see a man eat sensually is to know how great a sensualist he is.
Sensualism is a vice which manifests itself in many forms. Poverty has
its blessings. It compels abstinence from rich and expensive foods and
provides no means for surfeit. Epicurus was not a glutton. Socrates
lived on bread and water, as did Sir Isaac Newton. Mental culture is not
fostered by gluttony, but gluttony is indulged in at the expense of
mental culture. The majority of the world's greatest men have led
comparatively simple lives, and have regarded the body as a temple to be
kept pure and holy.
We have now to consider (_a_) what to eat, (_b_) when to eat, (_c_) how
to eat. First, then, we will consider the nutritive properties of the
common food-stuffs.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 3: This is not an exaggeration. 'Genoa Cake,' for instance,
contains ten varieties of food: butter, sugar, eggs, flour, milk,
sultanas, orange and lemon peel, almonds, and baking powder.]
II
WHAT TO EAT
Among the foods rich in protein are the legumes, the cereals, and nuts.
Those low in protein are fresh fruits, green vegetables, and roots. Fat
is chiefly found in nuts, olives, and certain pulses, particularly the
peanut; and carbohydrates in cereals, pulses, and many roots. Fruit and
green vegetables consist mostly of water and organic mineral compounds,
and in the case of the most juicy varieties may be regarded more as
drink than food. We have, then, six distinct classes of food--the
pulses, cereals, nuts, fruits, green vegetables, and roots. Let us
briefly consider the nutritive value of each.
Pulse foods usually form an important item in a vegetarian dietary. They
are very rich in their nutritive properties, and even before matured are
equal or superior in value to any other green vegetable. 'The ripened
seed shows by analysis a very remarkable contrast to most of the matured
foods, as the potato and other tubers, and even to the best cereals, as
wheat. This superiority lies in the large amount of nitrogen in the
form of protein that they contain.' Peas, beans, and lentils should be
eaten very moderately, being highly concentrated foods. The removal of
the skins from peas and beans, also of the germs of beans, by
parboiling, is recommended, as they are then more easily digested and
less liable to 'disagree.' These foods, it is interesting to know are
used extensively by the vegetarian nations. The Mongol procures his
supply of protein chiefly from the Soya bean from which he makes
different preparations of bean cheese and sauce. It is said that the
poorer classes of Spaniards and the Bedouins rely on a porridge of
lentils for their mainstay. In India and China where rice is the staple
food, beans are eaten to provide the necessary nitrogenous matter, as
rice alone is considered deficient in protein.
With regard to the pulse foods, Dr. Haig, in his works on uric acid,
states that, containing as they do considerable xanthin, an exceedingly
harmful poison, they are not to be commended as healthful articles of
diet. He states that he has found the pulses to contain even more
xanthin than many kinds of flesh-meat, and as it is this poison in flesh
that causes him to so strongly condemn the eating of meat, he naturally
condemns the eating of any foods in which this poison exists in any
considerable quantity. He writes: 'So far as I know the "vegetarians" of
this country are decidedly superior in endurance to those feeding on
animal tissues, who might otherwise be expected to equal them; but
these "vegetarians" would be still better if they not only ruled out
animal flesh, but also eggs, the pulses (peas, beans, lentils and
peanuts), eschew nuts, asparagus, and mushrooms, as well as tea, coffee
and cocoa, all of which contain a large amount of uric acid, or
substances physiologically equivalent to it.'
Dr. Haig attributes many diseases and complaints to the presence of uric
acid in the blood and its deposits in the tissues: 'Uric acid diseases
fall chiefly in two groups: (a) The arthritic group, comprising gout,
rheumatism, and similar affections of many fibrous tissues throughout
the body; (b) the circulation group including headache, epilepsy, mental
depression, anaemia, Bright's disease, etc.' Speaking with regard to
rheumatism met with among the vegetarian natives of India, Dr. Haig
writes: 'I believe it will appear, on investigation, that in those parts
of India where rice and fresh vegetables form the staple foods, not only
rheumatism, but uric acid diseases generally are little known, whereas
in those parts where pulses are largely consumed, they are
common--almost universal.'
