kiva, so that others of the village might also participate—and thus
originated the spectacular public dance dramas which visitors nowadays
so greatly enjoy at the modern pueblos. Indian dances, as the
20th-century Southwest knows them, are usually short-term public
displays of long-term private rituals entailing days of prayer and
chanting in the privacy of the kiva. The best known of these Pueblo
ceremonies is chiefly a prayer for rain—The Hopi Snake Dance. Others may
be prayers for success in the hunt, for productivity of crops, or for
healing the sick.
The complexity of the Pueblo religion is increased by the fact that it
is indivisibly allied to social and family organization. In the Pueblo
scheme of worship, there is not, and seemingly never was, any elite
group of “medicine men” or chief practitioners of religion; each person
has a part in religious observances, his respective role growing more
important as he advances in seniority within a ceremonial organization.
With responsibility for the conduct of worship thus placed on all the
people, religion is an extremely pervasive force and enters into much of
the daily life of each individual.
[Illustration: _Two hummingbirds on a nest at the end of a pine
twig. Several species of these birds are common at Bandelier._]
A CAUTION. In the foregoing attempt to portray the origins and modes
of life of the Bandelier dwellers, it has been necessary to generalize
and abbreviate to a degree which may occasionally lead a reader astray.
Particularly in the matter of dating periods of habitation and
migration, it has been impossible to detail the many exceptions to the
general chronology. It is suggested that the reader who wishes to
investigate further the history of the Pueblo people make reference to
the publications included in the list on pages 43-44. These represent,
of course, only a small fraction of the written material which exists on
the subject. Further publication of new findings will increase our
knowledge and alter present-day ideas as the years go by.
_The Natural Scene_
The countryside in and around Bandelier National Monument is wholly
forested and even in dry months is cool and green. Lying at an elevation
of nearly 7,000 feet, about one-third of the monument receives
sufficient rain and snow to support a handsome stand of ponderosa pine.
Over the remaining two-thirds of the area, where the slopes are too warm
and dry for the big pine, the hardy pinyon pine and the juniper produce
the “pygmy forest” growth common in the middle elevations of the
Southwest.
CLIMATE. Summer at Bandelier is the shower season. From the first of
July until well into September, there is an impressive display of lofty
cumulus clouds and thunderheads almost every afternoon. Fortunately for
your comfort, these cloud displays do not always result in showers on
the monument every day. As is the habit of southwestern thunderstorms,
the rains usually cling to the higher peaks, leaving the midelevations
cooled but not drenched. The spring and fall are relatively dry seasons,
when the skies may remain entirely cloudless for weeks at a time.
In the fall, the great range of temperature from night to day is
particularly noticeable; at monument headquarters a difference of 50°
between afternoon high and night low is not unusual. This condition is
still evident even in midwinter, when the sun may send the thermometer
up far above freezing even after a below-zero night. Partly for this
reason, the snows of winter at Bandelier are not long-lasting. The usual
snowfall of a few inches will quite commonly melt away in a day or so
after the sun has returned. Even the snows of blizzard proportions do
not interfere for long with access to monument headquarters, for the
typical snow of New Mexico is light and dry, easily cleared from the
highways.
LIFE ZONES. There is a great variety of herbs, shrubs, and trees
within the monument, as a result of the varied terrain and the range of
elevation from the bank of the Rio Grande up to the summit of the San
Miguel Mountains on the west boundary. Three life zones, or climatic
zones, are encountered in traveling the central part of the monument;
the Upper Sonoran zone of pinyon and juniper by the river, the
Transition Zone of ponderosa pines on the higher mesas, and, highest of
all, the Canadian Zone of spruce, fir, and aspen near Boundary Peak.
Each of these zones has its characteristic mammals and birds, so that
the population of wildlife is likewise varied and extensive.
