SARDINIA.
As the island of Sardinia was a possession of the crown of Aragon, it
was not neglected in organizing the Inquisition. There were Conversos
there and doubtless in the earliest period it served as a refuge for
some of those who fled from Spain. The introduction of the Holy Office
is probably to be attributed to the year 1492, when Micer Sancho Maria
was appointed inquisitor.[198] He served until 1497, for a letter of
December 15th of that year, from Ferdinand to Miguel Fonte, receiver of
Sardinia, recites that the inquisitors-general have appointed Maestre
Gabriel Cardona, rector of Peñiscola, as inquisitor in place of Sancho
Marin, transferred to Sicily, and it proceeds to give instructions as to
salaries, from which we learn that the organization was on a most
economical scale. There was, as yet, no settled habitation for it, as a
letter of March 11, 1498, to Don Pero Mata requests him to let Cardona
continue in occupation of his house, as Marin had been, and one of
September 24, 1500, orders that quarters be rented in Cagliari where all
the officials can lodge together. There was but one inquisitor, with an
assessor, no fiscal, one alguazil, a single notary to serve both in the
tribunal and for the confiscations, and a receiver, with salaries too
modest to offer much temptation to serve in an inhospitable land, where
the principal occupation seems to be quarrelling with all the other
authorities.[199] In fact the Inquisition was as unpopular in Sardinia
as elsewhere, for Ferdinand, in announcing to his lieutenant-general
the appointment of Cardona, feels it necessary to order that he and his
subordinates shall receive more favor than their predecessors, so that
they may freely exercise their functions; they are not to be ill-treated
by any one, nor be impeded in the performance of their duties. Ferdinand
had heard how his lieutenant-general took certain wheat out of the hands
of the receiver, resulting in the loss of a hundred and sixty libras,
wherefore he is ordered in future to abstain from interference in such
matters, as otherwise due provision will be made to prevent him.[200]
Notwithstanding these royal injunctions, Cardona was not long in
becoming involved in a bitter quarrel with both the secular and
ecclesiastical authorities. It appears from a series of Ferdinand’s
letters, September 18, 1498, that a certain Domingo de Santa Cruz--who
ten years before had been the cause of similar trouble in Valencia--was
imprisoned by the inquisitor and forcibly released by the
lieutenant-general and the Archbishop of Cagliari, who claimed that, in
furtherance of the king’s interests, they had given him a safe-conduct.
The archbishop, moreover, had withdrawn from Cardona a commission
enabling him to exercise the episcopal jurisdiction, the coöperation of
which was requisite in all judgements. Ferdinand writes in great wrath;
he instructs the inquisitor to reclaim Domingo at once, to throw him in
chains and hold him until the royal pleasure is known; if the
lieutenant-general and archbishop resist, he is to proceed against them
with excommunication; the latter are roundly scolded and ordered to
surrender the prisoner and hereafter to support the inquisitor and the
archbishop is told to renew the episcopal commission. Not content with
this, the king orders the viguier of Cagliari, under pain of dismissal
from office, to obey the commands of the inquisitor and similar
instructions are sent to the town-council.[201] The inquisitor thus was
made the virtual autocrat of the island, but his triumph was
evanescent, for on November 15, 1499, we find him in Ferdinand’s court
at Avila and his salary ceases on that day. He evidently left Sardinia
in undignified haste and involved in trouble, for a royal cédula of
November 18th commands the governor and other officials, under penalty
of the royal wrath and of a thousand florins, to allow the furniture,
books, bedding and personal effects of the late inquisitor Cardona to be
freely shipped to him.[202] Nine months elapsed before the vacancy was
filled by the commission of the Bishop of Bonavalle, August 18, 1500, to
whom was granted the power of appointing and dismissing his assessor and
notary--the two officials on whom, as Ferdinand tells him, the success
or failure of the Inquisition chiefly depends.[203]
It is quite possible that Cardona’s precipitate departure may have been
motived by terror for, about that time, the receiver, Miguel Fonte, was
assassinated in Cagliari, as we may assume, by some of those whom he had
reduced to poverty. He was not killed on the spot; from letters of
