by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be
questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume
or pay any debt or obligation incurred in the aid of insurrection or
rebellion against the United States, or any loss or emancipation of any
slave, but such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and
void.
SEC. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate
legislation, the provisions of this act.
ARTICLE XV.
SECTION 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote, shall not
be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
SEC. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.
CHAPTER X.
PRESIDENTS OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, AND THE VARIOUS SEATS OF
GOVERNMENT FROM 1774 TO 1789.
Peyton Randolph, Virginia 5th Sept., 1774
Henry Middleton, South Carolina 22d Oct., 1774
Peyton Randolph, Virginia 10th May, 1775
John Hancock, Massachusetts 24th May, 1775
Henry Laurens, South Carolina 1st Nov., 1777
John Jay, New York 10th Dec., 1778
Samuel Huntingdon, Connecticut 28th Sept., 1779
Thomas McKean, Delaware 10th July, 1781
John Hanson, Maryland 5th Nov., 1781
Elias Boudinot, New Jersey 4th ” 1782
Thomas Mifflin, Pennsylvania 3d ” 1783
Richard Henry Lee, Virginia 30th ” 1784
Nathaniel Gorham, Massachusetts 6th Jan., 1786
Arthur St. Clair, Pennsylvania 2d Feb., 1787
Cyrus Griffin, Virginia 22d Jan., 1788
The seat of government was established as follows: At Philadelphia, Pa.,
commencing September 5th, 1774, and May 10th, 1775; at Baltimore, Md.,
December 20th, 1776; at Philadelphia, Pa., March 4th, 1777; at Lancaster,
Pa., September 27th, 1777; at York, Pa., September 30th, 1777; at
Philadelphia, Pa., July 2d, 1778; at Princeton, N. J., June 30th, 1783;
at Annapolis, Md., November 26th, 1783; at Trenton, N. J., November 1st,
1784; and at New York City, N. Y., January 11th, 1785.
On the 4th of March, 1789, the present Constitution, which had been
adopted by a convention and ratified by the requisite number of States,
went into operation.
PART SECOND.
THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION.
The plan of this part of our work requires us to give a complete view of
the government of the United States, and in such detail as to be adequate
to all the purposes of the citizen and the student who wish to understand
its structure and modes of working. It will be found, we think, a clear,
concise, and complete account of what it is indispensable to the American
to know.
There are three branches, each independent, having its sphere of general
action entirely distinct, and clearly defined by the Constitution;
yet working in harmony with the others, and locking in, so to speak,
with them at special points, like the cogs of a system of wheels.
The adjustment was more perfect than the authors of the Constitution
themselves believed; probably because the spirit of the whole was in
harmony with the people whose interests it was designed to guard.
These three branches are the Legislative, the Executive, and the
Judicial. All the institutions or general subdivisions of each are given
in connection, with such explanations and data as they seem to require.
We commence with the Executive, as being most immediately in contact
with the people at large, having a wider field, and a larger number of
distinct organizations and agents. This branch exhausted, we present
the Legislative, and finally the Judicial, closing with such matters as
belong to the government as a whole.
No human government is perfect, neither can exact and equal justice
be done in every case by human laws. But the scope and design of our
legislation and jurisprudence is to dispense justice to all, to place
all on an equality before the laws, and to give the same rights to the
rich and to the poor. No privileged class is known to our laws, and the
lowest may aspire to the highest places of distinction and honor; many
have done so, and have reached the most exalted positions. The fullest
religious liberty is granted to all; every man may worship as he pleases,
when and where he pleases, without molestation or fear. He is not, as in
many other countries, taxed to support a church established by law. He
may pay for religious purposes as much or as little as he pleases, and to
any church he prefers, or he may pay nothing, and no one can call him to
account or use any compulsion whatever in this matter.
Every citizen has a vote for the choice of his rulers, and through his
representatives a voice in making the laws by which he is governed.
As to his business or calling, he may do that which best suits his
interests or his tastes. He may go when or where he desires, he may stay
in the country or leave it without restraint or hindrance; in short, he
may do whatsoever seemeth good to him, provided he does not infringe on
the rights of others.
To this liberty, to these equal rights, privileges, and advantages do we
attribute our rapid growth and power. The advantages and benefits of so
wise, so liberal, and so beneficent a government are not unknown to the
people of other countries where they do not enjoy so much freedom; and
this accounts for the wonderful immigration to the United States from
nearly every country in Europe. This flow has continued for more than
three-quarters of a century, and is still unabated. It has added many
millions to the natural increase of our population, while very few of
our own people ever leave their own country with the hope of bettering
their condition, or of finding a government under which they can enjoy
more liberty or better protection. To gain a clearer conception of the
intimate connection between a good government and the prosperity of the
country, let us, for example, place Mexico in contrast with the United
States. Mexico was settled long before the United States, and in climate
and mineral wealth has the advantage of us; yet the ever unsettled
condition of its government, together with intolerance of any but the
Catholic religion, has prevented any increase of population or any
advancement in anything which gives a nation respectability, greatness,
or power.
Let us draw another contrast by considering Ireland. An oppressive
government has diminished the population, prevented any advancement, and
impoverished the country. We might draw many such contrasts between the
United States and other countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South
America, which would convince any one who has the power to trace causes
to effects, and effects to causes, that a just and liberal government is
an essential condition upon which the prosperity of any country depends.
THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.
CHAPTER I.
THE PRESIDENT.
1. Congress legislates, or enacts laws; the officers of the Supreme Court
decide whether those laws are in conformity with the Constitution; but
the real ruler, the actual possessor of power, is the President. In the
language of the first section of the second article of the Constitution,
“The executive powers of the government shall be vested in a President
of the United States of America.” The other branches of the government
decide _what_ is to be done, and what is constitutionally legal, and the
President is the agent. He executes, or puts in actual operation, the
measures determined on by them. Should he attempt to do anything not
so prescribed, or to do anything in an improper manner, contrary to or
different from the manner prescribed by the law, he may be impeached and
removed, and all the subordinate officers and agents of the government
released from the obligation to obey him.
2. The other branches are composed of many persons. He has no associate.
The execution of the law requires vigor and decision, such as can be
found only in a single mind and will. All history shows that there is
constant danger of power being misused, whether one, two, or any number
of men are the depositaries of it; but one man is much better than two
or more, when vigor and promptness are required. All the securities
and checks that could be applied without embarrassing his necessary
freedom of action have been provided. They can not, indeed, supply the
want of judgment and uprightness, and so no absolute security against
mismanagement can exist; but the danger may be in large part avoided by
carefulness in the selection of the man who is to wield the whole power
of a great nation.
It is an office of great dignity, responsibility, and power, and requires
a man of great ability and probity to properly fill it.
3. The President is elected for four years, and may be reëlected if the
people see fit. Several times in our history the President has been once
reëlected, and so held the office for eight years; but none have been
twice reëlected, though there is no law against it. The term commences
and terminates on the fourth day of March. He is elected by the people,
every voter having an equal influence in the choice; but it is not done
by voting for him directly, but by voting first for men called electors,
who cast their votes according to the wish of the people. This system we
shall hereafter examine.
4. A Vice-President is elected at the same time and in the same way, who,
in case of the President’s death, removal, resignation, or inability
to discharge the duties of his office, becomes acting President during
the remainder of his term, or while the disability continues. The
first Congress passed a law giving the President a salary of $25,000
per annum, with the use of a furnished house, and it remained the same
until 1873, when it was raised to $50,000 per year. He is forbidden by
the Constitution to receive any other public income during his term of
office, nor is he at liberty to accept presents from any foreign power.
Before entering on the duties of his office he is required to take an
oath “to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United
States,” to the best of his ability.
5. It is required that he shall be a native-born citizen of the United
States, that he shall have been fourteen years a resident in the United
States, and that he shall not be less than thirty-five years of age;
which are designed to insure his attachment to American interests, his
thorough acquaintance with American affairs, and the full maturity of his
mind and character.
6. It is his duty to appoint such officers in every department of the
public service as are not otherwise provided for. He usually sends the
nomination to the Senate for their approval or consent, and when that
is given appoints them by commission, signed with his name, to the
office. In this manner he nominates the Justices of the Supreme Court,
ambassadors, resident ministers, chargé-d’affaires, consuls, and other
representatives of the government abroad, all the Heads of Executive
Departments, and the more important subordinate officers of each
department. When the Senate is not in session he may appoint all these
directly, to serve until it meets again. The clerks and minor officers
are usually appointed by Heads of Departments. In all other cases the
advice and consent of the Senate are required before the appointment and
commission can be legal.
7. It is his duty to make treaties with Foreign Powers, but these require
confirmation by two-thirds of the Senate to be valid. He receives the
Representatives of Foreign Powers, and superintends all diplomatic
intercourse with them and with our own Representatives abroad.
He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and must sign the
commissions of all the officers in each. He may grant reprieves and
pardons at his discretion, except in cases of impeachment, and he is
required to approve and sign the laws passed by Congress before they can
take effect. If he does not approve a law he “vetoes” it by returning
it to Congress, with his reasons for not signing it. If that body
reconsiders it and reënacts it by a two-thirds vote of each house, it may
become a law without his signature.
8. He may call extra sessions of Congress for special reasons, and may
adjourn it in case of disagreement between the two houses as to the
time of adjournment. It is his duty to give information to Congress, at
the commencement of each session, of the state of the country, and to
recommend to it such legislative enactments as he may judge are required.
This is called “The President’s Message,” and is looked for with much
interest in this and in foreign countries, since his position makes him
intimately acquainted with every subject relating to the public welfare.
When he considers that the occasion demands it, or when he is requested
by Congress to give information on a special point, he communicates with
them by similar documents, called messages.
He may be impeached for treason, bribery, or other high crimes, by the
House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate, the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court presiding over that body during the trial, and in case
of conviction is removed from office.
9. It will be seen that he possesses great power, and that he is almost
overwhelmed by responsibilities. The members of his cabinet are his
constitutional advisers, and share more or less of this responsibility,
although his will may override them all if he so chooses.
There are many provisions for preventing an abuse of power in the
Constitution and in the laws of Congress, but all history proves that
nothing but watchfulness and wisdom on the part of the people can
preserve to them their rights and liberties. Power, wherever lodged, is
naturally aggressive. Fortunately the people themselves in this country
are the _source_ of power, and may legally restrain its exercise in their
representatives and executive officers, when it threatens to become
excessive.
The following are the names of all the Presidents, from Washington, the
first, down to the present incumbent:
George Washington, Va., 30th April, 1789, to 4th March, 1797—seven years
ten months and four days.
John Adams, Mass., 4th March, 1797, to 4th March, 1801—four years.
Thomas Jefferson, Va., 4th March, 1801, to 4th March, 1809—eight years.
James Madison, Va., 4th March, 1809, to 4th March, 1817—eight years.
James Monroe, Va., 4th March, 1817, to 4th March, 1825—eight years.
John Quincy Adams, Mass., 4th March, 1825, to 4th March, 1829—four years.
Andrew Jackson, Tenn., 4th March, 1829, to 4th March, 1837—eight years.
Martin Van Buren, N. Y., 4th March, 1837, to 4th March, 1841—four years.
William H. Harrison, O., 4th March, 1841, to 4th April, 1841—one month.
John Tyler, Va., 4th April, 1841, to 4th March, 1845—three years and
eleven months.
James K. Polk, Tenn., 4th March, 1845, to 4th March, 1849—four years.
Zachary Taylor, La., 4th March, 1849, to 9th July, 1850—one year four
months and five days.
Millard Fillmore, N. Y., 9th July, 1850, to 4th March, 1853—two years
seven months and twenty-six days.
Franklin Pierce, N. H., 4th March, 1853, to 4th March, 1857—four years.
James Buchanan, Pa., 4th March, 1857, to 4th March, 1861—four years.
Abraham Lincoln, Ill., 4th March, 1861, to 15th April, 1865—four years
one month and ten days.
Andrew Johnson, Tenn., 15th April, 1865, to 4th March, 1869—three years
ten months and twenty days.
Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., 4th March, 1869, to 4th March, 1877—eight years.
Of these William H. Harrison died 4th April, 1841, just one month after
his inauguration. On the death of Harrison, Tyler, the Vice-President,
became acting President. Taylor died 9th July, 1850, and Fillmore,
Vice-President, became acting President. Lincoln was assassinated on the
14th April, 1865, one month and ten days after he was inaugurated upon
his second term, and Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, became acting
President—this being the third time that such an event has occurred since
the government went into operation.
CHAPTER II.
THE VICE-PRESIDENT.
This officer is elected by the people at the same time, and in the same
manner, as the President, and for the same term. He must be a native
citizen of the United States, and thirty-five years of age.
