ACADEMIC LIBRARIES: THEIR ECONOMY
Here it will be convenient to give some account of the regulations for
the use of books in colleges, both at Oxford and Cambridge. The
University libraries were for reference: the College libraries were for
both reference and lending use, and the regulations are therefore
different in essentials. By the statutes of University College (1292)
one book of every kind that the college had was to be put in some common
and safe place, so that the Fellows, and others with the consent of the
Fellows, might have the use of it. Sometimes, especially in the colleges
of early foundation, this common collection was kept in chests; usually
the books were securely chained to desks. The common books were chained
at New College (statutes, 1400) and at Lincoln College (1429). At
Peterhouse, soon after 1418, some 220 volumes were preserved for
reference, and 160 were distributed among the Fellows.[430] At All Souls
College a number of books selected by the warden, vice-wardens, and
deans, were chained, together with the books given on the express
condition that they should be chained (statutes, 1443). This collection,
then, was the college reference library; corresponding with the common
aumbry of the monastery, but also indicative of the principle of all
library organisation that, while it is desirable to lend books, it is
also necessary to keep a number of them all together in one fixed place
for reference.
The _libri distribuendi_, or books for lending, were the special feature
of the college library. At Merton the books were distributed by the
warden and sub-warden under an adequate pledge (1276). Once a year,
after the books had been inspected, each Fellow of Oriel could select a
book on the subject he was reading up, and could keep it, if he chose,
until the next distribution a year later, while if there were more books
than Fellows, those over could be selected in the same way (statutes,
1329). At Peterhouse, the Senior Dean distributed the books to scholars
in the manner he saw fit; later it was ruled that all the books not
chained might be circulated once every two years on a day to be fixed by
the Master and Senior Dean (statutes, 1344, 1480). At New College
students in civil and canon law could have two books for their special
use during the time they devoted themselves to those faculties, if they
did not own the books themselves. If books remained over, after this
distribution, they were to be distributed annually in the usual way
(statutes, 1400). Similarly the books were circulated at All Souls
(statutes, 1443), at Magdalen (1459), at Exeter[431] and at Queen’s. At
Lincoln College bachelors could only have logical and philosophical
books distributed to them, and not theology (statutes, 1429).
The procedure was the same as at the annual claustral distribution.
Although these regulations suggest restrictions and little else, the
students were as a rule fairly well provided with books. Even if they
did not own a single volume of their own, they had the use of the
public library of the University, and of the college common library. It
is true the distribution or _electio librorum_ took place only once or
twice a year, and then a student got only a few volumes. Yet we should
not assume that he was obliged to confine his attention to this small
dole alone, for it is but reasonable to suppose he could exchange his
books with those selected by another student. The _electio librorum_ was
a method of securing the safety of the books by distributing the
responsibility for making good losses equally over the whole community.
In the case of University College an Opponent in theology, a teacher of
the Sentences, and a Regent who also taught, had the right to borrow
freely any book he wanted if he would restore it, when he had done with
it, to the Fellow who had chosen it at the distribution (statutes,
1292).
A register of loans was carefully maintained. The Fellows of All Souls
were required to have a small indenture drawn up for each book borrowed,
and such indenture was to be left with the warden or the vice-warden
(statutes, 1443). At Pembroke College, Cambridge, the librarian or
keeper was to prepare large tablets covered with wax and parchment: on
the latter were to be written the titles of books, on the former the
names of the borrowers; when each book was returned, the borrower’s name
was pressed out. This was a monastic practice. Such records, even if
trifling, were in turn the subject of an indenture if they were
transferred from one person to another.[432]
The rules drawn up to prevent loss were as stringent for college as for
monastic libraries. No Fellow of University College could take away,
sell, or pawn books belonging to his house without the consent of all
the fellows (statutes, 1292). At Peterhouse scholars were bound by oath
to similar effect (statutes, 1344). A statute of Magdalen is most
insistent--a book could not be alienated, under any excuse whatever, nor
lent outside the college, nor could it be lent in quires for copying to
a member of the College or a stranger, either in the Hall or out of it,
nor could it be taken out of the town, or even out of the Hall, either
whole or in sheets, by the Master or any one else, but to the schools it
could be taken when necessary and on condition that it was brought back
to the college before nightfall (1459). A like injunction was given at
Pembroke College, Cambridge, and Brasenose College.
Lending outside a college was unusual, but was sometimes allowed, as in
monasteries, under indenture, and upon deposit of a pledge of greater
value than the book lent, and with the general consent of Fellows
(University College statutes, 1292; All Souls statutes, 1443). Every
book belonging to University College had a high value set upon it, so
that a borrower should not be careless in his use of it (statutes,
1292); and at Peterhouse the Master and two Deans were expected to set a
value upon the books (special statute, 1480). Punishment for default was
severe. Any Fellow of Oriel neglecting or refusing to restore his books,
or to pay the value set upon them, forfeited his right of selecting for
another year, and if he failed to make good the loss before the
following Christmas, he was no longer a Fellow--_eo facto non socius
ibidem existat_ (1441). If a Fellow of Peterhouse did not produce his
book at the fresh selection, or appoint a deputy to bring it, he was
liable to be put out of commons until he restored it (statute, 1480).