February 13, 1500, we learn that he had been carried to Barcelona, in
hopes of cure, and died there. Ferdinand ordered that his widow should
be treated with all consideration and that the lieutenant-general should
pursue and punish the assassins. Sympathy seems rather to have been with
the criminals and the royal commands were disregarded, under the
frivolous pretext that it was the business of the Inquisition--a
palpable falsehood, seeing that the tribunal was vacant--for which
Ferdinand took his representative severely to task on August 18th. The
receivership had also remained unoccupied, ‘for it was not until August
4th that a fit person could be found, venturesome enough to tempt its
dangers, in the person of Juan López, a merchant of Játiva.[204]
It may well be that there was wide-spread hatred felt for the receiver
of confiscations, for the correspondence of the period shows that
persecution had been fairly productive, considering the poverty of the
island. August 29, 1497, there is an order to pay the royal secretary
Calcena, out of the property of Antoni Cones, a debt claimed by him of a
hundred ducats, before any other creditors are paid. Then, on January
21, 1498, a servant of the royal household, Mosen Gaspar Gilaberte,
receives a gratuity of twenty thousand sueldos (833-1/3 ducats) out of
the confiscation of Juan Soller of Cagliari. On March 11th we hear of a
composition, made by request of the Archbishop and Syndic of Cagliari,
whereby the representatives of certain deceased persons, condemned by
Micer Morin, compounded for the confiscation of their property--an
agreement subsequently violated by Morin, whereupon the Dean of Cagliari
and other prominent persons appealed to Ferdinand. Then, October 14th,
there is an _ayuda de costa_ to the notary Bernat Ros to refund his
expenses on a journey to the court and back. Then, October 12, 1499,
there is a gratuity of two hundred and fifty ducats to Alonso Castillo,
servant of Don Enrique Enriquez, royal mayordomo mayor. Soon after this
Cardona, in hurrying to the court from Sardinia, brings five hundred
ducats to the royal treasury. During 1500 the disorganization of the
tribunal cut off receipts but, in June, 1501, we hear of six hundred and
fifty ducats given to the nuns of Santa Engracia of Saragossa. In 1502
there were found some pearls among the effects of Micer Rejadel,
condemned for heresy, and these Ferdinand ordered to be sent to him,
covered by insurance and, in due time, on July 17th, he acknowledged
their receipt, fifty-five in number, weighing’ one ounce and one eighth
and nine grains, after which they doubtless graced the toilet of Queen
Isabella. At the same time he warned Juan López, the receiver, to be
careful, for there were many complaints coming in as to his methods of
procedure. Some months before this, in February, Ferdinand had
complimented the inquisitor on the increased activity of his tribunal
and had urged him to be especially watchful as to the confiscations, so
that nothing might be lost through official negligence. To assist in
the enlarged business thus expected, he promised to appoint a _juez de
los bienes_, or judge of confiscations.[205]
Amid this eagerness to profit by the misery which he was creating it is
pleasant to find instances of Ferdinand’s kindliness in special cases.
Thus, January 12, 1498, in the matter of the confiscated estate of Joan
Andrés of Cagliari, he releases to Beatriz de Torrellas, sister and heir
of Don Francisco Torrellas, because she is noble and poor and her
brother had served him, a debt of 59-2/3 ducats due by Don Francisco to
Andrés, which of course Beatriz would have had to pay. A few weeks
later, on February 4th, he alleges clemency and charity as his motive
for foregoing the confiscation of certain houses in Cagliari, belonging
to Belenguer Oluja and his wife, both penanced for heresy. October 14th
of the same year he takes pity on Na Thomasa, the wife of Joan Andrés,
who had been penanced when her husband was condemned; as she is reduced
to beggary and has an old mother to support and two young girls of her
dead sister, he orders the receiver to give her fifty ducats in charity.
This same estate of Joan Andrés gave occasion to another act of
liberality, February 8, 1502, in releasing to the Hospital of San
Antonio a _censal_ of sixty libras principal, due by it to the
estate.[206] Trivial as are these cases, they are worth recording, if
only for the insight which they afford on the ramifications through
which confiscation spread misery throughout the land.