The cereals constitute the mainstay of vegetarians all the world over,
and although not superior to nuts, must be considered an exceedingly
valuable, and, in some cases, essential food material. They differ
considerably in their nutritive properties, so it is necessary to
examine the worth of each separately.
Wheat, though not universally the most extensively used of the cereals,
is the most popular and best known cereal in this country. It has been
cultivated for ages and has been used by nearly all peoples. It is
customary to grind the berries into a fine meal which is mixed with
water and baked. There are various opinions about the comparative value
of white and whole-wheat flour. There is no doubt but that the
whole-wheat flour containing, as it does, more woody fibre than the
white, has a tendency to increase the peristaltic action of the
intestines, and thus is valuable for persons troubled with
constipation.[4] From a large number of analyses it has been determined
that entire wheat flour contains about 2.4 per cent. more protein than
white flour (all grades), yet experiments have demonstrated that the
_available_ protein is less in entire wheat-flour than in white
flour.[5] This is probably due to the fact that the protein which is
enclosed in the bran cannot be easily assimilated, as the digestive
organs are unable to break up the outer walls of woody fibre and extract
the nitrogenous matter they contain. On the other hand whole-wheat flour
contains considerably more valuable and available mineral matter than
does white flour. The two outer layers contain compounds of phosphorus,
lime, iron, and soda. Analyses by Atwater show entire-wheat flour to
contain twice as much mineral matter as white flour. It is affirmed by
Broadbent and others, that this mineral matter is exceedingly valuable
both as a nutrient, and because of its neutralising effect upon proteid
wastes, and that it is because of this that flour made from the
entire-wheat berry has very superior food value to that made from the
berry minus the outer cuticles. Many dietetists look upon whole-wheat
bread as one of the most salutary of all foods and strongly advise its
use in place of white bread. A well-known doctor states that he has
known it a cure for many diseases, and thinks that many nervous
complaints due to 'saline starvation' can be cured by substituting
whole-meal for white bread.
But in opposition to these views Dr. Haig thinks that as the outer brown
husk of all cereals contains some xanthin, it should on this account be
removed. He therefore recommends white flour, (not superfine, but
cheap-grade), in place of the entire-wheat. Others, however, are of the
opinion that the amount of xanthin present in the bran is so small as
not to be considered, especially when, by the removal of the xanthin,
valuable mineral matter is also removed.
Of course, it is difficult for a layman to form an opinion when experts
differ. Perhaps the best thing to do is to use whole-wheat bread if
there is any tendency to constipation. If not, then choose that which is
the more palatable, or change from one to the other as inclination
dictates. This adds to variety, and as digestion is better when the food
is better relished, no doubt, in this case, that which pleases the taste
best is the best to eat. At least, we can hold this view tentatively for
the present.
Wheat flour (entire), ranks the highest of all the cereals in protein,
excepting oatmeal, averaging 13 per cent. In fat it exceeds rice and
rye, is equal with barley and maize, but considerably below oatmeal:
averaging about 1.9 per cent. In carbohydrates it averages about
seventy-two per cent., all the cereals being very much alike in quantity
of these nutrients. It is a well-balanced food, as indeed, all cereals
are, and is palatable prepared in a variety of ways, although, made into
unleavened, unsalted bread, the sweet, nutty flavour of the berry itself
is best preserved.
Oatmeal is not extensively used, comparatively speaking, although it has
an excellent reputation. It is decidedly the richest cereal in protein
and fat, especially fat, and this is probably why people living in cold
climates find it such a sustaining food. In protein it averages 16.1 per
cent.: in fat 7.2 per cent. It is very commonly used as porridge. When
well cooked, that is to say, for several hours, this is a good way to
prepare it, but a better is to eat it dry in the form of unsweetened
oatcakes, scones, etc., these being more easily digested because
necessitating thorough mastication. The above remarks regarding the
removal of the bran from wheat-flour are precisely as applicable to
oatmeal, as well as rye, so no more need be said on that point.
Rye flour is not unlike wheat, and is used more extensively than wheat
in many parts of Europe. It has 2 per cent. less protein than wheat and
its gluten is darker in colour and less elastic and so does not make as
light a loaf; but this does not detract from its nutritive value at all.