His high-sounding title would lead one who is but little acquainted with
our government to think that he stands next to the President himself in
dignity and power; that on his shoulders rests a large amount of the
duties and responsibilities of the administration. Such, however, is not
the case. He is, in fact, nearer a cipher than any of the high officers
of State. He is merely the presiding officer of the Senate, with not even
the power to vote, except in case of a tie vote in that body, when he
may give the casting vote. It is only in case of the death, resignation,
impeachment, or disability of the President to discharge his duties, that
the Vice-President becomes an officer of much power or dignity.
The following is a list of all the Vice-Presidents:
John Adams, Mass., April 30th, 1789, to March 4th, 1797—seven years, ten
months and four days.
Thomas Jefferson, Va., March 4th, 1797, to March 4th, 1801—four years.
Aaron Burr, N. Y., March 4th, 1801, to March 4th, 1805—four years.
George Clinton, N. Y., March 4th, 1805, to April 30th, 1812—seven years,
one month, and sixteen days.
Elbridge Gerry, Mass., March 4th, 1813, to November 23d, 1814—one year,
seven months, and nineteen days.
Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., March 4th, 1817, to March 4th, 1825—eight
years.
John C. Calhoun, S. C., March 4th, 1825 to March 4th, 1833—eight years.
Martin Van Buren, N. Y., March 4th, 1833, to March 4th, 1837—four years.
Richard M. Johnson, Ky., March 4th, 1837, to March 4th, 1841—four years.
John Tyler, Va., March 4th, 1841, to April 4th, 1841—one month.
George M. Dallas, Pa., March 4th, 1845, to March 4th, 1849—four years.
Millard Fillmore, N. Y., March 4th, 1849, to July 9th, 1850—one year and
four months.
William R. King, Ala.
John C. Breckenridge, Ky., March 4th, 1857, to March 4th, 1861—four years.
Hannibal Hamlin, Me., March 4th, 1861, to March 4th, 1865—four years.
Andrew Johnson, Tenn., March 4th, 1865, to April 15th, 1865—one month and
eleven days.
Schuyler Colfax, Ind., March 4th, 1869, to March 4th, 1873—four years.
Henry Wilson, Mass., March 4th, 1873, to March 4th, 1877—four years.
Of these, Clinton died April 20th, 1812; from which time till March 4th,
1813, the Vice-Presidency was vacant.
Gerry died November 23d, 1814; from which time till March 4th, 1817, the
Vice-Presidency was vacant.
Tyler became acting President upon the death of President Harrison; and
until March 4th, 1845, the Vice-Presidency was vacant.
Fillmore became acting President upon the death of President Taylor, July
9th, 1850; and until March 4th, 1853, the Vice-Presidency was vacant.
King was elected with President Pierce, in 1852, but died April 18th,
1853. He never took his seat, and the Vice-Presidency was vacant till
March 4th, 1857.
Johnson became acting President upon the death of President Lincoln,
April 15th, 1865, and the Vice-Presidency again became vacant, and
remained so until March 4th, 1869.
CHAPTER III.
THE CABINET.
1. The members of the President’s Cabinet are seven in number, viz.:
Five Secretaries, at the head of their respective departments, of
State, Treasury, War, Navy, and Interior; and the Postmaster General,
and Attorney General. It is through these departments and their various
bureaus, officers, agents, and clerks, that the President performs most
of the duties of his position, viz.: that of _executing_, or putting in
force, the laws of Congress. He must, therefore, necessarily take them
into his counsels, and arrange, by their assistance, the conduct of
public affairs. Each one has the affairs of his department so thoroughly
systematized that he can tell, with a little examination, the means at
his disposal for carrying into effect any special measure; and precise
records of the whole state of the public service may, at all times, be
found in their offices.
2. They are also selected for their several positions from among those
regarded as the most eminent statesmen of the country, and each is
supposed to be specially adapted, by his experience, acquirements, and
capacity, for his special position, as well as in harmony with the
general policy adopted by the President. They are, therefore, properly,
and _ex officio_ (by virtue of their office), his advisers. No one
else can tell as well as they the condition of public affairs at any
particular time, nor, in consequence, give as good advice on any special
measure requiring such knowledge. Without their aid the President would
have few means of judging what was best, or possible, to be done at any
particular crisis. They furnish the material for his decisions, and the
instruments to execute them. They are heads of the Executive Departments,
and, together with the President, who is the head of them all, bringing
them all into harmony, and under the control of a single purpose and
will, they are called the administration. They administer, or carry on,
the government.
3. In other countries these administrative heads are usually called
Ministers, probably because they _serve_ the ruler—servant being the
original meaning of the term minister—and are commonly chosen among
the members of the legislative bodies—perhaps because that brings the
government into closer sympathy with the legislators, and promotes
harmony of action; but with us, no member of the Cabinet can have a
seat in, or take any part in the proceedings of, Congress. Great care
was taken to keep the different branches of the government distinct
and independent of each other. Each branch, and each subdivision, is
kept separate, and confined to its own range of duties, being united to
the others only by its head, so that confusion and conflict might be
impossible.
4. Each sub-department reports at stated intervals to its head, and he
to the President, and through him to Congress; and at the same time they
present such suggestions and arguments for legislation in regard to their
several departments as their knowledge, experience, and reflections may
have convinced them to be desirable. They are supposed to give their
whole time and thought to the care and improvement of their several
branches of the public service, and to be in condition to know what
further improvement should be provided for by law, better than any one
else.
5. Under Washington’s administration the departments and members of
Cabinet were but three—of State, of the Treasury, and of War. In 1798,
during the administration of John Adams, the Department of the Navy was
added, and its Secretary took his seat in the Cabinet. It then had only
four members down to Jackson’s administration (1829 to 1837), when the
Postmaster General was made a Cabinet officer, which increased the number
to five. During Mr. Tyler’s administration (1841-1845) the Attorney
General was made a member, and the number was then six. At the close of
Mr. Polk’s term as President, in 1849, the Department of the Interior was
created, and its chief given the seventh seat in the Cabinet; since which
time there has been no increase. Congress may, at their discretion, as
the country grows, and the public service with it, create other great or
independent departments requiring its representative to have a seat in
the Cabinet, that the state of the entire service may be readily known
from the officer most familiar with each branch.
CHAPTER IV.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE.
1. As the Chief Executive of a government cannot, for want of time,
attend to all the details of the business belonging to his office, he,
according to the usage of all times, appoints various officers to attend
to the different branches of public business. In most countries these
officers, who are next in importance to the chief of the government, are
called Ministers. In accordance with the practice of using plain and
simple terms which was adopted in this country at the beginning, they are
called Secretaries. They are subordinates of the President and supposed
to act in his name and under his direction.
2. They are not specially named in the Constitution, but are several
times referred to as Heads of Departments, and thus it was assumed that
there would be such offices and officers, and their appointment was
provided for. The first Congress under the Constitution organized these
Executive Departments, the President nominating and the Senate confirming
the appointment of the more responsible officers.
3. The first of these in rank is called the Department of State, and its
head is named the Secretary of State. He is, by a law passed in 1853,
aided by an Assistant Secretary, appointed in the same manner as himself.
The numerous under officers required by the extensive business falling to
this department are appointed by the Secretary at its head.
4. This Department has charge of such business as may arise between this
government and the governments of other countries. In most countries
it is called the Department, or Ministry, of Foreign Affairs, but the
term Department of State was preferred here. The great Seal of the
United States is in his keeping, and it is his duty to affix it to
all civil commissions given to officers of the United States who are
appointed by the President and Senate, or by the President alone. It
is his duty, under the supervision and control of the President, to
conduct the correspondence with, and give instructions to, the Foreign
Ministers, Consuls, and Agents of the government abroad, to take charge
of the official business and intercourse of the government with the
representatives of foreign governments sent to us, and to attend to such
other business arising from our Foreign Relations as shall be committed
to him by the President.
5. It is his duty to keep in his office the original copies of all acts,
resolutions, and orders of Congress. He must deliver to each Senator and
Representative in Congress, and to the Governor of each State, a printed
copy of the same; and during the session of each Congress he must publish
the acts and resolutions passed by it in one newspaper in the District
of Columbia, and in not more than two in each State and Territory of the
United States. He must also publish in like manner all amendments of
the Constitution, and all public treaties made and ratified between the
United States and any foreign State, Prince, or Power, or with any of the
Indian tribes.
6. And at the close of each session of Congress he must cause to be
published 11,000 copies in book form of all the laws, etc., as before
stated; and to distribute the same as directed by law to the President
and Vice-President, and to every ex-President; to all the members of the
Senate and House of Representatives; to all the heads of the various
departments and bureaus; to all the Judges of the United States Courts,
their Clerks and Marshals; to all our Foreign Ministers, Consuls, and
Public Agents; in short, to all the important officers of the government
at home and abroad; in order that all who are in government employ
may know what the laws are, and what changes have been made in acts
formerly existing. The remaining copies are distributed to the States and
Territories according to the number of Representatives in Congress from
each of them.
7. It is also made the duty of the Secretary of State to give passports
to our own citizens who wish to travel in foreign countries; to cause
passports to be issued by such Diplomatic or Consular officers of the
United States as the President shall direct; to give such information to
our people through the newspapers as he may from time to time receive
from our Diplomatic and Consular agents abroad, as he may deem important
to the nation, respecting our commercial interests in foreign countries,
and to prepare a form of passport for the ships and vessels of the United
States.
8. In the execution of extradition treaties between us and foreign
governments, it is lawful for the Secretary of State, under his hand and
seal of office, to issue an order for the rendition of any person who
has been found guilty of crime in a foreign country, to any properly
authorized person; that such criminal may be taken out of the United
States to the country where the crime was committed.
9. It will be seen that, in addition to the duties connected with our
Foreign Relations, he is a kind of General Secretary of the Legislative
branch of the government, which probably led to his being called
Secretary of State rather than Secretary of Foreign Affairs. The highest
officer, in most other governments, under the Executive, is commonly
called Prime Minister; but he usually has care of the general interests
of the government, internal as well as external, and the term would not
be fitting to the Secretary of State.
Our Foreign Relations require to be managed with great wisdom and skill,
since they often involve peace and war, and the general prosperity of the
country. It therefore requires a man of great ability, and of extensive
knowledge. He is a member of the Cabinet, and one of the advisers or
counselors of the President. His appointment is for four years, or
during a Presidential term; but he may be removed by the President at
any time, if he deems it advisable.
10. As a matter of historical reference, we append the names of all the
statesmen who have filled this high office, commencing with the first,
placing them in the order of the dates of their appointments, together
with the States from which they came:
SECRETARIES OF STATE.
Thomas Jefferson, Va., Sept. 26th, 1789.
Edmund Randolph, Va., Jan. 2d, 1794.
Timothy Pickering, Mass., Dec. 10th, 1795.
John Marshall, Va., May 13th, 1800.
James Madison, Va., March 5th, 1801.
Robert Smith, Md., March 6th, 1809.
James Monroe, Va., April 2d, 1811.
John Quincy Adams, Mass., March 4th, 1817.
Henry Clay, Ky., March 7th, 1825.
Martin Van Buren, N. Y., March 6th, 1829.
Edward Livingston, La., May 24th, 1831.
Louis McLane, Del., May 29th, 1833.
John Forsyth, Ga., June 27th, 1834.
Daniel Webster, Mass., March 5th, 1841.
H. S. Legaré, S. C., May 9th, 1843.
A. P. Upshur, Va., June 24th, 1843.
John Nelson, Md., Feb. 29th, 1844.
John C. Calhoun, S. C., March 6th, 1844.
James Buchanan, Pa., March 5th, 1845.
John M. Clayton, Del., March 7th, 1849.
Daniel Webster, Mass., July 20th, 1850.
Edward Everett, Mass., Dec. 9th, 1851.
William L. Marcy, N. Y., March 5th, 1853.
Lewis Cass, Mich., March 6th, 1857.
Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Dec. 14th, 1860.
William H. Seward, N. Y., March 5th, 1861.
Elihu B. Washburne, Ill., March 5th, 1869.
Hamilton Fish, N. Y., March 11th, 1869.
Hamilton Fish, N. Y., reappointed March 4th, 1873.
CHAPTER V.
OUR REPRESENTATIVES IN FOREIGN LANDS.
1. Nations have business with each other, as individuals have; and their
governments employ agents to represent them and transact business in
their name. By these means their political and commercial relations and
intercourse are regulated, treaties are made, and any disputes that may
arise between them settled. Officers of this character have been employed
from very early times, and by all nations. They are considered to be
clothed with the authority and dignity of the government they represent,
and therefore the office has ever been held in great honor, and men
most familiar with the affairs of their own nation, of most extensive
knowledge, prudence, and wisdom, are supposed to be selected for so
eminent a service.
