Climate: desert; mild to cool winters with dry, hot, cloudless summers
Terrain: mostly broad plains; reedy marshes in southeast; mountains
along borders with Iran and Turkey
Natural resources: crude oil, natural gas, phosphates, sulfur
Land use: 12% arable land; 1% permanent crops; 9% meadows and pastures;
3% forest and woodland; 75% other; includes 4% irrigated
Environment: development of Tigris-Euphrates river systems contingent
upon agreements with upstream riparians (Syria, Turkey); air and water
pollution; soil degradation (salinization) and erosion; desertification
- People
Population: 18,781,770 (July 1990), growth rate 3.9% (1990)
Birth rate: 46 births/1,000 population (1990)
Death rate: 7 deaths/1,000 population (1990)
Net migration rate: 0 migrants/1,000 population (1990)
Infant mortality rate: 67 deaths/1,000 live births (1990)
Life expectancy at birth: 66 years male, 68 years female (1990)
Total fertility rate: 7.3 children born/woman (1990)
Nationality: noun--Iraqi(s); adjective--Iraqi
Ethnic divisions: 75-80% Arab, 15-20% Kurdish, 5% Turkoman, Assyrian
or other
Religion: 97% Muslim (60-65% Shia, 32-37% Sunni), 3% Christian or other
Language: Arabic (official), Kurdish (official in Kurdish regions),
Assyrian, Armenian
Literacy: 55-65% (1989 est.)
Labor force: 3,400,000 (1984); 39% services, 33% agriculture, 28%
industry, severe labor shortage (1987); expatriate labor force about
1,000,000 (1989)
Organized labor: less than 10% of the labor force
- Government
Long-form name: Republic of Iraq
Type: republic
Capital: Baghdad
Administrative divisions: 18 provinces (muhafazat,
singular--muhafazah); Al Anbar, Al Basrah, Al Muthanna,
Al Qadisiyah, An Najaf, As Sulaymaniyah, At Tamim, Babil,
Baghdad, Dahuk, Dhi Qar, Diyala, Arbil, Karbala,
Maysan, Ninawa, Salah ad Din, Wasit
Independence: 3 October 1932 (from League of Nations mandate under
British administration)
Constitution: 22 September 1968, effective 16 July 1970 (interim
Constitution); new constitution now in final stages of drafting
Legal system: based on Islamic law in special religious courts, civil law
system elsewhere; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
National holiday: Anniversary of the Revolution, 17 July (1968)
Executive branch: president, vice president, chairman of the Revolutionary
Command Council, vice chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council,
prime minister, first deputy prime minister, Council of Ministers
Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly (Majlis al Umma)
Judicial branch: Court of Cassation
Leaders:
Chief of State and Head of Government--President Saddam HUSAYN
(since 16 July 1979); Vice President Taha Muhyi al-Din MARUF
(since 21 April 1974)
Political parties: National Progressive Front is a coalition of the
Arab Bath Socialist Party, Kurdistan Democratic Party, and Kurdistan
Revolutionary Party
Suffrage: universal adult at age 18
Elections:
National Assembly--last held on 1 April 1989 (next to be held NA);
results--Shia Arabs 30%, Kurds 15%, Sunni Arabs 53%, Christians 2% est.;
seats--(250 total) number of seats by party NA
Communists: about 1,500 hardcore members
Other political or pressure groups: political parties and activity
severely restricted; possibly some opposition to regime from disaffected
members of the regime, Army officers, and religious and ethnic dissidents
Member of: ACC, Arab League, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA,
IDB--Islamic Development Bank, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, INTELSAT,
INTERPOL, ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPEC, UN, UNESCO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO,
WMO, WSG, WTO
Diplomatic representation: Ambassador Dr. Mohamed Sadiq AL-MASHAT;
Chancery at 1801 P Street NW, Washington DC 20036; telephone (202) 483-7500;
US--Ambassador April C. GLASPIE; Embassy in Masbah Quarter (opposite the
Foreign Ministry Club), Baghdad (mailing address is P. O. Box 2447 Alwiyah,
Baghdad); telephone [964] (1) 719-6138 or 719-6139, 718-1840, 719-3791
Flag: three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with
three green five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band;
similar to the flags of the YAR which has one star and Syria which has two stars
(in a horizontal line centered in the white band)--all green and five-pointed;
also similar to the flag of Egypt which has a symbolic eagle centered in the
white band
- Economy
Overview: The Bathist regime engages in extensive central planning
and management of industrial production and foreign trade while leaving
some small-scale industry and services and most agriculture to
private enterprise. The economy is dominated by the oil sector, which provides
about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. Since the early 1980s financial
problems, caused by war expenditures and damage to oil export facilities by
Iran, have led the government to implement austerity measures and to reschedule
foreign debt payments. Oil exports have gradually increased with the
construction of new pipelines. Agricultural development remains hampered by
labor shortages, salinization, and dislocations caused by previous land reform
and collectivization programs. The industrial sector, although accorded high
priority by the government, is under financial constraints. New investment funds
are generally allocated only to projects that result in import substitution or
foreign exchange earnings.