The season of prosperous confiscations seems to have speedily passed
away and the Sardinian tribunal proved to be a source of more trouble
than profit. It is true that, in 1512, Ferdinand derived a momentary
satisfaction from it, when he learned that a certain Miguel Sánchez del
Romero, who had been condemned and burnt in effigy in Saragossa, had
escaped to the island, where the lieutenant-general had taken him into
favor and made him viguier of Sassari. He promptly ordered the
inquisitor to seize him secretly at once and send him, under charge of
his alguazil, to Saragossa, by the first vessel and, at the same time,
he notified the lieutenant-general that any impediment offered would be
punished with deprivation of office, confiscation of property and
excommunication by the inquisitor.[207] This exhibition of vigor,
however, did not serve to put the tribunal on an efficient basis;
Ferdinand was becoming thoroughly dissatisfied and, in August, 1514, he
tried the expedient of appointing as inquisitor Juan de Loaysa, Bishop
of Alghero, at the other end of the island from Cagliari, without
removing the existing inquisitor, Canon Aragall, but rendering him
subordinate to the bishop, whose place of residence was to be the seat
of the tribunal. It is significant of the decadent condition of affairs
that Bernat Ros, who had become the receiver of confiscations, sent in
his resignation, on the plea of ill-health, and that Ferdinand refused
to accept it unless he would find some one to take his place. Presumably
the trouble was that the harvest of confiscations had been gathered and
spent, without making investments that would give the tribunal an
assured income, and that the financial prospects were gloomy. Ferdinand
realized this and his zeal for the faith was insufficient to lead him to
assume the responsibility. He made out a new schedule of salaries on an
absurdly low basis, amounting, for the whole tribunal, to only three
hundred and thirty libras, telling the receiver that, if the receipts
were insufficient, the salaries must be cut down to a sueldo in the
libra for he did not propose to be in any way responsible.[208] The
institution was to be self-supporting, which was perhaps the best way to
stimulate its activity but, if this were the object, it was scarce
successful for, in January, 1515, Ferdinand writes that the baile of the
island, in whose house the Inquisition was quartered, is about to return
home and wants the house; as there is so little business and so few
prisoners, it can get accommodation in the Dominican convent, which will
serve the purpose. Loaysa’s term of office was short, for he was sent to
Rome as agent of the Spanish Inquisition, and the Bishop of Ales and
Torrealba was appointed in his place. In announcing this to him, August
28, 1515, Ferdinand significantly warns him not to meddle in matters
disconnected with the Holy Office.[209]
Notwithstanding this palpable decadence, the Sardinian Inquisition
continued to exist. It was in vain that, after Ferdinand’s death in
January, 1516, followed by that of Bishop Mercader, the
Inquisitor-general of Aragon, the people rejoiced in the expectation of
its abandonment, for the representatives of Charles V, by a circular
letter of August 30th to the lieutenant-general and the municipal
authorities, assured them that it would be continued and ordered them to
take measures for its increased activity, while the inquisitor was
informed that, although Sardinia was under the crown of Aragon, it was
not to enjoy the provisions of the Concordias to which Ferdinand had
been obliged to assent at home.[210] Possibly the tribunal may have
become more active but it was not more productive for, in 1522, the home
tribunals were assessed for its support, Majorca being called upon for
two hundred ducats and Barcelona and Saragossa for a hundred each.[211]
About 1540, however, it seems to have discovered some well-to-do
heretics, for we hear of its having three thousand ducats to invest in
censos.[212] This accession of wealth, however, does not argue that its
financial management was better than was customary in the Inquisition
for, in 1544, a commission was sent to the Bishop of Alghero, the
inquisitor, clothing him with full power to require from the receiver,
Peroche de Salazar, a detailed account of his expenditures and his
receipts from fines, penances, commutations and rehabilitations, and to
investigate all frauds, collusions and concealments, the terms of the
commission indicating that there had long been no check on
embezzlements.[213]
Such prosperity as the tribunal enjoyed was spasmodic and it soon
relapsed into indigence. In 1577 we find the tribunal of Murcia ordered
to pay two hundred ducats, arrearages of salary due to Martínez Villar,
who had been promoted, in 1569, from the inquisitorship to the
archbishopric of Sassari[214] and, in 1588, Seville and Llerena were
each called upon for 119,000 maravedís to repair an injustice committed
by the Sardinia tribunal on María Malla--apparently it had spent the
ill-gotten money and was unable to make restitution.[215] In hopes of
relieving this poverty-stricken condition, Philip II, in 1580, appealed
to Gregory XIII stating that it could not sustain itself and asking for
assistance, which of course meant that canonries or other benefices
should be assigned to its support.[216] This appeal was unavailing for,
in 1618, the Suprema represented to Philip III the deplorable condition
of the tribunal, unable to defray the salaries of a single inquisitor, a
fiscal, two secretaries and the minor officials; it urged him to obtain
from the pope the suppression of canonries and meanwhile to meet its
necessities by the grant of some licences to export wheat and horses,
which the pious monarch hastened to do.[217] This did not relieve the
chronic poverty and, in 1658, Gregorio Cid, transferred to Cuenca after
six years and a half of service in Sardinia, represented to the
inquisitor-general that the tribunal ought to have two inquisitors and a
fiscal and that it was difficult to find any one to serve as a notary,
for the salary was small and expenses were great; besides, the climate