2. By the law (or general consent) of nations ambassadors are exempt from
arrest, imprisonment, or prosecution. Any interference with them in this
way might hinder the execution of the duties assigned them, and be a
great damage to the public welfare, and an offense of that kind committed
against them is considered as a dishonor to the government whose
agents they are. On the other hand they require much judgment and tact
that their conduct may not bring discredit on their government. Their
inviolable character is carried so far as to exempt their servants from
arrest, and their property from seizure for debt. The law of Congress
protecting the Representatives of foreign governments to this country is
but a re-enactment, or acceptance, of what has been known as the Law of
Nations for many centuries all over the civilized world. A violation
of this established usage among nations, without due atonement and
satisfaction, would be recognized as a sufficient cause for war against
the nation so offending.
3. Our own foreign ministers of all grades are appointed by the
President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They are
not, however, the representatives of the President, but of the government
of the United States. We said of all grades, for there are grades of
these officials, different in dignity and power. They are distinguished
also by different names which indicate their rank, viz.: Ambassadors,
Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ministers Resident,
and Chargé d’Affaires.
AMBASSADORS.
4. This title in our country has no very specific meaning. It designates,
however, a minister of the highest grade; but does not distinguish
between one who goes to reside in the country whither he is sent, and
one who is sent for some special purpose; such as that of negotiating
a treaty of peace, or some other particular matter with which he is
charged, and when that is accomplished returns home. In the latter case
he is frequently styled a commissioner, because he was duly authorized,
and _commissioned_ by his government to act for it; but in both cases the
officer is an ambassador, for that word means a person authorized and
sent to transact business for his government.
ENVOYS EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTERS PLENIPOTENTIARY.
5. These titles designate ministers of the highest class; but generally
refer to such as go to reside in the country where sent, and with full
power to act for their government, in all matters and things of a
diplomatic character.
Where negotiations become necessary between the two nations, permanent
ministers of this grade are only sent to great powers—governments of the
higher class.
MINISTERS RESIDENT.
6. These are not considered so high in rank as those termed envoys
extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary. Yet they are clothed with
nearly the same powers, but are sent to countries of less importance, and
receive less salaries.
COMMISSIONERS.
7. There are a still lower grade of ministers (if we may call them so),
or government agents, who reside abroad. They are sent to look after
the interests of our government and its citizens in places of not much
importance, and where there is but little to do. They also receive but
small pay.
CHARGE D’AFFAIRES.
8. These officials rank as the lowest grade of ministers or diplomatic
officers, and are not clothed with much authority or power, excepting
when authorized to act in the room of a minister of higher rank, whose
place is for the time being vacant. In this case consuls have been
authorized to act in place of ministers; but not unless authorized to do
so by the President of the United States.
SECRETARIES OF LEGATION.
9. Secretaries of Legation may with propriety be noticed under the
general head of ministers, although they are not ministers of any
grade, but are appointed by the same powers that appoint ministers, and
accompany them merely as their secretaries. In the absence of a chargé
d’affaires, they are sometimes authorized to act in his place. The
position is not one of great dignity, nor is the compensation large.
CHAPTER VI.
TREATIES—EXTRADITION TREATIES.
1. A treaty is a written contract, entered into by two nations, on some
question of interest or intercourse between them. It is precisely of the
nature of a contract between two persons when they bind themselves to do,
or not to do, certain things specified in the contract. That would be a
treaty between individuals. Treaties between nations are only different
in the solemn and formal manner of arranging and confirming these
agreements.
2. Treaties have often been of great service to the world, both in
ancient and modern times. By these negotiations, wars have been
prevented, friendly relations maintained, and commercial intercourse
kept up, advantageously to both parties. Treaties may be negotiated by
any persons properly authorized by their governments to do so; and any
government may authorize such persons as they see fit, to perform these
important acts. In many cases the ordinary ministers who represent their
governments to other governments, negotiate ordinary treaties. But in
cases where something of an extraordinary character is to be arranged,
special ministers or commissioners are sent for this express purpose.
This was the case at the treaty of Ghent (so called from the name of the
place where the commissioners met to arrange it), in 1814; by which a
peace was brought about between England and the United States, after the
last war between those powers. Special ministers, or commissioners, as
they were denominated, were appointed and sent for this very purpose. A
treaty of peace was agreed upon by the commissioners of the respective
countries, and hostilities ceased as soon as the news reached the United
States.
3. In some cases our government has authorized its commanding generals to
make a treaty with the hostile nation. It has also given the same power
to the commanders of our national vessels; and also, in a few cases, to
our consuls, in countries at a great distance from home, such as China,
Japan, Siam, and Turkey.
The persons authorized to negotiate a treaty, rarely act without
instructions from their government, as to the times and conditions of the
proposed treaty. Much, however, must be left to the sound judgment and
discretion of the negotiators as to the details.
4. It must be borne in mind that a treaty, although mutually agreed
upon by the agents of the nations concerned, is not binding upon either
party until properly ratified according to the forms of the respective
governments interested. The modes of ratification differ in different
governments. In ours the Constitution confers this power upon the
President, by and with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate.
In absolute monarchies this power rests in the hands of the King or
Emperor alone. As before stated, every government may confer the power to
negotiate a treaty upon such agents as it pleases. It also has the power
to prescribe such modes of ratifying or confirming it, as it pleases.
5. But when once made and approved, it becomes binding not only upon
the respective governments that made it, but upon all the citizens and
subjects of that government. It has been held in this country by our
greatest lawyers and statesmen, that the provisions of a treaty bind
Congress, the President, and every citizen as much as any Constitutional
provision or act of Congress. And for this reason our treaties are
published in the papers in every State and Territory in the Union, in the
same manner, and to the same extent, as the laws of Congress.
6. The violation of a treaty by either of the parties thereto, is
reprehensible and criminal. It is derogatory to the character of any
nation or individual that does it. It destroys the confidence of one
nation in the other, leads to unfriendly feelings and acts between the
parties, and may bring on a war, if satisfaction is not given. Yet such
things have been done, and evil consequences have always followed. “If
you make a bargain, stick to it,” is a common, trite, and wise saying.
Just here it seems proper to call attention to the fact that the
Constitution prohibits any State from making any treaty with any foreign
government. The reason for this provision is very obvious, for, if
allowed, a State might confer privileges upon foreign powers which
would be incompatible with the interests of other States. Therefore
the treaty-making power is kept wholly in the hands of the general
government, for in it every State has its representatives, and a voice in
every treaty which it makes.
7. So numerous are the treaties which the United States has made with
nearly every civilized nation upon earth, that it would require a very
large volume to contain them. They are published with the laws, and
generally in English and in the language of the nation with whom the
treaty is made. They may be found in the United States Statutes at Large.
It would require too much space in a work of this kind, to give even
their titles.
8. Wars have been stopped; boundary lines between nations have been
established; commercial intercourse arranged; the purchase and sale of
lands, and a variety of other things have been the subjects, and formed
the matter of treaties. Several of our most important ones relate to the
purchase of territory. We acquired the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, and
Missouri, by a treaty with France in 1803. It was called the Louisiana
purchase; for it was nothing more than a purchase and sale of lands. We
also acquired Florida of Spain, in 1819, in the same way, and California
and New Mexico of Mexico, in 1847.
9. The immense quantities of land purchased of the Indians, were
obtained by treaties with them. We are sorry to say that in some cases
they have treacherously violated their treaty obligations; but at the
same time it should be said by way of extenuating their offense, that
our own government agents appointed for the purpose of taking care of
the interests of the poor Indians, have, in connection with the white
traders among them, shamefully cheated and wronged them, and provoked
them not only to disregard their obligations, but to perpetrate murders,
robberies, and thefts upon the whites who live near them. At different
times during the years past, the Indians have been very hostile to us,
and have waged war against the whites in their vicinity for the reasons
above stated. “Honesty is the best policy.”
10. In the early part of the year 1867, a treaty was negotiated by
William H. Seward, our Secretary of State, on the part of the United
States, and Edward de Stoekl, the Russian Minister to the United States,
on the part of Russia, for the cession of the Russian possessions in
North America to the United States.
This treaty may be regarded as one of the most important of all our
treaties with foreign powers; for by it the United States acquire between
350,000 and 400,000 square miles of territory, in addition to our
already immense possessions; and it places by far the greater part of
the Northwestern coast of North America under the control of the United
States government.
For the purpose of giving a specimen of a treaty, and showing some of the
details of this negotiation, we here insert it in full, as agreed upon by
the contracting parties. $7,000,000 in gold is the consideration which
the United States paid Russia for this territory. This treaty has been
ratified by the United States and Russian governments, and the money,
($7,000,000 in gold) has been appropriated for the purpose, and paid to
the Russian Minister.
THE RUSSIAN TREATY.
The following is the text of the Russian-American treaty:
The United States of America, and his Majesty, the Emperor of all
the Russias, being desirous of strengthening, if possible, the good
understanding which exists between them, have for that purpose appointed
as their plenipotentiaries, the President of the United States, William
H. Seward, Secretary of State, and his Majesty the Emperor of all the
Russias, Mr. Edward de Stoekl, his Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary to the United States, and the said plenipotentiaries,
having exchanged their full powers, which were found to be in due form,
have agreed upon and signed the following articles:
ARTICLE I. His Majesty, the Emperor of all the Russias, agrees to cede to
the United States, by this convention, immediately upon the exchange of
the ratifications thereof, all the territory and dominion now possessed
by his said Majesty on the continent of America and in the adjacent
islands, the same being contained within the geographical limits herein
set forth, to wit: The eastern limit is the line of demarcation between
the Russian and British possessions in North America, as established by
the convention between Russia and Great Britain, of February 28 (16),
1825, and described in articles third and fourth of said convention in
the following terms: Commencing from the southernmost point of the island
called Prince of Wales’ Island—which point lies in the parallel of 50
deg. 40 min. north latitude, and between the 131st and 133d deg. of west
longitude, meridian of Greenwich—the said line shall ascend to the north
along the channel called Portland Channel, as far as the point of the
continent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude. From this
last mentioned point the line of demarcation shall follow the summit
of the mountains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of
intersection of the 141st degree of west longitude of the same meridian,
and finally from the said point of intersection the said meridian line
of the 141st degree in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean. With
reference to the line of demarcation laid down in the preceding article,
it is understood—first, that the island called Prince of Wales’ Island
shall belong wholly to Russia, and now, by this cession, wholly to the
United States; second, that whenever the summit of the mountains which
extend in a direction parallel to the coast from the 56th degree of north
latitude to the point of intersection of the 141st degree west longitude
shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from
the ocean, the limit between the British possessions and the line of
coast which is to belong to Russia as above mentioned—that is to say, the
limit of the possessions ceded by this convention—shall be formed by a
line parallel to the winding of the coast, and which shall never exceed
the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom. The western limit, within
which the territories and dominion conveyed are contained, passes through
a point in Behring’s Strait on the parallel of 65 deg. 30 min. north
latitude, at its intersection by the meridian which passes midway between
the island of Krusenstern, or Ignaalook, and the island of Ratmanog,
or Noonerbook, and proceeds due north without limitation into the same
Frozen Ocean. The same western limit beginning at the same initial point,
proceeds thence in a course nearly northwest through Behring’s Strait and
Behring’s Sea, so as to pass midway between the north-west part of the
island of St. Lawrence and the south-east point of Cape Choukottki to
the meridian of 172 deg. west longitude. Thence, from the intersection
of that meridian, in a south-westerly direction, so as to pass midway
between the island of Attou and the copper island of the Koranddorski
couplet or group in the North Pacific Ocean, to the meridian of 193 deg.
west longitude, so as to include in the territory conveyed the whole of
the Aleutian Islands east of that meridian.
ART. II. In the cession of territory and dominion made by the preceding
article, are included the right of property in all public lots and
squares, vacant lands, and all public buildings, barracks, and other
edifices which are not private, individual property. It is, however,
understood and agreed that the churches which have been built in the
ceded territory by the Russian government shall remain the property of
such members of the Greek Oriental Church resident in the territory as
may choose to worship therein. Any government archives, papers, and
documents relative to the territory and domain aforesaid, which may be
now existing there, will be left in possession of the agent of the United
States; but an authenticated copy of such of them as may be required will
be at all times given by the United States to the Russian government, or
to such Russian officers or subjects as may apply for them.
ART. III. The inhabitants of the ceded territory, according to their
choice, reserving their natural allegiance, may return to Russia within
three years; but if they should prefer to remain in the ceded territory,
they, with the exception of uncivilized tribes, shall be admitted to
the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens
of the United States, and shall be maintained and protected in the free
enjoyment of their liberty, property, and religion. The uncivilized
tribes will be subject to such laws and regulations as the United States
may from time to time adopt in regard to aboriginal tribes of that
country.