Equal care was taken of the books which were not circulated. At Merton
they were to be kept under three locks (1276). The deeds, books,
muniments, and money of Stapeldon Hall or Exeter College were kept in a
chest, of which one key was in the hands of the Rector, another of the
Senior Scholar, and a third of the Chaplain (statutes, 1316). Three
different locks, two large and one small, were used to secure the
library door of New College: the Senior Dean and the Senior Bursar had
the keys of the large locks, and each Fellow had a key of the small
lock; all three locks were to be secured at night (statutes, 1400). An
indenture was drawn up of all the books, charters, and muniments of
Peterhouse in the presence of the greater number of the scholars: all
the books were named and classified according to faculty. One part of
the indenture was retained by the Master, the other part by the Deans.
All these books and records were preserved in chests, each of which had
two keys, one in the care of the Master, the other in the hands of the
Senior Dean (statutes, 1344). Books being regarded as an inestimable
treasure, which ought to be most religiously guarded, they could not be
taken from Peterhouse, if chained up, except with the consent of the
Master and all the Fellows in residence, who must be a majority of the
whole Society; and books given on condition of being chained were not to
be removed under any pretext, excepting only for repair. Even _libri
distribuendi_ were not to be without the college at night, except by
permission of the Master or a Dean, and then they could not be retained
for six months in succession (statute, 1480).
To detect missing books stock was taken, usually once a year: again, as
in the monasteries. Once a year on a fixed day the books of Oriel were
to be brought out and displayed for inspection before the Provost or his
deputy and all the Fellows (statutes, 1329). The same ceremony took
place at Trinity Hall twice a year; the books were to be laid out one by
one, so that they could be seen by everybody (statutes, 1350); at
Peterhouse the inspection was held only once in two years (statute,
1480). At All Souls an inspection was held (statutes, 1443); at the
Pembroke College inspection each book was exhibited in order to the
Masters and Fellows. At Magdalen, as elsewhere, the inspection was
thorough: the books were to be shown _realiter, visibiliter, et
distincte_.
The above rules embody the common practice of the colleges. Certain
houses had unusual provisions. Every Fellow of Magdalen College was to
close the book he had been reading before he left, and also shut the
windows (statutes, 1459). With the beginning of the sixteenth century
comes a faint hint of discrimination in selecting books. No book was to
be brought into the library of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, or
chained there, if it were not of sufficient worth and importance (_nisi
sit competentis pretii aut utilitas_) (unless it had been given with
specific direction that it should be chained), but it was to go among
the books for lending (statutes, 1517).[433]
In certain of the colleges a book was read aloud during meals. It is
noted that in 1284 the scholars of Merton were so noisy that the person
appointed to read from Gregory’s _Moralia_ could not be properly
heard.[434] Reading aloud was also enjoined at University Hall,
Oxford.[435] This was, of course, a monastic practice.
This brief description of the practice of the colleges in regard to
books may be concluded fittingly with an account of the rules which
Richard de Bury proposed to apply for the safety of his library when
reposed within the walls of Durham Hall. These provisions are specially
interesting as an example of the care with which a fussy bookworm
[Illustration: _PLATE XXIX_
LIBRARY OF CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OXFORD: EXTERIOR FROM MASTER’S
GARDEN]
attempted to safeguard his treasures, and because they permit free
lending of books outside the Hall. Five of the scholars sojourning in
the Hall were to be appointed by the Master to have charge of the books,
“of which five persons three and not fewer” might lend any book or books
for inspection and study. No book was to be allowed outside the walls of
the house for copying. “Therefore, when any scholar, secular or
religious, whom for this purpose we regard with equal favour, shall seek
to borrow any book, let the keepers diligently consider if they have a
duplicate of the said book, and if so, let them lend him the book,
taking such pledge as in their judgment exceeds the value of the book
delivered, and let a record be made forthwith of the pledge, and of the
book lent, containing the names of the persons delivering the book and
of the person who receives it, together with the day and year when the
loan is made.” But if the book was not in duplicate, the keepers were
forbidden to lend it to anybody not belonging to the Hall, “unless
perhaps for inspection within the walls of the aforesaid house or Hall,
but not to be carried beyond it.”
A book could be lent to any of the scholars in the Hall by three of the
keepers, on condition that the borrower’s name and the date on which he
received the book were recorded. This book could not be transferred to
another scholar except by permission of three keepers, and then the
record must be altered.
“Each keeper shall take an oath to observe all these regulations when
they enter upon the charge of the books. And the recipients of any book
or books shall thereupon swear that they will not use the book or books
for any other purpose but that of inspection or study, and that they
will not take or permit to be taken it or them beyond the town and
suburbs of Oxford.
“Moreover, every year the aforesaid keepers shall render an account to
the Master of the House and two of his scholars whom he shall associate
with himself, or if he shall not be at leisure, he shall appoint three
inspectors, other than the keepers, who shall peruse the catalogue of
books, and see that they have them all, either in the volumes themselves
or at least as represented by deposits. And the more fitting season for
rendering this account we believe to be from the first of July until the
festival of the Translation of the Glorious Martyr S. Thomas next
following.
“We add this further provision, that anyone to whom a book has been
lent, shall once a year exhibit it to the keepers, and shall, if he
wishes it, see his pledge. Moreover, if it chances that a book is lost
by death, theft, fraud, or carelessness, he who has lost it or his
representative or executor shall pay the value of the book and receive
back his deposit. But if in any wise any profit shall accrue to the
keepers, it shall not be applied to any purpose but the repair and
maintenance of the books.”[436]
It will be seen that had De Bury’s aim been consummated, a small public
lending library would have been founded in Oxford, from which at first
only a few duplicates would be issued, but which might, in time, have
become an important institution.