[Illustration: _Group of cave rooms between Long House and
Ceremonial Cave._]
WILDLIFE. Of the larger animals, the mule deer are most commonly seen,
becoming quite bold in Frijoles Canyon, where humans are familiar to
them. Black bears are encountered occasionally on the trails in the back
country, but are too wary to invade much-traveled areas. The shyest of
them all, the mountain lion, leaves his footprints here and there, but
is rarely seen. Smaller predators such as coyotes and foxes are
numerous, as is the bobcat. These small hunters get most of their living
from a large population of rabbits and small rodents such as ground
squirrels and wood rats. For the visitor, one of the most popular wild
residents is the tufted-eared Abert squirrel, which circulates
decoratively through the pines and cottonwoods of the public campground
during the summer.
[Illustration: _A cross section of sandstone overlain by lava,
Frijoles Canyon._]
The trees lining the Rito de los Frijoles through the Bandelier
campground are a haven for birds as well as squirrels. In some spots,
the shrubbery by the stream becomes jungle-thick, making a perfect
small-bird habitat. Probably the most common of the Frijoles Canyon
songbirds, after the robin, is the black-headed grosbeak. Next in
numbers comes the hermit thrush, followed by warblers, vireos, and
western tanagers. But the bird most commonly heard in the canyon, and
frequently seen around the ruins, is the canyon wren; the melody of his
song brings life and brightness to the crumbled walls and the gloomy
caves of the vanished people.
During the colder part of the year, the forests of Bandelier become the
home of flocks of wild turkeys. These great birds stay high on the Jemez
crest during the summer, but come down into the zone of oaks and pinyons
to feed on nuts and acorns when the crops ripen in the fall. The turkeys
are also very fond of the purple berries of the juniper, as are many
other birds and virtually all of the small rodents of the locality.
Down along the Rio Grande, which makes the southeast boundary for the
main part of the monument, there is a rewarding variety of plants and
animals for those who wish to walk or ride horseback the 3 miles from
headquarters. The river at this point is midway in its passage through
White Rock Canyon, a roadless stretch of steep walls and boulder-strewn
rapids. Here, the fringing willows and cottonwoods are festooned with
wild grape vines; these green tangles provide food and shelter for a
great community of birds, insects, and reptiles. Flycatchers are
everywhere over the river in the summer, taking water-dwelling gnats and
insects from the air. Swallows and swifts further the inroads on the
insect population. On shore, water snakes and an occasional rattler take
the sun and keep watch for the unwary lizard or rodent which will make a
next meal.
The river is a major flyway for migrating water birds, and in the course
of 12 months a large traffic of ducks, geese, and shore birds may be
seen going north or south. There is other wild traffic along the Rio
Grande, mostly evidenced by tracks left on the mudbanks and sand
bars—mink, beaver, and rarely an otter follow the stream in their
water-borne prowlings. The beavers seem to be resident on the monument
in White Rock Canyon, although the Rio Grande is too large to allow them
to build dams; the unmistakable beaver-tooth pattern on sapling stumps
is frequently seen along the riverside. On the headwaters of the Rito de
los Frijoles, about 9 miles above monument headquarters, a permanent
colony of beavers is established, pioneered long ago by some migrant
pair who left the big river to venture up the tiny tributary.
GEOLOGY. The landscape of the Bandelier area is predominantly one of
cliffs and canyons; as a visitor to the plateau you will be made
conscious of the involved structure and contour of the region in the
course of the auto trip over the approach highway. The impression you
may get on arrival is of a vast confusion of canyons separated by
equally confused mesas and ridges. The topography, however, is not so
mixed as first appearance would indicate, for there is a regularity to
the pattern of the drainage which becomes apparent from study of a map
or aerial photo. The geology, on the other hand, is extremely complex
and can be outlined only in general terms in this handbook.
The dominating feature of the landscape is the uplift of the Jemez
Mountains, forming the western skyline as one approaches the monument
from the east. These mountains are the remains of a great volcano which
erupted during the past million years. As seen from a distance, there is
very little to suggest a volcano in the profile of the present
mountains; only by traveling some 15 miles west of Bandelier into the
central valley of the range can the nature of the eruption be
visualized. Here is a basin of grassland ringed with forested hills, on
a scale so large that its extent is difficult to appreciate. This is the
Valle Grande—“great valley” of the Spanish discoverers, who could not
have known that they had found one of the largest calderas in the world.