was so unhealthy that the tribunal often had to be closed in consequence
of the sickness of the officials.[218]
The tribunal was evidently a superfluity, in so far as its legitimate
functions were concerned, and we may assume that it was maintained not
so much to deal with existing heretics as to prevent the island from
becoming an asylum for heresy. This could have been accomplished by
strengthening and stimulating the episcopal jurisdiction, but the
Inquisition had monopolized this and was jealous of all interference. In
1538 Paul III addressed to the bishops and inquisitor of the island a
brief in which he recapitulated the provisions of the Council of Vienne
requiring them to coöperate and work in harmony; he urged the bishops to
be so active in repressing heresy that they should need no outside aid
but, if such should be necessary, the mandates of the council were to be
observed. The bishops apparently were not remiss in taking advantage of
this to revendicate the jurisdiction of which they had practically been
stripped and the Inquisition resented the intrusion; Charles V must
speedily have made the pope sensible of his mistake for, in 1540, he
addressed to the judges of the island another brief revoking the
previous one and reciting that the episcopal Ordinaries were interfering
with the functions of the inquisitors and must be restrained from
impeding or molesting them in any way by the liberal use of censures and
the invocation, if necessary, of the secular arm. This was not allowed
to be a dead letter for, when in 1555 Salvator, Archbishop of Sassari,
under the brief of 1538, undertook to interfere with the tribunal, Paul
IV, at the request of the emperor, promptly ordered the Bishops of
Alghero, Suelli and Bosa to intervene and granted them the necessary
faculties to coerce him.[219]
The tribunal had little to show as the result of the jurisdiction so
eagerly monopolized. In fact, its chief industry consisted in
multiplying its nominal officials and familiars--positions sought for in
consequence of their privileges and immunities and doubtless liberally
paid for. As early as 1552, Inquisitor-general Valdés rebuked Andreas
Sanna, Bishop of Ales and inquisitor, for the inordinate number of
familiars and commissioners who obtained appointments for the purpose
of enjoying the exemptions, and he ordered them reduced to the absolute
needs of the Holy Office.[220] This command was unheeded, the industry
flourished and the principal activity of the tribunal lay in the
resultant disputes with the secular courts. So recklessly did it
distribute its favors that, on one occasion, an enumeration in three
villages of Gallura disclosed no less than five hundred persons entitled
to the privileges of the Holy Office. The consequences of this widely
distributed impunity were of course deplorable on both the peace and the
morals of the island.[221]
Under such circumstances quarrels with the secular authorities were
perpetual and inevitable and were conducted on both sides with a
violence attributable to the remoteness of the island and the little
respect felt by either party for the other. A specimen of the spirit
developed in these conflicts is afforded in a brief of Paul V, March 22,
1617, to Inquisitor-general Sandoval y Rojas, complaining bitterly of a
recent outbreak in which the inquisitor excommunicated two officials and
the royal court ordered him to absolve them. On his refusal, the court
cited him to appear and sentenced him to exile--a decree which was
published in Cagliari and elsewhere to sound of drum and trumpet. Then
the governor intervened in support of the court, treating the
inquisitor, if we may believe the _ex parte_ statement, with
unprecedented harshness. He broke into the Inquisition with an armed
force and ordered the inquisitor either to grant the absolutions or to
go on board of a vessel about to sail for Flanders and, on his refusal,
he was so maltreated as to be left almost lifeless on the floor. On a
second intrusion he was found in bed with a fever; he still refused to
embark and was left under guard, but he succeeded in escaping by a rope
from a window and took asylum in the Dominican church, whither the
governor followed him and seized him while celebrating mass, with the
sacrament in his hands. This time he was kept in secure custody until he
gave bonds to sail, after which, in fear of the voyage, he submitted
and absolved the excommunicates. Paul summoned the governor and his
accomplices to appear in Rome and undergo the penalty of their offences,
but it may be doubted whether they were obliged to obey, for Spanish
jealousy of the curia was quite as acute as indignation caused by
invasion of inquisitorial inviolability and appeals to Rome were
absolutely forbidden to all parties.[222] It was impossible to devise
any permanent basis of pacification between the conflicting
jurisdictions and, up to 1630, there were enumerated no less than seven
Concordias, or agreements to settle their respective pretensions, in
spite of which the disturbances continued as actively as ever.[223]
* * * * *
During the War of the Spanish Succession, Sardinia was captured by the
Allies in 1708 and, in 1718, it passed into possession of the House of
Savoy. As soon as the Spanish domination ceased the Inquisition
disappeared and the bishops revendicated their jurisdiction over heresy,
each one organizing an Inquisition of his own, not so much, we are told,
with the object of eradicating heresy as to enable them to exempt
retainers from public burdens, by appointing them to useless
offices.[224] Jealousy of the Inquisition had been the traditional
policy of the Dukes of Savoy[225] and, as the support of the secular arm
was essential to the activity of the institution, we may presume that
even these episcopal substitutes faded away in silence. In 1775 a survey
of the ecclesiastical and religious condition of the island makes no
allusion to prosecutions for heresy although it records a tradition
that, towards the end of the seventeenth century, certain Quietists and
followers of Molinos had found refuge in the mountain caves.[226]