Being more easily cultivated than wheat, especially in cold countries,
it is cheaper and therefore more of a poor man's food.
Indian corn, or maize, or Turkish wheat, is one of the finest of
cereals. It is used extensively in America, North and South, in parts of
the Orient, in Italy, the Balkans, Servia, and elsewhere. It is used as
a green vegetable and when fully matured is ground into meal and made
into bread, porridge, biscuits, Johnny-cake, etc., etc. Corn compared to
wheat is rich in fat, but in protein wheat is the richer by about 3 per
cent. Sugar corn, cooked and canned, is sold in England by food-reform
dealers. It is perhaps the most tasty of all the cereals.
Rice is the staple of the Orientals. The practice of removing the dark
inner skin in order to give the uncooked grain a white and polished
appearance, is not only an expensive operation, but a very foolish one,
for it detracts largely from the nutritive value of the food, as
considerable protein and other valuable matter is removed along with the
bran. We are told that the Burmese and Japanese and other nations who
use rice as their principal food-stuff, use the entire grain. As
compared to undressed rice, the ordinary, or polished rice is deficient
3 per cent. of protein; 6 per cent. of fat; 5 per cent. of mineral
matter. 'Once milled' rice can be procured in this country, but has to
be specially asked for. Rice is not nearly so nitrogenous as wheat, but
is equal to it in fuel value, this being due to the large amount of
starch it contains. It is an excellent food, being easily digested and
easily prepared.
Millet, buckwheat, wild rice, sesame, and Kaffir corn, are cereals
little known in this country, although where they are raised they are
largely used by the natives. However, we need not trouble to consider
their food value as they are not easily procurable either in Europe or
America.
Nuts are perhaps the best of all foods. There is no doubt but that man
in his original wild state lived on nuts and berries and perhaps roots.
Nuts are rich in protein and fat. They are a concentrated food, very
palatable, gently laxative, require no preparation but shelling, keep
well, are easily portable, and are, in every sense, an ideal food. They
have a name for being indigestible, but this may be due to errors in
eating, not to the nuts. If we eat nuts, as is often done, after having
loaded the stomach with a large dinner, the work of digesting them is
rendered very difficult, for the digestive apparatus tires itself
disposing of the meal just previously eaten. Most things are
indigestible eaten under such conditions. Nuts should be looked upon as
the essential part of the meal and should be eaten first; bread, salad
stuffs and fruit help to supply bulk and can follow as dessert if
desired. Another cause of nuts not being easily digested is insufficient
mastication. They are hard, solid food, and should be thoroughly chewed
and insalivated before being swallowed. If the teeth are not good, nuts
may be grated in an ordinary nut-mill, and then, if eaten slowly and
sparingly, will generally be found to digest. Of course with a weak
digestion nuts may have to be avoided, or used in very small quantities
until the digestion is strengthened; but with a normal, healthy person,
nuts are a perfect food and can be eaten all the year round. Perhaps it
is best not to eat a large quantity at once, but to spread the day's
supply over four or five light meals. With some, however, two meals a
day seems to work well.
Pine kernels are very suitable for those who have any difficulty in
masticating or digesting the harder nuts, such as the brazil, filbert,
etc. They are quite soft and can easily be ground into a soft paste with
a pestil and mortar, making delicious butter. They vary considerably in
nitrogenous matter, averaging about 25 per cent. and are very rich in
fat, averaging about 50 per cent. Chestnuts are used largely by the
peasants of Italy. They are best cooked until quite soft when they are
easily digested. Chestnut meal is obtainable, and when combined with
wheatmeal is useful for making biscuits and breadstuffs. Protein in
chestnuts averages 10 per cent. Walnuts, Hazelnuts, Filberts, Brazils,
Pecans, Hickory nuts, Beechnuts, Butternuts, Pistachio nuts and Almonds
average 16 per cent. protein; 52 per cent. fat; 20 per cent.
carbohydrates; 2 per cent. mineral salts. As each possesses a distinct
flavour, one can live on nuts alone and still enjoy the pleasure of
variety. A man weighing 140 lbs. would, at moderately active labour,
require, to live on almonds alone--11 ozs. per day. 10 ozs. of nuts per
day together with some fresh fruit or green salad in summer, and in
winter, some roots, as potato, carrot, or beetroot, would furnish an
ideal diet for one whose taste was simple enough to relish it.