Although the Valle Grande now has superficial characteristics of a
volcanic crater, there was no single crater here in the days of the
eruption—rather a vast dome of a mountain which poured from its flanks
such a quantity of lava and other materials that its roof finally fell
in. The dimensions of the caldera, a rough oval, are approximately 16 by
18 miles. It is estimated that at least 10 cubic miles of lava and ashes
were ejected here to produce the cavity which now exists. The ring of
hills around the oval are the remnants of the ancient volcano’s
perimeter, which remained elevated after the central areas collapsed.
The volcano, then, played the chief role in fashioning the landscape of
the Pajarito Plateau. It provided an uplift of the land at the caldera,
by the same means establishing a down-slope from the center outwards,
along which the lavas of the eruption avalanched in fire and smoke.
Interspersed between the flows of heavy lavas were other avalanches and
showerings of volcanic ashes in great depth. When cooled and welded
together as they are today, they are called tuff. This process of
earth-building went on intermittently for many centuries until the
volcano had exhausted its violence and had distributed its many cubic
miles of outpourings in encircling deposits around its flanks. With the
subsidence of volcanism, the great earth-removing force of erosion
became the predominant factor in forming the landscape.
The first rains and snows which fell upon this ancestral uplift found
relatively smooth slopes descending outward from the rim of the central
caldera. These rains and melted snows began to drain downhill, finding
whatever slight channels or irregularities there were in the surface. As
the centuries passed, the little water-channels became gullies, then
ravines, trending east and southeast through the Bandelier quadrant,
down the natural fall-line of the Pajarito slopes. In less than a
million years, the plateau has eroded into its present form and the
drainage pattern of canyons radiating from the Jemez ridge and emptying
into the Rio Grande has become well defined. Such canyons as Frijoles,
then, are the products primarily of water erosion, etched into a
one-time smooth slope of volcanic deposits.
During the early years of this erosion process, the caldera itself
became a lake, entrapping the runoff of waters within its circle. This
body of water eventually found an outlet to the south, through the
guarding rim of the basin, and in its outflow began the present system
of canyons of the Jemez River. A modern example of a caldera containing
a lake is to be seen in Crater Lake National Park in Oregon, but the
Valle Grande Lake had nearly six times as great an area.
[Illustration: _Headquarters area in Frijoles Canyon, showing, from
bottom upwards, Tyuonyi Ruin, the Big Kiva, the Museum, and the
Lodge._]
Many of the almost sheer canyon walls of the monument provide good cross
sections of the lava and ash deposits exposed in cliffs several hundred
feet high. In simplest form, these cross sections reveal at their base a
flow of lava or basalt, overlain by perhaps 200 vertical feet of tuff,
and capped by another flow of lava forming the rimrock of the mesa-top.
In most places, the alternating layers of lava and tuff were deposited
several successive times, variously distributed, and complicated by
later faulting and interim periods of erosion, so that the
interpretation of the rock layers is not everywhere as simple as in the
example given above.
[Illustration: _The Lower Falls of the Rito de los Frijoles._]
One difficulty you may encounter in understanding the makeup of the
Pajarito cliffs stems from the very different appearance of the two
opposite walls of such a canyon as Frijoles. In the north wall, facing
the sun, the cliffs stand bold and somewhat barren; in the south and
shadowed wall, there are no prominent cliffs, but rather a rough slope
of boulders overgrown with trees and brush. Because of this contrast, it
might be difficult for you to realize that the two walls are made up of
nearly identical rocks. The difference in appearance is due simply to
the difference in exposure. The north wall, hot and dry in the sun and
subject to extremes of temperature, has never had a heavy vegetative
cover and has eroded into a cliff; the south wall, relatively cool and
moist, has been able to support a growth of plants which have held and
produced soil sufficient to mask the underlying rocks.
As mentioned earlier, the geology of this locality is complicated to
such a degree that the foregoing discussion should be considered as only
a general outline. The whole story of the Jemez volcano has not yet been
worked out in detail, for the eruptive activity was on a scale so vast
and involved such complex forces that geologists are continuing to
evolve new concepts as new facts come to light.