ART. IV. His Majesty, the Emperor of all the Russias, shall appoint, with
convenient dispatch, an agent or agents, for the purpose of formally
delivering to a similar agent or agents, appointed on behalf of the
United States, the territory, dominion, property, dependencies, and
appurtenances which are ceded as above, and for doing any other act which
may be necessary in regard thereto; but the cession, with the right of
immediate possession, is nevertheless to be deemed complete and absolute
on the exchange of ratifications, without waiting for such formal
delivery.
ART. V. Immediately after the exchange of the ratifications of this
convention, any fortifications or military posts which may be in the
ceded territory shall be delivered to the agent of the United States, and
any Russian troops which may be in the territory shall be withdrawn as
soon as may be reasonably and conveniently practicable.
ART. VI. In consideration of the cession aforesaid, the United States
agree to pay, at the Treasury in Washington, within —— months after the
exchange of the ratifications of this convention, to the diplomatic
representative, or other agent of His Majesty, the Emperor of all the
Russias, duly authorized to receive the same, —— million dollars in gold.
The cession of territory and dominion herein made is hereby demanded to
be free and unincumbered by any reservations, privileges, franchises,
grants, or possessions, by any associated companies, whether corporate
or incorporate, Russian or any other, or by any parties except merely
private individual property holders; and the cession hereby made conveys
all the rights, franchises, and privileges now belonging to Russia in the
said territory or dominion and appurtenances thereto.
ART. VII. When this convention shall have been duly ratified by the
President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, on the one part, and on the other by His Majesty, the Emperor
of all the Russias, the ratifications shall be exchanged at Washington
within —— from the date hereof, or sooner, if possible. In faith whereof
the respective plenipotentiaries have signed this convention, and thereto
affixed the seals of their arms.
EXTRADITION TREATIES.
1. Treaties have been made from time immemorial between rulers and
nations for the purpose of promoting the interests of one or both parties
in their commercial relations, or to secure allies in war; but the kind
of treaties mentioned at the head of this section are of modern origin;
and shows strongly the progress of nations toward a substantial unity of
interests and of discipline.
2. The security of society demands that when men commit a crime in
one place they shall not be able to find a safe asylum to which they
may fly whenever the retributions of the law, which watches over the
welfare of the citizen, threaten to overtake them. The readiness with
which criminals can pass from one country to another since steam has
made travel so speedy and pursuit for any long distance so difficult,
increases the evil. When criminals fly to another country they cannot be
punished there, since their courts have no jurisdiction over a criminal
from another nation, unless the act was committed in the country where
they were established; nor are governments usually willing to deliver an
individual on accusation only, unless there is an express stipulation,
or treaty to this effect, between them. To overcome the difficulty a
treaty was made in 1842 between this country and England, in which it was
mutually agreed that each country, on the demand of the government of the
other, should give up criminals of certain kinds named in the treaty,
when these after the crime had fled into their jurisdiction. It worked
well, since it multiplied the chances of punishment, and tended to check
crime.
3. Subsequently, treaties of the same kind were made between the United
States and the following countries:
France in 1843
Prussia, and 17 other German States ” 1852
Switzerland ” 1855
Baden ” 1857
Sweden ” 1860
Venezuela, South America ” 1861
The time is probably not distant when treaties of this sort will be
made between us and all the civilized nations of the world; for the
intercourse between us and foreign nations is greater than ever before.
The effect of these international arrangements is to render the
perpetration of crime more dangerous than it would be if they did
not exist. Flight from the country where the crime was committed was
formerly one of the most effectual methods of escaping the penalty. But
extradition treaties, Atlantic cables, and land telegraphs, have nearly
spoiled this game.
3. An extradition treaty, then, is a mutual agreement between two
nations to deliver up, each to the other, upon demand and proper proof
of criminality, such persons as have committed crimes in one country and
then fled to the other, that they may be taken back, tried, and punished
where the offense was committed. But these demands for escaped criminals
can not be sustained if made for every crime whatever. They will only be
complied with when the crime is one which is named in the treaty itself.
These crimes, upon examination of a number of such treaties, we find to
be: 1. Murder, or an assault with an intent to commit murder. 2. Piracy.
3. Arson. 4. Robbery. 5. Forgery, or the uttering of forged papers, or
the making or circulating counterfeit money, either paper or coin. 6.
Rape. 7. Embezzlement, and 8. Burglary.
4. It should be observed that a mere demand for an alleged offender is
not sufficient. Proof enough to convince the judge before whom the case
is brought must accompany the demand. He must be satisfied that the party
demanded has committed the alleged offense; when this is done the judge
reports his finding to the Secretary of State, whose duty then is, under
his hand and seal of office, to issue the final writ of extradition;
after which the criminal may be taken out of the United States (by force,
if necessary), and back to the country where he committed the crime,
there to be dealt with according to the laws which he violated.
5. In some of our extradition treaties it is expressly stipulated that
neither party (government) shall be bound to surrender its own citizens,
or any person for merely a political offense. In others it is agreed that
the provisions in the treaty shall not apply to cases where the crime
was perpetrated before the treaty was made. This plea, we think, would
be held to be a good defense in all cases, whether so stipulated in the
treaty or not.
6. The treaties between different nations for the surrender of criminals
are so analogous to one of the provisions contained in our Constitution,
that to insert it here will give the reader a clear comprehension of its
meaning. It is found in the second section of article 4, and reads thus:
“A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who
shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand
of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered
up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.”
CHAPTER VII.
BUSINESS REPRESENTATIVES.
1. These officers, called Consuls, are employed by most civilized
nations, all those at least who have an extensive intercourse with
foreign countries, and they are recognized by the Law of Nations as being
clothed, when acting in their official capacity, with the authority and
inviolability of their respective governments. Their place of official
business is protected by the flag of their country, an insult to which
renders reparation or war necessary to maintain its honor. Consuls are
agents of their governments, but most of their duties have reference to
the interests of private citizens who may be within their Consulate.
There may be a great number of them in one country, and they are usually
located in the seaports.
2. The Constitution provides that the President and Senate shall appoint
all our Consuls. The President signs their commissions, which bear the
great seal of the United States, and which prove to the government where
they are sent that they are duly appointed and authorized to discharge
the duties of Consuls at the ports or places to which they have been
appointed.
3. In order to show the nature of a Consul’s duties, such as the laws
impose upon him, we will state the substance of several acts relating to
this subject.
1. Whenever a vessel belonging to a citizen of the United States arrives
at the port where he is stationed, it is his duty to receive the ship’s
papers, and to see if they are all correct.
2. It is his duty to provide for sick, disabled, and destitute American
seamen, and to send them home by some vessel going to the United States.
3. He must hear the complaints of seamen, and settle disputes between the
captain and men; and for good cause he may discharge the whole ship’s
crew.
4. It is made his duty to receive and take care of the personal property
of any citizen of the United States who has died within his Consulate,
and to send any balance which may be left after paying his debts and
necessary expenses, to the treasury of the United States, to be held in
trust for the legal claimants. He must also give notice to the Secretary
of State of the death of such person.
4. For the purpose of carrying out and executing certain treaties made
between the United States and China, Japan, Siam, and Turkey, Consuls to
those countries have been empowered with judicial functions. They were
allowed to act as judges, and to try and punish citizens of the United
States who had committed crimes there. These, however, were extraordinary
powers in special cases, and by no means common to the consular office.
5. In the absence of a minister or diplomatic agent of the United States,
the President may authorize a Consul to perform the duties of such
foreign minister; but these powers are rarely conferred on them. Their
ordinary duties relate to commercial affairs, and to such as are before
stated.
6. A Vice-Consul, or deputy Consul, is one appointed to act temporarily
in case of sickness or absence of the Consul. His powers, while acting,
are the same as those of the Consul in whose place he acts. Every Consul
is required to give bonds for the faithful performance of his duties.
7. Our commerce has been extended to almost every part of the globe, and
for this reason we need a great number of these officials. Their services
are required at all great seaports, and at many smaller ones. The
compensation varies according to the amount of business to be transacted
by them, from $7,500 down to $500. Some do not receive any salary, but
are allowed the fees they are authorized to charge for their services.
8. It is his duty to give his government and countrymen all such
information as he possesses in relation to the laws and practices of
the country to which he is sent, which it would be important for them
to know; and especially is it his duty to look after the interests and
welfare of his countrymen when they are within his Consulate, and to see
that no wrong or injustice is done to them by the people or government
where he resides.
CHAPTER VIII.
PASSPORTS.
1. These are written documents, in due official form, signed and sealed
by the proper authority, to convey official information, or serve as a
means of protection, and to readily distinguish the American Citizen
abroad, or to give a permission or authority to go where those not having
passports are forbidden to go. The passport conveys authentic information
to whom it may concern, to what nation the bearer of the passport
belongs; and second, to protect him, and secure to him all the rights and
privileges which the government has a right to claim for its citizens by
virtue of any treaty of amity and friendship existing between it and the
country whither its citizens may go.
The passport informs the world that the bearer of it is a citizen of the
United States, and that he travels under its protection, and that it
would demand and exact satisfaction of any one who wronged or injured him
who bears such credentials.
2. In the United States, the Secretary of State is the officer authorized
by law to issue passports. He has the authority also to cause them to be
issued in foreign countries by our foreign ministers and consuls, under
such restrictions and rules as may be designated by the President. This
is allowed as a matter of convenience to our citizens who happen to be
in foreign countries without them; who need their protection, and who
would be subjected to much delay and expense by going or sending home to
procure them.
Passports are not granted to any other than citizens of the United
States, whether issued by the Secretary or by any diplomatic or consular
agent of our government.
3. Besides these passports, which are given only to our own citizens
when in foreign countries, or who intend to go there, there is another
kind issued to foreigners who wish to go among the Indians in the Indian
territory, or on the Indian reservations. Indeed, our own citizens are
not allowed to go among them without permission. But foreigners cannot go
without a passport from the Secretary of War, which specifies the route
over which the bearer must pass, and the length of time he is allowed
to remain among them. This is done to prevent unfriendly foreigners
from fomenting mischief, or from exciting unkind feelings towards our
government or people. Such unfriendly feelings have been created by
foreigners, and we have often experienced the bitter fruits of it,
especially in times of war.
4. Still another kind of passports is used in this country, and should
be noticed under this head. They are passports for American ships or
vessels. When they are about to sail for a foreign port, the laws of the
United States require each to procure one, under a penalty or fine of
two hundred dollars upon the master if he departs from the United States
for a foreign country (other than some port in America), without it. The
passport is prepared by the Secretary of State and is approved by the
President. This is given to the master by the collector of the port from
which the vessel sails, and is one of the ship’s papers, by which her
nationality is known, and her protection shown to be that of the United
States.
CHAPTER IX.
DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY.
1. If the Executive Department that has charge of the public moneys
is not highest in nominal rank, it certainly does not hold a less
important and interesting place in the estimation of the country and of
the world than the Department of State. Every part of the government is
dependent on this for its efficiency. It is the heart of the country.
The in-and-out-flowing of the tide of money from the central point marks
the pulses of the nation’s prosperity. Especially has this been the
case since the Civil War, and the immense developments and changes that
followed it. The banking system, making the Treasury responsible for the
issue of all the hundreds of millions of bank notes used in the business
of the country, adds immensely to the importance of the United States
Treasury.
2. The management of this Department is committed to the Secretary of
the Treasury. He is selected for that office by the President, and when
his nomination is approved by the Senate his appointment takes place. He
holds office during a presidential term, unless sooner removed. He is a
member of the Cabinet and one of the President’s advisers.
3. The financial policy adopted by the country depends very much on
his views on that difficult question, and the interests and wealth of
millions on the ability and integrity he possesses. He is therefore
chosen on account of his real or supposed qualifications on questions of
finance.
He is aided in his duties by an Assistant Secretary, a Comptroller and
Second Comptroller, five Auditors, a Treasurer and his assistant, a
Register and his assistant, a Commissioner of Customs, a Comptroller
of the Currency and his deputy, and a Solicitor of the Treasury. All
these have their offices in connection with the Treasury Department at
Washington. In several of the large cities are sub-treasuries, each
presided over by an assistant Treasurer, where public funds are received
and disbursed. The Treasurers of the Mints are also, many of them,
Assistant Treasurers of this Department. All these are appointed by the
President and Senate in the same manner as the Chief Secretary.