Fruits are best left alone in winter. They are generally acid, and the
system is better without very acid foods in the cold weather. But fruits
are health-giving foods in warm and hot weather, and living under
natural, primitive conditions, this is the only time of the year we
should have them, for Nature only provides fruit during the months of
summer. The fraction of protein fruit contains, 1 per cent. or less, is
too small to be of any account. The nutritive value of fruits consists
in their mineral salts, grape-sugar and water.
Much the same applies to green vegetables. In cooking vegetables care
should be taken that the water they are cooked in is not thrown away as
it contains nearly all the nutrient properties of the vegetable; that is
to say, the various salts in the vegetable become dissolved in the water
they are boiled in. This water can be used for soup if desired, or
evaporated, and with flour added to thicken, served as sauce to the
vegetable. Potatoes are a salutary food, especially in winter. They
contain alkalies which help to lessen the accumulation of uric acid.
They should be cooked with skins on: 16 grains per lb. more of valuable
potash salts are thus obtained than when peeled and boiled in the
ordinary way. The ideal method, however, of taking most vegetables is in
the form of uncooked salads, for in these the health-giving, vitalising
elements remain unaltered.
If man is to be regarded, as many scientists regard him, as a frugivore,
constitutionally adapted and suited to a nut-fruit diet, then to regain
our lost original taste and acquire a liking for such simple foods
should be our aim. It may be difficult, if not impossible, to make a
sudden change after having lived for many years upon the complex
concoctions of the chef's art, for the system resents sudden changes,
but with proper care, changing discreetly, one can generally attain a
desired end, especially when it involves the replacing of a bad habit by
a good one.
In the recipes that follow no mention is made of condiments, _i.e._,
pepper, salt, mustard, spice, _et hoc genus omni_. Condiments are not
foods in any sense whatever, and the effect upon the system of
'seasoning' foods with these artificial aids to appetite, is always
deleterious, none the less because it may at the time be imperceptible,
and may eventually result in disease. Dr. Kellogg writes: 'By contact,
they irritate the mucous membrane, causing congestion and diminished
secretion of gastric juice when taken in any but quite small quantities.
When taken in quantities so small as to occasion no considerable
irritation of the mucous membrane, condiments may still work injury by
their stimulating effects, when long continued.... Experimental evidence
shows that human beings, as well as animals of all classes, live and
thrive as well without salt as with it, other conditions being equally
favorable. This statement is made with a full knowledge of counter
arguments and experiments, but with abundant testimony to support the
position taken.... All condiments hinder natural digestion.'
Condiments, together with such things as pickles, vinegar, alcohol, tea,
coffee, cocoa, tobacco, opium, are all injurious, and undoubtedly are
the cause of an almost innumerable number of minor, and, in some cases,
serious, complaints. Theine, caffeine, and theobromine, all stimulant
drugs, are present in tea, coffee, and cocoa, respectively. Tea also
contains tannin, a substance which is said to seriously impair
digestion.
Alcohol, tea, coffee, etc., are stimulants. Stimulants do not produce
force and should never be mistaken for food. They are undoubtedly
injurious, as they are the cause, among other evils, of _loss_ of force.
They cause an abnormal metabolism which ultimately weakens and exhausts
the whole system. While these internal activities are taking place,
artificial feelings of well-being, or, at least, agreeable sensations,
are produced, which are unfortunately mistaken for signs of benefit.
Speaking of alcohol Dr. Haig writes: 'It introduces no albumen or force,
it merely affects circulation, nutrition, and the metabolism of the
albumens already in the body, and this call on the resources of the body
is invariably followed by a corresponding depression or economy in the
future.... It has been truly said that the man who relies upon
stimulants for strength is lost, for he is drawing upon a reserve fund,
which is not completely replaced, and physiological bankruptcy must
inevitably ensue. This is what the stimulants such as tea, coffee,
alcohol, tobacco, opium and cocaine do for those who trust in them.'