_Guide to the Area_
FRIJOLES CANYON. Monument headquarters are at the terminus of the
approach road, on the floor of Frijoles Canyon. This center of
development is the focal point of activity throughout the year. Listed
below are the features of interest to be found in and around the
headquarters area; reference to the map on pages 20-21 will help to
locate the points mentioned.
1. _Administration Building and Museum._ This building contains a
reception information desk manned by park rangers and a lobby from which
visitors leave to walk to the ruins. Reference books are available from
the monument library on request, and a stock of publications on
pertinent subjects is for sale.
The museum occupies a part of the headquarters building. Three rooms of
exhibits present Indian artifacts and information on the life and
origins of the prehistoric people, and on the modern Pueblo Indians of
the vicinity. A visit to the museum is advisable before making a trip to
any of the ruins, since the exhibits provide a background against which
the ruins are better understood and appreciated.
2. _Tyuonyi Ruin_ lies about 500 yards by trail up the canyon from
headquarters. This ruin is one of the principal way-stations on the loop
trail over which the trips are routed. Other features on this same loop
are an unexcavated ruin, the Big Kiva, Sun House, Cave Kiva, and Long
House.
3. _Ceremonial Cave_ is reached by trails either along the Rito or along
the north cliffs, approximately 1 mile above headquarters. A walk to
this cave is very popular with hikers of modest ambitions, and is
particularly rewarding to the photographer. There are a number of tall
ladders to climb to reach the cave; consequently, rubber-soled shoes and
a degree of caution are recommended.
4. The _Upper Falls_ are downstream from headquarters about a mile and a
half. The trail follows the Rito down through some of the handsomest
forest glades on the monument, crossing the stream several times. The
falls, in a deep lava cleft, are about 80 feet high. The _Lower Falls_,
a quarter-mile farther down, are only half as high. Along the trail
between the two falls, a geologically interesting exposure of the canyon
wall is conspicuous.
OTOWI SECTION. Two large ruins, Tsankawi and Otowi, are the principal
features to visit on this detached section of the monument. The main
access road from Santa Fe to monument headquarters passes through this
section and close to the Tsankawi Ruin. Distance from this ruin to
headquarters is 16 miles.
5. _Otowi Ruin_ lies between Pueblo and Bayo Canyons on a disused road.
Inquire of a park ranger before attempting to make the trip.
6. _Tsankawi Ruin_ is reached by a spur road and foot trail branching
from State Route 4. At the end of the road, a stand contains booklets
for the self-guiding trail which leads up onto the mesa to the ruins, a
round trip walk of about three-quarters of a mile.
THE BACK COUNTRY. A network of some 50 miles of foot and horseback
trails reaches out from monument headquarters into the roadless southern
areas of the monument. Hikers and horseback parties frequently make a
loop trip of 2 days, visiting the Stone Lions and Yapashi Ruins, and
spending the night at Base Camp in Capulin Canyon, where a National Park
Service fire guard is on duty during the summer. The return trip may be
made past Painted Cave to the Rio Grande, then up White Rock Canyon to
Frijoles Canyon and point of beginning.
[Illustration: _Frijoles Canyon Lodge, one of several verdant
patios._]
ADJACENT POINTS OF INTEREST. The _Valle Grande_ is 15 miles west from
the Frijoles Canyon checking station, on State Route 4, toward Cuba, N.
Mex. This drive across the Jemez ridge cannot be made in the winter, for
the road is never cleared of snow.
_Los Alamos_, the atomic city, borders the monument on the north. At the
time of this writing (1955), visitors are not allowed to enter the gates
of Los Alamos without special passes.
_San Ildefonso_, the modern Indian Pueblo nearest to the monument, will
make an interesting side trip when you either enter or leave Bandelier.
The village lies one mile north of State Route 4, just east of the Rio
Grande. This is the home of Maria Martinez, the woman whose
pottery-making skill has won nationwide awards and who was instrumental
in reestablishing the production of high-quality pottery in the Rio
Grande pueblos.