GNP: $35 billion, per capita $1,940; real growth rate 5%
(1989 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 30-40% (1989 est.)
Unemployment rate: less than 5% (1989 est.)
Budget: revenues $NA billion; expenditures $35 billion,
including capital expenditures of NA (1989)
Exports: $12.5 billion (f.o.b., 1988);
commodities--crude oil and refined products, machinery, chemicals, dates;
partners--US, Brazil, USSR, Italy, Turkey, France, Japan, Yugoslavia
(1988)
Imports: $10.2 billion (c.i.f., 1988);
commodities--manufactures, food;
partners--Turkey, US, FRG, UK, France, Japan, Romania, Yugoslavia,
Brazil (1988)
External debt: $40 billion (1988 est.), excluding debt to Persian
Gulf Arab states
Industrial production: NA%
Electricity: 9,902,000 kW capacity; 20,000 million kWh produced,
1,110 kWh per capita (1989)
Industries: petroleum, chemicals, textiles, construction materials, food
processing
Agriculture: accounts for less than 10% of GNP but 33% of labor force;
principal products--wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, dates, other fruit,
cotton, wool; livestock--cattle, sheep; not self-sufficient in food output
Aid: US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-80), $3 million; Western
(non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-87), $607
million; OPEC bilateral aid (1980-89), $37.2 billion; Communist countries
(1970-88), $3.9 billion
Currency: Iraqi dinar (plural--dinars); 1 Iraqi dinar (ID) = 1,000 fils
Exchange rates: Iraqi dinars (ID) per US$1--0.3109 (fixed rate since 1982)
Fiscal year: calendar year
- Communications
Railroads: 2,962 km total; 2,457 km 1.435-meter standard gauge, 505 km
1.000-meter gauge
Highways: 25,479 km total; 8,290 km paved, 5,534 km improved earth,
11,655 km unimproved earth
Inland waterways: 1,015 km; Shatt al Arab usually navigable by maritime
traffic for about 130 km, but closed since September 1980 because of Iran-Iraq
war; Tigris and Euphrates navigable by shallow-draft steamers (of little
importance); Shatt al Basrah canal navigable in sections by
shallow-draft vessels
Ports: Umm Qasr, Khawr az Zubayr
Merchant marine: 44 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 947,721
GRT/1,703,988 DWT; includes 1 passenger, 1 passenger-cargo, 18 cargo,
1 refrigerated cargo, 3 roll-on/roll-off cargo, 19 petroleum, oils, and
lubricants (POL) tanker, 1 chemical tanker
Pipelines: crude oil, 4,350 km; 725 km refined products; 1,360 km natural
gas
Civil air: 64 major transport aircraft (including 30 IL-76s
used by the Iraq Air Force)
Airports: 111 total, 101 usable; 72 with permanent-surface runways; 8 with
runways over 3,659 m; 53 with runways 2,440-3,659 m; 14 with runways
1,220-2,439 m
Telecommunications: good network consists of coaxial cables, radio relay
links, and radiocommunication stations; 632,000 telephones; stations--9
AM, 1 FM, 81 TV; satellite earth stations--1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT,
1 Indian Ocean INTELSAT, 1 GORIZONT Atlantic Ocean in the Intersputnik
system; coaxial cable and radio relay to Kuwait, Jordan, Syria, and Turkey
- Defense Forces
Branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, Border Guard Force, mobile
police force, Republican Guard
Military manpower: males 15-49, 4,097,190; 2,284,417 fit for military
service; 219,701 reach military age (18) annually
Defense expenditures: NA
----------------------------------------------------
Country: Iraq - Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone
- Geography
Total area: 3,520 km2; land area: 3,520 km2
Comparative area: slightly larger than Rhode Island
Land boundaries: 389 km total; 191 km Iraq, 198 km Saudi Arabia
Coastline: none--landlocked
Maritime claims: none--landlocked
Climate: harsh, dry desert
Terrain: sandy desert
Natural resources: none
Land use: 0% arable land; 0% permanent crops; 0% meadows and pastures;
0% forest and woodland; 100% other (sandy desert)
Environment: harsh, inhospitable
Note: landlocked; located west of quadripoint with Iraq, Kuwait, and
Saudi Arabia
- People
Population: uninhabited
- Government
Long-form name: none
Type: joint administration by Iraq and Saudi Arabia; in July 1975,
Iraq and Saudi Arabia signed an agreement to divide the zone between
them, but the agreement must be ratified, however, before it becomes
effective.