4. The sums of money actually handled, and the accounts of all moneys
received and disbursed without passing into the vaults of the Treasury,
amount to many hundreds of millions annually, and require the constant
service of some hundreds of clerks. These all need to have clean hands
and pure hearts, which is, unfortunately, more rare among men of all
classes than could be wished. Yet the whole is reduced to so accurate a
system that a loss at any point immediately produces a disturbance in the
whole machinery, and a short examination suffices to reveal the point of
difficulty and the person responsible for it. Accordingly, losses and
defalcations are seldom experienced in or near the central point of the
Department. If they occur, which is sometimes the case, it is usually
some officer at a distance who is found to be at fault, whose sphere
of operations lies far from the centre and only occasionally passes
under scrutiny. Each has his separate sphere of duties which no one else
interferes with, and assumes his own responsibility; and probably no
other institution in the world loses less in proportion to the amount of
money involved and the number of persons handling it.
5. Every account must be carefully examined and approved by the proper
officer before it can be presented for settlement and the money paid out,
and whatever moneys may flow in, none can flow out but according to some
law of Congress definitely appropriating it.
All officers having the handling of public funds are required to give
security for the faithful discharge of their duties. This must, by the
requirement of the law, be done before they can enter their respective
places.
SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY.
Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., Sept. 12, 1789.
Oliver Wolcott, Ct., Feb. 4, 1795.
Samuel Dexter, Mass., Dec. 31, 1800.
Albert Gallatin, Pa., May 14, 1801.
George W. Campbell, Tenn., Feb. 9, 1814.
Alexander J. Dallas, Pa., Oct. 6, 1814.
William H. Crawford, Ga., Oct. 22, 1816.
Richard Rush, Pa., Mar. 7, 1825.
Samuel D. Ingham, Pa., Mar. 6, 1829.
Louis McLane, Del., Aug. 8, 1831.
William J. Duane, Pa., May 29, 1833.
Roger B. Taney, Md., Sept. 23, 1833.
Levi Woodbury, N.H., June 27, 1834.
Thomas Ewing, O., Mar. 5, 1841.
Walter Forward, Pa., Sept. 13, 1841.
John C. Spencer, N.Y., Mar. 3, 1843.
George M. Bibb, Ky., June 15, 1844.
Robert J. Walker, Miss., Mar. 5, 1845.
W. M. Meredith, Pa., Mar. 7, 1849.
Thomas Corwin, O., June 20, 1850.
James Guthrie, Ky., Mar. 5, 1853.
Howell Cobb, Ga., Mar. 6, 1857.
Philip F. Thomas, Md., Dec. 10, 1860.
John A. Dix, N.Y., 1861.
Salmon P. Chase, O., Mar. 5, 1861.
William P. Fessenden, Me., July, 1864.
Hugh McCulloch, Ind., 1864.
George S. Boutwell, March 11, 1869.
W. A. Richardson, March 17, 1873.
B. H. Bristow, Ky., June 3, 1874.
CHAPTER X.
THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE U. S.
1. Revenue, or the income of the government, is derived from various
sources. A tax—or duty, as it is often called—laid on goods imported into
the country, is one of the most important. It is easy for a government to
manage without producing a very sensible effect on the people, and has
been a favorite mode of raising a revenue with nearly all governments
since commerce became general.
2. The sale of public lands has, in this country, been a source of large
revenue; though the desire to encourage emigration and develop the
unsettled parts has led the government to sell them for a nominal sum.
Still, these lands were so attractive and extensive as to sell rapidly
and produce a considerable income. The Post Office Department has been
a source of income, in great part supporting itself. Duties paid on the
tonnage of vessels, the forfeiture of goods smuggled, or introduced into
the country without paying the lawful tax or duty, and the forfeiture
of vessels used in that unlawful trade, prizes taken in war, and fees
required to be paid to various officials when their services are
employed, are minor sources of revenue.
3. When all these are not sufficient, as in time of war, or when an
immense war debt is to be paid, direct taxes are laid on the property and
business of the country. This is called
THE INTERNAL REVENUE,
and is borne with more or less patience, according as the people regard
the end to be gained important. The revenues of the States are mostly
derived from this source. They are not allowed to raise their revenue
from foreign commerce, since that would be a tax on goods liable to be
paid by the people of another State.
4. The necessity of laying large direct taxes does not, in this country,
often arise in case of the General Government; but during and after the
gigantic Civil War between the North and South, when enormous expenses
had to be met, and the credit of the government sustained, the direct
taxes became very large indeed. In 1861 Congress passed the “Internal
Revenue Law,” by which twenty millions of dollars were to be annually
raised from direct taxes on houses and lands in each of the States and
Territories.
By subsequent acts not only houses and lands were taxed, but almost every
sort of property and business. Licenses were required for persons to
carry on their profession, trade, or business; incomes were taxed; deeds,
mortgages, notes, bonds, bank checks, and papers of almost every kind
were invalid unless they had a revenue stamp upon them. Manufacturers had
to pay a certain per-centage on whatever they made. Scarcely any calling,
trade, profession, or business escaped it, directly or indirectly.
5. To carry out these provisions, the whole country was divided
into Revenue Districts, corresponding, so far as convenient, with
Congressional Districts. An officer of the Treasury Department, called
the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, was appointed, charged with the
duty of preparing instructions, forms, blanks, stamps, and licenses, to
be used in the collection by the multitude of minor officers employed,
and of overseeing the whole work. Each district had its chief officer,
and his deputies, assessors, and collectors, by whom the money at length
reached the Treasury at Washington. It created an army of officers to
be paid. It was laid aside as soon as possible, and taxation made less
onerous and expensive. The remarkable prosperity of the country at that
particular period made it easier to bear. Direct taxes laid by the
General Government are more economically collected by the State or local
officials, in all ordinary cases. This was a very extraordinary and
pressing one, and the people were so eager to put their debt in the way
of extinction that it was endured with much patience for several years,
when most of this cumbrous and costly machinery was laid aside.
6. The vast war debt, the large number of government officers employed
in attending to the interests of so large and prosperous a country, the
support of the army and navy, the great number of foreign representatives
and agents of the government, and the public works necessary for
the development or protection of the country, make a large revenue
indispensable.
7. It is best when the people are free and intelligent that they be
governed as little as possible—or rather that they govern themselves as
much as possible, and that as few officials as may be live on the fruits
of other people’s labor. There must necessarily be an army of them, at
the least; but such arrangements should be made that public expenses may
be reduced, to the lowest point, and republican simplicity everywhere
reign.
The principle and habit of public economy should be earnestly insisted
on, since the handling of immense sums of public money is much more
demoralizing than the acquisition of private wealth in legitimate ways.
It is a strong temptation to men of weak moral character; and private
property is more likely to be carefully used and economically expended
than public funds. The smaller the revenue, consistent with the general
development of the country, the better.
CHAPTER XI.
DUTIES AND TARIFFS.
1. Duty is a term used to designate a sum paid by foreign merchandise
coming to our country for sale, for the privilege of entering and being
offered to purchasers. Tariff is a rate, or scale, of duties.
2. Ever since intercourse has become frequent between different nations
commerce has been occupied in effecting interchanges of the products and
industries of each country with others. Each country has peculiarities
that specially fit it for the production or manufacture of some article,
or list of articles, which others would be unable to produce, or would
produce at greater inconvenience and expense, and which is of high value
to all, or many of the others. The social principle has proved to be of
extreme value to the improvement of men, and to their happiness; and we
might say that, in this unequal distribution of capacities in the lands,
and the races who inhabit them, the exercise of the social principle, on
a broad scale, was made, by nature, indispensable.
3. Each nation, then, devotes itself to its special features of
production, and exchanges its surplus with others for what it wants of
their different surplus, to mutual profit. Just as A is a farmer, and
raises grain, while B is a mechanic. Each has a natural adaptation to
the business he pursues, and each needs what the other produces. So they
exchange, and each has the full benefit of the success and different
genius and resources of the other. Commerce is the same in principle, and
interchange becomes constantly more extensive.
4. Government naturally regulates commerce because it is one of the
general interests of the country. It finds an indefinite amount of
foreign merchandise waiting to enter to be put on sale. It was long ago
discovered that here was a convenient mode of producing a government
income without disturbing the people with a constant demand for money to
pay its expenses. Whatever foreign goods had to pay for permission to
enter, was quietly added to the price afterward, and so the people paid
their taxes to the government in an indirect way in the form of a Duty.
They pay the price asked, if it be within their means, without knowledge,
or thought, of what part goes to the government, unless they study the
subject carefully.
It has always been the case, then, that a government could get all the
money it wanted, from this source, in ordinary times, with very little
trouble. That mode is naturally a favorite with them. Whether it is the
best way for the people is another question, which has been, at different
times, very warmly debated in our government. It is not our place here to
take up the argument, but it is worthy of a careful study by the people.
5. A Tariff of duties is established to carry on the government. There
is another object that has had many advocates, and has quite commonly
exerted an influence to raise the tariff on some things. It is stated
in the preamble, or introduction, to the first act passed by the first
Congress, on this subject, July 4th, 1789, “Whereas, it is necessary for
the support of the government, for the discharge of the debts of the
United States, _and the encouragement and protection of manufactures_,
that duties be laid on goods, wares, and merchandise imported.” It was
considered important to protect and encourage our manufactures, by
putting so high a price on the same kind of foreign goods that ours would
have the advantage and sell at a _less price_ or greater profit.
This might have been a wise measure, in the early days of the country,
when there were few manufactures. Whether it has been so since, or is so
now, is not so clear.
6. Every man should make up his mind what is right and best and act as
he sees to be most for the general good. It has two disadvantages. It
embarrasses the interchange that we have described as so profitable, and
under a high tariff sometimes practically forbids it. It is unsocial,
and we declare by it, that we will, so far as possible, live within
ourselves, and have as little to do with our neighbors as we can.
Besides, it is our own people who have to pay the duty, mainly, if they
use the foreign goods; or the higher price on domestic goods if they buy
them; so that one class of the people, that is, the mass of them, pay
another small class large sums to manufacture what might be bought from
foreigners with less money. It is a fine thing for the manufacturers, but
not quite so fine for those who buy them, unless they feel like making
their countrymen a present for every piece of goods he will manufacture
for them, beside the proper cost as made by others.
It has the advantage of encouraging industries of different kinds; and
has been believed to contribute greatly to the general prosperity in
that way. Some think it best to let all those things arrange themselves,
and leave each nation to bring us what they can produce cheapest and
sell them more of what we can produce cheapest. They believe this is the
secret of prosperity, besides being more social. It is a question to be
carefully examined. It seems probable, that, in the end, all nations will
agree on this policy, and raise their revenue in some other way. It is
perhaps too soon to expect that, as yet.
We have never been without a tariff, though there has been much
discussion in Congress, and between parties, whether it should be
protective or not. So it has often changed from low to high and back
again. The necessities of our war, and the heavy debt, made it important,
in the highest degree, to raise all the revenue we could, and the subject
has not been much discussed for many years.
7. The Duties are mostly collected in the cities, and, as foreign goods
come mainly by water, in the seaports of the country. Duties are often
called Customs, and the places where they are collected Custom Houses;
and the officers Custom House Officers. These places are located in
ports along our sea coast, and there are some thousands of custom house
officers of all grades. The buildings erected by the government have cost
many millions of dollars. The larger part of the duties are collected in
the great seaport cities, as Boston, New York, Baltimore, New Orleans,
and San Francisco.
Places, designated for foreign vessels to present their goods for
examination and collection of the duty, are called Ports of Entry. If
they are delivered at some other place, where there is no custom house
they are called Ports of Delivery.
8. Congress alone has power to lay these duties. There are two modes
of imposing them; sometimes one and sometimes the other being adopted,
according to the views of the Congress legislating. They are called
specific and ad valorem duties. Ad valorem means, according to the
cost, and is counted on the cost in the country the article comes from.
Specific duties are so much on the article, without regard to the cost.
On many things imported there is no duty, and they are called “free
goods.”
Changes are continually made in the tariff to conform to the requirements
of the Treasury, the desires of the people, and the changing views of the
legislators.
DRAWBACKS.
9. When the duties on foreign goods have been paid, and they are
afterwards exported, the duties which have been paid are refunded to the
owner. The money thus paid back is called a drawback. All imported goods
are entitled to drawback whenever they are taken out of the United States.
BOUNTIES ON EXPORTED GOODS,
take money out of, instead of putting it in the treasury, yet the
government in a few cases has allowed bounties upon exported articles.
Fish taken by American vessels, refined sugar and distilled spirits
made from imported sugar and molasses, are examples. This was done to
encourage domestic industry and enterprise.
CUSTOMS REVENUE FOR FIFTY-ONE YEARS.