He who desires to enjoy life desires to possess good physical health,
for a healthy body is almost essential to a happy life; and he who
desires to live healthily does not abuse his body with poisonous drugs.
It may require courage to reform, but he who reforms in this direction
has the satisfaction of knowing that his good health will probably some
day excite the envy of his critics.
The chemical composition of all the common food materials can be seen
from tables of analyses. It would be to the advantage of everyone to
spend a little time examining these tables. It is not a difficult
matter, and the trouble to calculate the quantity of protein in a given
quantity of food, when once the _modus operandi_ is understood, is
trifling. As it has not unwisely been suggested, if people would give,
say, one-hundredth the time and attention to studying the needs of the
body and how to satisfy them as they give to dress and amusement, there
is little doubt that there would be more happiness in the world.
The amount of protein in any particular prepared food is arrived at in
the following manner: In the first place those ingredients containing a
noticeable amount of protein are carefully weighed. Food tables are then
consulted to discover the protein percentage. Suppose, for instance, the
only ingredient having a noticeable quantity of protein is rice, and 1
lb. is used. The table is consulted and shows rice to contain eight per
cent. protein. In 1 lb. avoirdupois there are 7,000 grains; eight per
cent. of 7,000 is 70.00 x 8 = 560 grains. Therefore, in the dish
prepared there are 560 grains of protein. It is as well after cooking to
weight the entree or pudding and divide the number of ounces it weighs
into 560, thus obtaining the number of grains per ounce. Weighing out
food at meals is only necessary at first, say for the first week or so.
Having decided about how many grains of protein to have daily, and
knowing how many grains per ounce the food contains, the eye will soon
get trained to estimate the quantity needed. It is not necessary to be
exact; a rough approximation is all that is needed, so as to be sure
that the system is getting somewhere near the required amount of
nutriment, and not suffering from either a large excess or deficiency of
protein.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 4: Entire-wheat flour averages .9 per cent. fibre; high-grade
white flour, .2 per cent. fibre.]
[Footnote 5: See United States Dept. of Agriculture, Farmer's Bulletin,
No. 249, page 19, obtainable from G. P. O., Washington, D. C.]
III
WHEN TO EAT
The question of when to eat is of some importance. The Orientals eat
fewer meals than we do, and in their abstemiousness they set us an
example we should do well to follow. Sufficient has already been said to
show that it is a mistake to imagine a great deal of food gives great
strength. When we eat frequently, and especially when we 'live well,'
that is, are accustomed to a large variety of food, we are tempted to
eat far more than is good for us. Little and often may work
satisfactorily so long as it does not develop into much and often,
which, needless to say, it is very likely to do. Most people on this
account would probably be much better in their health if they ate but
twice daily, at noon, and five or six hours before going to bed. Then
there is less chance of over-feeding. If, however, we experimentally
determine the quantity of food that our particular system requires in
order to be maintained in good health, and can trust our self-command in
controlling the indulgence of sense, probably the best method is to eat
anyway three times daily, and four, five, or even six times, or doing
away with set meals altogether, would be a procedure which, judging
from analogy of the anthropoids, ought to be a better method than eating
a whole day's supply at once, or at two or three meals.
It is not wise to sit down to a meal when the body is thoroughly
fatigued. A glass of hot or cold water will be found reviving, and then,
after a short rest, the system will be far better able to assimilate
food. When the body is 'tired out,' it stands to reason it cannot
perform digestion as easily and as well as when in fit condition.
Also it is unwise to eat immediately before undertaking vigorous
muscular work. Strenuous exercise after meals is often the cause of
digestive disorders. Starting on exercise after a hearty meal may
suspend the gastric digestion, and so prevent the assimilation of
protein as to produce a sensation of exhaustion. If, however, rest is
taken, the digestive organs proceed with their work, and after a short
time recuperation follows, and the exercise can be continued. It is
unwise to allow such a suspension of digestion because of the danger of
setting up fermentation, or putrefaction, in the food mass awaiting
digestion, for this may result in various disorders.