- Economy
Overview: no economic activity
- Communications
Highways: none; some secondary roads
- Defense Forces
Note: defense is the joint responsibility of Iraq and Saudi Arabia
----------------------------------------------------
Country: Ireland
- Geography
Total area: 70,280 km2; land area: 68,890 km2
Comparative area: slightly larger than West Virginia
Land boundary: 360 km with UK
Coastline: 1,448 km
Maritime claims:
Continental shelf: no precise definition;
Exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm;
Territorial sea: 12 nm
Disputes: maritime boundary with the UK; Northern Ireland question with
the UK; Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark, Iceland, and the UK
(Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area)
Climate: temperate maritime; modified by North Atlantic Current;
mild winters, cool summers; consistently humid; overcast about half the time
Terrain: mostly level to rolling interior plain surrounded by rugged
hills and low mountains; sea cliffs on west coast
Natural resources: zinc, lead, natural gas, crude oil, barite,
copper, gypsum, limestone, dolomite, peat, silver
Land use: 14% arable land; NEGL% permanent crops; 71% meadows and
pastures; 5% forest and woodland; 10% other
Environment: deforestation
- People
Population: 3,500,212 (July 1990), growth rate -0.4% (1990)
Birth rate: 15 births/1,000 population (1990)
Death rate: 9 deaths/1,000 population (1990)
Net migration rate: - 10 migrants/1,000 population (1990)
Infant mortality rate: 6 deaths/1,000 live births (1990)
Life expectancy at birth: 72 years male, 78 years female (1990)
Total fertility rate: 2.1 children born/woman (1990)
Nationality: noun--Irishman(men), Irish (collective pl.); adjective--Irish
Ethnic divisions: Celtic, with English minority
Religion: 94% Roman Catholic, 4% Anglican, 2% other
Language: Irish (Gaelic) and English; English is the language generally
used, with Gaelic spoken in a few areas, mostly along the western seaboard
Literacy: 99%
Labor force: 1,310,000; 57.3% services, 19.1% manufacturing and
construction, 14.8% agriculture, forestry, and fishing (1988)
Organized labor: 36% of labor force
- Government
Long-form name: Republic of Ireland
Type: republic
Capital: Dublin
Administrative divisions: 26 counties; Carlow, Cavan, Clare, Cork,
Donegal, Dublin, Galway, Kerry, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois, Leitrim, Limerick,
Longford, Louth, Mayo, Meath, Monaghan, Offaly, Roscommon, Sligo, Tipperary,
Waterford, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow
Independence: 6 December 1921 (from UK)
Constitution: 29 December 1937; adopted 1937
Legal system: based on English common law, substantially modified by
indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in Supreme Court;
has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
National holiday: St. Patrick's Day, 17 March
Executive branch: president, prime minister, deputy prime minister,
Cabinet
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament (Oireachtas) consists of an
upper house or Senate (Seanad Eireann) and a lower house or House of
Representatives (Dail Eireann)
Judicial branch: Supreme Court