A Comparative Statement showing the Customs Revenue, Amount of Dutiable
and Free Goods Imported, and the Average Rate of Duty on Imports, every
year from 1821 to 1871, inclusive.
-----+--------------+------------------------------------+--------------
| Receipts | IMPORTS. |*Per cent. on
YEAR.| from +------------+-----------+-----------+dutiable.
| Customs. | Free. | Dutiable. | Total. | |aggregate.
-----+--------------+------------+-----------+-----------+------+-------
1821 |$18,475,703 57|$ 10,082,313|$52,503,411|$62,585,724| 35.6 | 29.5
1822 | 24,066,066 43| 7,298,708| 75,942,833| 83,241,541| 31.7 | 28.9
1823 | 22,402,024 29| 9,048,288| 68,530,979| 77,579,267| 32.7 | 28.8
1824 | 25,486,817 86| 12,563,773| 67,985,234| 80,549,007| 37.5 | 31.6
1825 | 31,653,871 50| 10,947,510| 85,392,565| 96,340,075| 37.1 | 32.8
1826 | 26,083,861 97| 12,567,769| 72,406,708| 84,974,477| 34.6 | 30.7
1827 | 27,948,956 57| 11,855,104| 67,628,964| 79,484,068| 41.3 | 35.1
1828 | 29,951,251 90| 12,379,176| 76,130,648| 88,509,824| 39.3 | 33.8
1829 | 27,688,701 11| 11,805,501| 62,687,026| 74,492,527| 44.3 | 37.1
1830 | 28,389,505 05| 12,746,245| 58,130,675| 70,876,920| 48.8 | 40.0
1831 | 36,596,118 19| 13,456,625| 89,734,499|103,191,124| 40.8 | 35.4
1832 | 29,341,175 65| 14,249,453| 86,779,813|101,029,266| 33.8 | 29.0
1833 | 24,177,578 52| 32,447,950| 75,670,361|108,118,311| 31.9 | 22.4
1834 | 18,960,705 96| 68,393,180| 58,128,152|126,521,332| 32.6 | 15.0
1835 | 25,890,726 66| 77,940,493| 71,955,249|149,895,742| 36.0 | 17.2
1836 | 30,818,327 67| 92,056,481| 97,923,554|189,980,035| 31.6 | 16.2
1837 | 18,134,131 01| 69,250,031| 71,739,186|140,989,217| 25.3 | 12.4
1838 | 19,702,825 45| 60,860,005| 52,857,399|113,717,404| 37.8 | 17.3
1839 | 25,554,533 96| 76,401,792| 85,690,340|162,092,132| 29.9 | 15.8
1840 | 15,104,790 63| 57,196,204| 49,945,315|107,141,519| 30.4 | 14.1
1841 | 19,919,492 17| 66,019,731| 61,926,446|127,946,177| 32.2 | 15.6
1842 | 16,662,746 84| 30,627,486| 69,534,601|100,162,087| 23.1 | 16.6
1843 | 10,208,000 43| 35,574,584| 29,179,215| 64,753,799| 35.7 | 15.7
1844 | 29,236,357 38| 24,766,881| 83,668,154|108,435,035| 35.1 | 26.9
1845 | 30,952,416 21| 22,147,840| 95,106,724|117,254,564| 32.5 | 26.4
1846 | 26,712,668 00| 24,767,739| 96,924,058|121,691,797| 26.5 | 21.9
1847 | 23,747,865 00| 41,772,636|104,773,002|146,545,638| 22.5 | 16.2
1848 | 31,757,071 00| 22,716,603|132,282,325|154,998,928| 24.0 | 20.4
1849 | 28,346,739 00| 22,377,665|125,479,774|147,857,439| 23.0 | 19.2
1850 | 39,668,686 00| 22,710,382|155,427,936|178,138,318| 25.2 | 22.3
1851 | 49,017,568 00| 25,106,587|191,118,345|216,224,932| 26.0 | 22.6
1852 | 47,339,326 00| 29,692,934|183,252,508|212,945,442| 26.0 | 22.2
1853 | 58,931,865 00| 31,383,534|236,595,113|267,978,647| 25.0 | 22.0
1854 | 64,224,190 00| 33,285,821|271,276,560|304,562,381| 23.5 | 21.1
1855 | 53,025,794 00| 40,090,336|221,378,184|261,468,520| 23.0 | 20.3
1856 | 64,022,863 00| 56,955,706|257,684,236|314,639,942| 25.0 | 20.3
1857 | 63,875,905 00| 66,729,306|294,160,835|360,890,141| 21.5 | 17.7
1858 | 41,789,621 00| 80,319,275|202,293,875|282,613,150| 20.0 | 14.8
1859 | 49,565,824 00| 79,721,116|259,047,014|338,768,130| 19.0 | 14.6
1860 | 53,187,511 00| 90,841,749|279,872,327|362,166,254| 19.0 | 14.7
1861 | 39,582,126 00|†117,469,962|218,180,191|335,650,153| 18.14| 11.79
1862 | 49,056,398 00|† 69,136,705|136,635,024|205,771,729| 35.90| 23.84
1863 | 69,059,642 00| 44,826,029|208,093,891|252,919,920| 33.19| 27.30
1864 |102,316,153 00|† 54,241,944|275,320,951|329,562,895| 37.16| 31.04
1865 | 84,928,260 00| 54,329,588|194,226,064|248,555,652| 43.75| 34.17
1866 |179,046,630 00| 69,728,618|375,783,540|445,512,158| 47.65| 40.12
1867 |176,417,811 00| 45,203,970|372,627,601|417,831,571| 47.34| 42.22
1868 |164,464,596 00| 29,379,149|342,245,659|371,624,808| 48.05| 44.25
1869 |180,048,427 00| 41,454,568|395,859,687|437,314,255| 45.48| 41.17
1870 |192,878,265 00| 46,560,050|415,817,537|462,377,587| 46.37| 41.71
1871 | | 57,851,808|483,641,966|541,493,774| |
-----+--------------+------------+-----------+-----------+------+-------
* The percentages in these columns are approximately, not absolutely
correct, owing to the fact that the rates are computed upon the value of
merchandise, etc., imported, instead of the value of goods entering into
consumption in the respective years.
† These amounts do not include imports into the Southern ports during the
war, from which no revenue was derived, namely, in 1861, $17,089,234; in
1862, $90,789; and in 1864, $2,220.
TONNAGE.
11. Tonnage designates the capacity of a vessel for carrying goods,
which depends on the tons of weight it can receive, and is computed by
assigning so much space, in height, length, and breadth, to each ton. A
revenue, additional to that raised from the goods brought in vessels, is
produced by a tax on the tonnage, or carrying capacity of vessels.
It is laid, not only on foreign vessels, trading with our seaports, but
on our own vessels; a distinction being made so as to produce protection
in favor of our own commerce and ship-builders. This also is paid by
those who buy the goods brought in these vessels; since whatever duty is
laid on the carrying trade must be made up by the higher price of the
article brought. It is a way of levying taxes without directly calling
the attention of the people to the fact.
12. It is worthy of careful consideration whether the country would not
gain as much, by removing all these embarrassments to commerce with other
countries, and different points on our coasts, as has been gained by free
trade between the different States. The Constitution forbids taxes to be
levied on inter-State commerce, or trade, and the country is undoubtedly
the gainer by such a provision.
In 1790 a tonnage duty of 50 cents per ton was laid on foreign vessels,
and six cents on American vessels. During the Civil War the tonnage duty
was raised ten cents per ton on both foreign and American shipping.
Tonnage is collected only once a year by the collector of the port where
the vessel happens to be.
CHAPTER XII.
COLLECTION OF DUTIES.
1. The Tariff, or Scale of Duties, laid by the Laws of Congress, on
goods brought from foreign countries, requires to be paid when they are
first introduced; or we might say, _before_ they are introduced. All
these goods are stopped as they approach the boundary line, or _on_ the
boundary line, and carefully examined; and they can go no farther until
the duties imposed by Congress are received. When they have “passed the
Custom House” they may be as freely sold as goods produced at home. No
government officer has any right to interfere with them. They have paid
the duty and have the freedom of the land. If they, by any chance or
effort, get in by any other way, they are treated as stolen goods, and
may be seized and confiscated. However much they may have cost their
owners, however highly they may prize them, however unquestioned was
their ownership before they passed the limits of the country, if they are
introduced by any other than the Custom House Door, all right and title
to them by the former owners ceases, and they become the property of the
government.
2. So carefully is this point guarded that not only are government
officers provided for the sole purpose of watching against this illegal
introduction of goods, but a premium is offered to unofficial persons to
secure their aid. Any one who can point out (and prove the fact) goods
of any kind, liable to duty, that have not passed the custom house, and
paid that duty, is entitled to half the value of the goods; the other
half belonging to the government. Smuggling, as bringing goods into the
country without paying the duty is called, is held to be robbery of the
government, and ranks as a serious offense; and it really is so, as long
as the government produces its income, or part of it, in this way. The
law makes it part proprietor in the property until its claim is settled.
Besides, to take from the government is to take from the people; since
they must make up, in some other way, for what is subtracted in this.
3. To secure this payment of Duty, then, a large number of officers of
different grades are appointed, not only to examine the goods, determine
the amount required to be paid, receive the money and keep all the
accounts connected with it, but to take care that all the goods, of
whatever kind, that are not permitted an entrance free of duty, shall
duly pass examination, and be “entered,” as it is called, at the custom
house.
4. The Head of these officers is the
COMMISSIONER OF CUSTOMS.
He superintends the Customs Bureau in the Treasury Department. He
is nominated, and, with the consent of the Senate, appointed by the
President. All the accounts of officers employed in the collection of
duties on imports pass through his bureau for examination and adjustment;
he prepares the forms of all papers used in this department of the
revenue; directs the form of keeping the accounts; brings suits when
necessary for the recovery of money due from officers of the department;
and makes a report of any neglect of duty to Congress. A complete
summary, therefore, of the past and present condition of the customs
department may be found, at any time, in his office. With so perfect a
system of supervision it does not matter how extensive the organization
may be. No confusion is possible. There are more than 30,000 persons
employed Under this officer; and they are scattered through the whole
country where there are Ports of Entry or Delivery, as well as keeping
guard along the whole coast line and frontier of the United States; yet
they are under as complete discipline and surveillance as the army or
navy. This bureau was organized in 1849; its business having previously
been under the oversight of the First Comptroller of the Treasury. It has
general supervision of the conduct and accounts of all customs officials.
The highest in rank below this are
THE COLLECTORS.
5. Wherever there is a Port of Entry a Collector is appointed to
superintend the collection of duties, receive the money, and transmit
it to the United States Treasury. He is the principal officer of the
Collection District connected with this Port, which often embraces
several Ports of Delivery, and is required to see that all is properly
conducted in his district. He receives his appointment directly from the
President and Senate, and is removable at the pleasure of the President.
6. As, in ordinary times, the most of the revenue required for the
support of the government is derived from Customs, this is a responsible
office. Great care is required to secure the services of competent and
faithful men, and the bonds they are required to give are large. He
nominates the subordinate officers connected with his custom-house, and
the Secretary of the Treasury appoints them, if he sees no objection.
7. The Collectors take care that all the goods, on which Congress has
imposed a duty, pay the amount due. To this end he often requires one or
more deputies. The entire commerce of the part of the country falling
in his district, with other countries, passes under his examination. He
receives all reports, manifests, and documents required to be exhibited
by all vessels, domestic and foreign, on their entry into his port,
and all accounts of all the goods they have on board. On these he must
estimate the duties, receive the moneys, or bonds securing their payment,
and grant all permits for landing the goods. He transmits, quarterly, all
the moneys collected in his department, with an accurate account of all
the transactions of his office during the quarter, to the Secretary of
the Treasury. These accounts pass to the Customs bureau, and the money to
the Treasurer of the United States.
8. His duties, as described in the previous section, make him acquainted
with all the imports of the country, in his District or Port. He is also
required to examine the manifests of all the vessels, and the accounts of
their cargoes, that leave his port for a foreign country. This secures
a knowledge of all the exports of the country. It is his duty to give
clearances, or permits, to all vessels leaving for foreign ports. It
is unlawful for any vessel to depart without this document. A ship’s
clearance can be properly given only when her manifest, or detailed
account of the quantity, kind, and value of her cargo is ascertained to
be correct.
9. We give the form of a ship’s Manifest, and also of a Clearance.
A SHIP’S MANIFEST.
“Report and manifest of the cargo laden on board of the ____, whereof
____ is master, which cargo was taken on board at the port or ports of
____, burthen ____ tons, built at ____, in the State of ____, and owned
by ____, merchants at ____, and bound for ____.”