_How to Reach the Monument_
Bandelier National Monument is 46 miles west of Santa Fe, N. Mex., by
way of U. S. 285 to Pojoaque, then left onto State Route 4. Coming from
Taos and the north, leave U. S. 285 at Espanola, turning right across
the Rio Grande. During the summer, access is possible from the south via
Jemez Springs and through the Valle Grande on unimproved gravel roads.
_About Your Visit_
The monument is open every day of the year. The administration building
and museum are open daily from 8 a. m. to 5 p. m. (from 8 a. m. to 9 p.
m. in summer). Monument literature is available at the reception desk.
Interpretive services include self-guided tours to the principal ruins
of Frijoles Canyon. Make application at the reception desk for the
booklet and map which describe the walk.
Two other interpretive trails are provided, one visiting the ruins of
Rainbow House immediately down canyon from headquarters; the other, in
the Otowi Section, climbing to the mesa on which Tsankawi is situated.
At the latter place, a booklet will guide you along the trail and tell
you the archeological story, point by point.
Each evening from mid-June until Labor Day a program is presented at the
administration building by a ranger or archeologist of the monument
staff. The subjects of these informal talks range through many fields,
from wildlife or botany to Indian ceremonials. Slides or movies are
usually shown.
A campground is maintained near headquarters along the Rito de los
Frijoles. Campsites are available in the shade of the grove which lines
the stream; and fireplaces, tables, and firewood are provided.
Housetrailers can be accommodated, and free toilet, shower, and laundry
facilities are nearby.
Frijoles Canyon Lodge and Restaurant, directly opposite the
administration building, provide excellent accommodations and meals
under a concession contract from the National Park Service. The lodge is
built of native stone in pueblo architecture, surrounding several
landscaped patios; it is one of the more picturesque resorts of the
Santa Fe region. The season for these accommodations is May 1 to October
15; no meals or rooms are available in the monument during the balance
of the year. For reservations and further information write Frijoles
Canyon Lodge, Bandelier National Monument, Santa Fe, N. Mex.
Horseback riding is very popular over the 50-mile network of trails. A
saddle-horse concession is operated from April into October. Although
the majority of riders take horses for the day only, overnight trips
into the back country can be arranged.
_Establishment and Administration_
Adolph Bandelier, a Swiss-American historian and ethnologist, gave the
first prominence to the Pajarito Plateau ruins as a result of his
explorations and descriptions during the 1880’s. Around the turn of the
century a bill was introduced in Congress to create here a Cliff Cities
National Park, it being apparent that some protection of the area was
necessary to reduce the vandalism of the ruins. The bill, however,
failed to pass. Presently, attention was again drawn to the area by the
archeological work in Frijoles Canyon from 1909 to 1912, directed by the
late Dr. Edgar L. Hewett. The renewed interest resulted in a proposal by
the Secretary of Agriculture, in 1915, that a national monument be
created. The Smithsonian Institution strongly supported this idea and
recommended the name Bandelier in honor of the pioneer student of the
region. The Secretary of Interior concurred, and as a result, on
February 11, 1916, Bandelier National Monument was established by
Presidential proclamation.
From 1916 until 1932, the monument was administered by the Forest
Service of the United States Department of Agriculture. In 1952, the
area was transferred to the National Park Service of the United States
Department of the Interior, with a small adjustment of boundaries. The
total area is now slightly over 27,000 acres. Since 1932, a National
Park Service superintendent has been resident at monument headquarters
in Frijoles Canyon. The monument has a small complement of rangers and
fire guards for protection of the ruins, the wildlife, and the forests;
in the summer, several temporary rangers are employed to aid in
archeological interpretation.
Requests for further information should be addressed to the
Superintendent, Bandelier National Monument, Santa Fe, N. Mex.
_Related Areas_
A number of other southwestern areas in the National Park System have
been established for the protection of prehistoric structures. These
include Mesa Verde National Park, in southwestern Colorado, and the
following national monuments: Aztec Ruins, Chaco Canyon, and Gila Cliff
Dwellings, in New Mexico; Canyon de Chelly, Casa Grande, Montezuma
Castle, Navajo, Tonto, Tuzigoot, Walnut Canyon, and Wupatki, in Arizona.
_Glossary of Spanish and Indian Words_