This, together with a particular description of the marks and numbers of
every bale, box, case, barrel, bundle or parcel on board of the vessel,
is the manifest. It must be given to the collector of whatever port the
vessel arrives at; and the master of her must swear that it is in all
respects a true and accurate account of all the cargo on board, to the
best of his knowledge and belief.
10. The collector of the port can then compute the duties to be paid upon
each article, and when these are paid, or secured to be paid, he gives
permits to land the cargo, and deliver the goods to their respective
owners. Then come in the duties of weighers, gaugers, measurers and
inspectors of the customs, after permits are obtained to land the goods.
If they are such as require to be weighed, gauged, or measured, these
officers are sent to do it; and the inspector must allow nothing to leave
the ship until he has examined the marks and numbers, to see if they
correspond with the permit and the manifest. If he suspects that there
is an attempt to defraud the government by false names and marks, he is
authorized to open the package, box, case, cask, or whatever contains the
goods, and to examine them. In this way smuggling is prevented, and the
revenues arising from duties on imported goods secured.
A SHIP’S CLEARANCE.
This document is couched in the following terms:
“_District of ____, Port of ____, ss._
“These are to certify, to all whom it may concern, that A. B., master
or commander of the ship (brig, barque, schooner) burthen ____ tons or
thereabouts, mounted with ____ guns, navigated with ____ men, ____. ____
built, and bound for ____, having on board ____, hath here entered and
cleared his said vessel according to law.
“Given under our hands and seals, at the custom-house of ____, this ____
day of ____, one thousand ____, and in the ____ year of the Independence
of the United States of America.”
This is signed by the collector and by the naval officer of the port,
when the commander is prepared to depart with his vessel to his
destination.
11. The compensation of collectors is not all given in the form of a
salary, but in part the fees for services rendered, and part of the
forfeitures of smuggled goods. In the larger ports it is enormous, but
in the smaller ones is often insignificant. It is a common mode of
doing business of this kind, and is supposed to stimulate the activity
and secure the faithfulness of the officer in preventing frauds on the
government. The working of this plan is sometimes complained of as
inspiring an over-officiousness embarrassing to trade and unnecessarily
annoying to importers; and as producing too great an inequality in
incomes. It is difficult to make a system quite perfect. Whether this
admits of improvement remains to be seen.
SURVEYORS
12. Are next in rank and authority to the Collectors. They are appointed
in the same manner and receive their compensation in the same way. The
Surveyor’s duty is to superintend the inspectors, weighers, measurers,
and gaugers in his port; to visit all vessels arriving in it; make a
detailed report of them to the Collector; and examine all goods entered
for the benefit of drawback.
THE NAVAL OFFICER
13. Of a port, is another of the superintendents, appointed to oversee
the collection of the revenue. His appointment depends on the President
and Senate, and his compensation on the amount of business done in his
port, in the same manner as the Collector and Surveyor. His duties are,
to some extent, parallel to those of the Collector; or he may be called
a local examiner and auditor of the Collector’s work and accounts, for
the sake of accuracy and correctness. He receives copies of all manifests
and entries, and computes the duties on all goods, keeping a separate
record of them. He must countersign permits, clearances, certificates,
debentures, and other documents issued by the Collector. He examines the
Collector’s accounts, bonds, and expenditures, and certifies to them, if
correct.
A great number of deputies and employees are required to carry out the
details of the collection of duties, since the entire amount of imports
into the country are required to be carefully examined.
REVENUE CUTTERS
14. Are employed to guard against smuggling. They are vessels of small
size, some steamers, and others sailing vessels, properly manned and
armed, of high powers of speed; and are stationed as a coast guard near
the ports, and lines of ocean travel, to prevent the landing of imported
goods before they have paid the duty. Their officers are appointed by the
President and Senate.
They look after all the ships going into any port, or any that may
approach the coast; board them when within four leagues (or 12 miles)
of the coast; examine the manifest of the cargo and every part of the
vessel; put proper fastenings on the hatches, to prevent unlawful
communication with the hold until the Custom’s officers have discharged
their duty; and place a watch on board to remain until the vessel is
delivered into the charge of the proper revenue officer.
15. They are revenue officers, and under the control of the Secretary
of the Treasury, and the Collectors at the ports near which they are
stationed. In case the President judges it best, they may be called on,
at his direction, to coöperate with the Navy, and, in case they are
disabled in the discharge of their duty at such times, are entitled to be
treated in the same manner as officers and sailors in the Navy.
16. These vessels carry a pennant and ensign with such marks on them as
the President may designate. If any vessel liable to seizure refuses
to bring to at the direction of the commander of the Cutter, he is
authorized to fire into it after having shown his pennant and ensign,
and compel it to submit to be boarded and examined. Much depends on the
vigilance of these revenue cutters, as the sums paid on goods imported
amount to a great many millions of dollars, and want of due precaution
would cause the income of the government to be defrauded of large sums.
The commanders of revenue cutters report all matters relating to their
duties weekly to the Collector of the port.
CHAPTER XIII.
GOVERNMENT COINAGE.
1. The United States mint, located at Philadelphia, is one of the most
important establishments of the government. An act of Congress, passed in
1792, was the first step towards its creation. Its design was, and its
principal business has been, to coin the precious metals into money.
It has been for more than eighteen hundred years the usage of civilized
governments to coin their own money. Ours, at a very early period of its
existence, began to do the same thing, and will probably continue to do
it as long as it shall exist. Before the art of coining was known, the
precious metals were used as a standard of value, but they passed from
one to another by weight. The plan of cutting them into small pieces, and
then stamping their value upon them, by which their worth could be known
as soon as seen, was an improvement upon the former mode. This process is
denominated coining. It has of late been brought so near perfection that
our pieces of money are fine specimens of art.
2. The officers, who manage and conduct the operations of this
establishment, are a Director, a Treasurer, an Assayer, a Melter and
Refiner, a Chief Coiner, and an Engraver. They are all appointed by the
President and Senate in the usual manner. The director appoints the
assistants and clerks.
All must give bonds for the faithful performance of their respective
duties upon which they enter under oath. The duties of these different
officers may almost be known by the names they bear. The director is the
head of the institution, and the others act under his general direction,
each having his appropriate duties to perform. In the month of January
of each year the director must make a report to the President of the
operations of the mint and its branches for the preceding year.
3. Any person may take gold or silver bullion or ores to the mint and
receive it back in coin, for a very trifling expense. Before it is
coined, after its value has been determined by the assayer, the director
will give a certificate for it, which is of the same value as the bullion
deposited.
4. We have stated that the principal business at the mint is the
conversion of the precious metals into coin or money. But this is not
its exclusive business. Another part is to melt and assay these metals,
and to run them into ingots or bars either of pure or standard gold and
silver, according to the wish of its owner.
Until 1835 the mint at Philadelphia was the only establishment in the
United States for coining money. But in that year a law was passed
establishing branch mints at New Orleans, in Louisiana; at Charlotte, in
North Carolina; and at Dahlonega, in Georgia. In 1852, another branch
was established in California; in 1862, another at Denver, in Colorado
Territory; and in 1863, another at Carson City, in Nevada Territory,
since made a State; in 1864, another at San Francisco, in California,
and another at Dallas City, in Oregon. Except the one in California, but
little has ever been done at these branches. They are all similar to the
principal one at Philadelphia; and the laws relating to that are made to
apply to these branches.
6. The Constitution gives Congress the exclusive right to coin money, and
prohibits all the States from doing it. This Congress does by the laws it
passes in relation to the subject, and the various officers and workmen
employed to execute the work are only the agents of Congress.
The various coins which Congress has from time to time ordered to be made
are of the following names and value:
_Gold._ _Value._
Eagle, $10 00
Half-Eagle, 5 00
Quar. Eag., 2 50
Doub. Eag., 20 00
Three Dols., 3 00
One Dollar, 1 00
_Silver._ _Value._
Dollar, $1 00
Half-Dollar, 50
Quar. Dol., 25
Dime, 10
Half Dime, 5
Three ct. piece, 3
_Copper._
One cent,
Two cents,
Three cents,
and formerly ½ c.
But these are now discontinued.
7. Our coins are not made of pure gold and silver; a certain amount of
other metals being added to produce a coin that will be less affected by
the friction of constant use. This alloy, or mixture, of the precious
metals is called Standard gold or silver, since a definite amount of
the alloy is required in all the coinage of the government for currency
purposes. It does not alter the value of the coin; that being dependent
on the actual merchantable value of the sum of the metals used. By the
law of 1837, standard gold and silver were declared to be nine hundred
parts of pure metal, and one hundred parts alloy—equal to one-tenth
alloy. Gold coins are alloyed with silver and copper, equal parts of
each. Silver coins are alloyed with copper alone. Gold is declared to be
worth fifteen times as much as silver by weight.
In addition to our own coins, Congress has, from time to time, passed
laws declaring the value of foreign coins, and making them a legal
tender. But these laws were all repealed by the act of 1857, and it was
made the duty of the director of the mint to have them assayed, and to
determine their weight, fineness, and value; for they are still used by
banks and merchants, and pass at the value determined by the mint.
The mint, up to 1861, had coined in gold, silver, and copper coin,
800,662,475 pieces, worth $799,923,362.
THE UNITED STATES MINT.
Statement of Domestic Gold and Silver deposited at the United States Mint
and Branches, for Coinage, to June 30th, 1872.
---------------------+----------------+---------------+-----------------
FROM. | GOLD. | SILVER. | GOLD AND SILVER.
---------------------+----------------+---------------+-----------------
California | $642,965,026.09| $156,423.03| $643,121,449.12
Montana | 30,648,265.24| 176,838.57| 30,825,103.81
Colorado | 20,338,420.96| 1,114,543.43| 21,452,964.39
Idaho | 17,141,523.84| 291,681.59| 17,433,205.43
Oregon | 11,594,979.33| 1,863.74| 11,596,843.07
North Carolina | 9,865,252.97| 44,110.95| 9,909,363.92
Nevada | 1,010,280.17| 8,539,868.04| 9,550,148.21
Georgia | 7,232,346.96| 403.83| 7,232,750.79
Virginia | 1,629,188.79| ----| 1,629,188.79
South Carolina | 1,379,121.92| ----| 1,379,121.92
Lake Superior | ----| 1,062,540.81| 1,062,540.81
Arizona | 975,401.39| 39,873.08| 1,015,274.47
New Mexico | 823,021.29| ----| 823,021.29
Utah | 146,147.18| 261,204.71| 407,351.89
Nebraska | 24,381.57| 200,976.53| 225,358.10
Alabama | 213,750.66| ----| 213,750.66
Wyoming Territory | 138,878.12| 86.48| 138,964.60
Tennessee | 81,529.69| ----| 81,529.69
Washington Territory | 67,745.38| ----| 67,745.38
New Mexico and Sonora| ----| 51,653.31| 51,653.31
Dakota | 5,760.00| ----| 5,760.00
Vermont | 5,611.97| ----| 5,611.97
Kansas | 1,009.62| 468.00| 1,477.62
Sitka | 397.64| ----| 397.64
Maryland | 108.00| ----| 108.00
Other Sources | 85,226,912.42| 2,751.15| 85,229,663.57
Parted from Silver | 4,690,402.30| ----| 4,690,402.30
Fine Bars | ----| 5,298,490.02| 5,298,490.02
Parted from Gold | ----| 5,821,721.97| 5,821,721.97
---------------------+----------------+---------------+-----------------
Total | $836,205,463.50| $23,065,492.24| $859,270,962.47
---------------------+----------------+---------------+-----------------
ASSAY OFFICE.
1. In 1853 the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to establish an
office in the city of New York for the receipt, melting, refining and
assaying of gold and silver bullion and foreign coins, and for casting
the same into bars, ingots, or disks. The assistant treasurer of the
United States in New York, is treasurer of this assay office, and the
Secretary of the Treasury appoints such other clerks, assistants, and
workmen as shall be necessary for the management of its business.
2. Persons having gold or silver bullion, ores or foreign coin, may
deposit them in his office, and it will be refined and assayed (at
no more cost than the actual expense of doing the work), its value
ascertained, and the owner will be paid for it in coins of the same value
and metal as that deposited. It is not coined in this office, but cast
into bars, ingots or disks—either of pure metal or of standard fineness,
as the owner may prefer—the true weight and value of which are stamped
thereon; and the owner may either take them in payment for his bullion or
foreign coin, or it will be coined for him at the United States Mint, if
he wishes. The bars spoken of are often kept in that form, and are used
as coin among banks, brokers, and merchants, who receive and pay large
amounts of the precious metals. With them it passes as coin, for its
exact weight and value are stamped upon it.
3. This establishment was located at New York more for the convenience
of those who do business there, than for the necessity of such an
institution; for at the mint at Philadelphia there is a department
for doing the same work as is done here. But at New York there is a
larger amount of foreign coin than in any other place, and it is often
advantageous to its owners to have it converted into American coin, that
it may be used with greater facility. Although many foreign coins do
circulate in this country, but few know their value. Consequently they
do not pass so readily; and for this reason they are melted and run into
bars of known value, or re-coined into American money.
CHAPTER XIV.
NATIONAL BANKING.
1. The present banking system was established by an act of Congress in
1863. The plan is quite different from any before in use, and commends
itself to the whole country by the stability it gives to the currency in
use in the transaction of its business, and the security it furnishes
against loss of values common under the old systems. They are managed by
private parties and corporations, apart from the government, but under a
certain degree of supervision, and by its authority. By the act referred
to any number of persons not less than five may associate themselves
together for the purpose of banking, by compliance with the following
conditions:
2. First: They must, under their hands and seals, make a certificate
which shall specify—
1. The name assumed by such association.
2. The place where its business is to be conducted.
3. The amount of its capital stock (which cannot be less than $50,000),
and the number of its shares.
4. The names of its shareholders, and the number of shares held by each.
5. The time when such association shall commence business.
6. A declaration that said certificate is made to enable such persons to
avail themselves of the advantages of this act.
3. This certificate must be properly acknowledged before some competent
person, and must be sent to the comptroller of the currency in the
Treasury Department, to be recorded and kept by him. When this, and all
other acts which the law requires, has been done by the association, the
comptroller of the currency gives them a certificate under his hand and
official seal, to that effect, and that they are authorized to commence
business. This constitutes the association a corporation. They have the
right to make and use a common seal, and have all the rights, and are
liable to all the responsibilities of ordinary legalized corporations;
and may exist not to exceed twenty years from the passage of this
act. Every shareholder is made personally liable for the debts of the
association or bank, to the amount of the par value of his stock.
4. In order to secure the holders of bills issued by these banks, they
must deposit with the Treasurer of the United States, United States
bonds bearing interest to an amount not less than one-third of the
capital stock paid in. These bonds are safely kept by the Treasurer. The
comptroller of the currency then issues to the bank an amount of bank
notes equal to the amount of bonds thus deposited, less ten per cent.
In case the bank should fail to redeem its circulating bills, its bonds
are sold, and with the proceeds the comptroller of the currency redeems
them, or orders them to be paid at the United States Treasury. The bonds
held by the Treasurer as security for the redemption of the bills issued
by the association, must be transferred to him in trust; thus giving him
entire control of them in case it becomes necessary to sell them in order
to redeem the bills of any association which may have failed to pay them
on demand.
5. This act has brought a great number of banks into existence, besides
organizing most of the banks formerly existing under State laws under
this system; so that we have a nearly uniform system of banking all over
the United States. The bills of these banks pass in any part of the
country, which was not often the case formerly. In case the bank should
be mismanaged, or fail to pay for any cause, there is ample security for
their redemption deposited in the United States treasury, where they will
be paid on presentation.
6. The bill-holder is also better protected against counterfeits than he
was under the old system; for all the bills issued by these associations
are engraved by the government, and the plates and dies on which they
are printed are kept by the comptroller of the currency in the Treasury
Department. The engraving is done in the best possible manner, and it is
exceedingly difficult to counterfeit them. Besides this, they all have
the imprint of the seal of the Treasury on their face, and are numbered
and countersigned by the treasurer and register. With all these guards
and precautions, we have the best paper currency ever used since the
establishment of the government.
7. This act necessarily threw upon the Treasury Department a great
increase of labor, and in order to provide for it a separate bureau was
created, which is denominated the bureau of currency, the chief officer
of which is called the comptroller of currency. He acts under the general
direction of the Secretary of the Treasury. This bureau is charged with
the execution of this and all other laws that may be passed by Congress
respecting the national currency. The comptroller of the currency is
appointed by the President and Senate, has a deputy, receives a salary
of $5,000 per year, holds his office five years, has an official seal,
gives bonds to the amount of $100,000, and takes and subscribes the oath
of office prescribed by the Constitution and the laws. His duties are
numerous and very responsible, he having hundreds of millions under his
care.
The term national banks, given to these institutions, and national
currency to the bills they issue, were given from the fact that they
were organized by an act of Congress, and that the security for the
redemption of their bills consists exclusively of national bonds; no
other securities will be taken.
CHAPTER XV.
FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE UNITED STATES.
1. The United States government belongs to its people. Those people own
property estimated at upwards of thirty billions of dollars. The public
lands belonging to the government are between one and one and a half
billions of acres. Besides, the public domains contain gold, silver,
iron, coal, and a large number of other mineral deposits, chiefly in
regions worthless for agricultural purposes, of unknown, but ascertained
to be, at least, a very great quantity—enough to make all its present
inhabitants millionaires if (besides paying the debt) their value could
be divided among them. The capacity of the country for production is very
far beyond what is drawn from it now. The future will probably increase
it a thousand fold, for we are yet a new people, and in the act of
settling ourselves to the work of development.
We are very rich, if all our resources are taken into account, yet we are
in debt. In five years from the commencement of the civil war the public
debt had run up from less than one hundred million dollars to over two
billion seven hundred millions. This we began to reduce at once, for as
a nation we do not like to be in debt; and it was, December 1st, 1873,
a little over two billion one hundred and fifty millions. The debt is,
indeed, a trifle compared with our vast national property; but we do
not wish to sell our property at a loss, nor disturb the regular course
of business; so it stands to be gradually paid in the regular course of
things, as we find it to be convenient.
It is a vast sum, but gives more trouble by reason of the desire and
determination of the people to pay it soon, and sacrifice no property,
than from any inability to meet it.
We add a table of the Public Debt for every year since 1791, a Statement
of the debt in detail Dec. 1st, 1873, and various Statistics relating to
the finances, resources, and business of the country.
THE PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES, IN EACH YEAR, FROM 1791 TO 1874.
1791 75,463,476.52
1792 77,227,924.66
1793 80,352,634.04
1794 78,427,404.77
1795 80,747,587.38
1796 83,762,172.07
1797 82,064,479.33
1798 79,228,529.12
1799 78,408,669.77
1800 82,976,294.35
1801 83,038,050.80
1802 80,712,632.25
1803 77,054,686.30
1804 86,427,120.88
1805 82,312,150.50
1806 75,723,270.66
1807 69,218,398.64
1808 65,196,317.97
1809 57,023,192.09
1810 53,173,217.52
1811 48,005,587.76
1812 45,209,737.90
1813 55,962,827.57
1814 81,487,846.24
1815 99,833,660.15
1816 127,334,933.74
1817 123,491,965.16
1818 103,466,633.83
1819 95,529,648.28
1820 91,015,566.15
1821 89,987,427.66
1822 93,546,676.98
1823 90,875,877.28
1824 90,269,777.77
1825 83,788,432.71
1826 81,054,059.99
1827 73,987,357.20
1828 67,475,043.87
1829 58,421,413.67
1830 48,565,406.50
1831 39,123,191.68
1832 24,322,235.18
1833 7,001,032.88
1834 4,760,081.08
1835 351,289.05
1836 291,089.05
1837 1,878,223.55
1838 4,857,660.46
1839 11,983,737.53
1840 5,125,077.63
1841 6,737,398.00
1842 15,028,486.37
1843 27,203,450.69
1844 24,748,188.23
1845 17,093,794.80
1846 16,750,926.33
1847 38,956,623.38
1848 48,526,379.37
1849 64,704,693.71
1850 64,228,238.37
1851 62,560,395.26
1852 65,131,692.13
1853 67,340,628.78
1854 47,242,206.05
1855 39,969,731.05
1856 30,963,909.64
1857 29,060,386.90
1858 44,910,777.66
1859 58,754,699.33
1860 64,769,703.08
1861 90,867,828.68
1862 514,211,371.92
1863 1,098,793,181.37
1864 1,740,690,489.49
1865 2,682,593,026.53
1866 2,783,425,879.21
1867 2,692,199,215.12
1868 2,643,753,566.38
1869 2,652,533,662.28
1870 2,509,270,608.00
1871 2,303,573,543.00
1872 2,197,743,440.72
1873 2,153,489,155.96
Apr. 1874 2,152,690,728.62
Oct. 1875 2,122,466,227.
UNITED STATES BONDS.
SIXES OF 1861.—Dated 1861, and redeemable in twenty years from January
1st and July 1st of that year. Interest six per cent. in gold, payable
semi-annually—January 1st and July 1st. These Bonds were issued in three
series: Under Act February 8th, 1861, $18,415,000; dated variously in
1861. Under Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861. $50,000,000; dated
November 16th, 1861. Under Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861, in
exchange for 7-30’s, $139,317,150; dated November 16th, 1861. Under Act
March 3d, 1863, and principal made especially payable in gold coin,
$75,000,000; dated June 15th, 1864. Total issue, $282,732,150.
FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1862.—Commonly termed _Old_ Five-Twenties, dated May
1st, 1862. Redeemable after five years, and payable in twenty years
from date. Interest six per cent. in gold, payable the first of May and
November. Issued under Act February 25th, 1862, $514,771,600.
FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1864.—Dated November 1st, 1864. Redeemable after five,
and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st
of May and November. Issued under Act March 3d, 1864 (principal specified
as payable in gold), $3,882,500. Issued under Act June 30th, 1864,
$125,561,300. Total issue, $129,443,800.
FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1865.—Dated July 1st, 1865. Interest, six per cent. in
gold, payable January and July. They are redeemable in five years, and
payable in twenty years. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for
7-30 notes converted, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $372,346,350.
FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1865.—Dated November 1st, 1865. Redeemable after five,
and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st
of May and November. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, $197,777,250.
FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1867. Dated July 1st, 1867. Redeemable in five, and
payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st of
January and July. Issued under Act March 3, 1865, in exchange for 7-30
notes, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $371,346,350.
FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1868.—Dated July 1st, 1868. Redeemable in five, and
payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st of
January and July. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30
notes, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $39,000,000.
TEN-FORTIES.—Dated March 1st, 1864. Redeemable in ten and payable in
forty years. Interest, five per cent. in gold, payable on the 1st of
March and September on all Registered Bonds, and on all Coupon Bonds of
the denomination of $500 and $1,000. On the $50 and $100 Bonds, interest
is paid annually, March 1st. Issued under Act March 3d, 1863, and
Supplement, March 3d, 1864; principal, payable in gold, $194,291,500.
FIVES OF 1870.—Redeemable at the pleasure of the United States, after
May 1, 1881, in gold. Interest, five per cent. in gold, payable
quarterly—February, May, August, and November 1st. Exempt from all
taxation. Issued under Acts of July 14th, 1870, and January 20th, 1871.
Amount, $200,000,000.
U. S. PACIFIC RAILROAD CURRENCY SIXES.—Dated January 16th, 1865, and
variously thereafter. These Bonds are issued by the Government, under
Acts July 1st, 1862, and July 2d, 1864, to companies receiving their
charter from Congress, which gives them the right to construct railroads
to and from the Pacific Coast, and on the completion of each twenty
miles of track, to receive at the rate of $16,000, $22,000, or $48,000
per mile, according to the difficulty of constructing the same. They are
payable thirty years from date of issue, and are registered in Bonds
of $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000. Amount issued to September 1st, 1870,
$64,618,832. All of the Bonds are issued “Coupon” or “Registered.” Coupon
Bonds can be changed into Registered Bonds, but Registered Bonds cannot
be changed into Coupons. Coupon Bonds are in denominations of $50, $100,
$500, and $1,000: the Registered Bonds the same, with addition of $5,000
and $10,000.
--------------------+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
| Real and | Real and | Real and
STATES | Personal | Personal | Personal
AND | Estate. | Estate. | Estate.
TERRITORIES. +-----------------+-----------------+---------------
| 1870. | 1860. | 1850.
--------------------+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
United States | $30,068,518,507 | $16,159,616,068 | $7,135,780,228
+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
States | 29,822,535,140 | 16,086,519,771 | 7,115,600,800
+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
Alabama | 201,855,841 | 495,237,078 | 228,204,332
Arkansas | 156,394,691 | 219,256,473 | 39,841,025
California | 638,767,017 | 207,874,613 | 22,161,872
Connecticut | 774,631,524 | 444,274,114 | 155,707,980
Delaware | 97,180,833 | 46,242,181 | 21,062,556
Florida | 44,163,655 | 73,101,500 | 22,862,270
Georgia | 268,169,207 | 645,895,237 | 335,425,714
Illinois | 2,121,680,579 | 871,860,282 | 156,265,006
Indiana | 1,268,180,543 | 528,835,371 | 202,650,264
Iowa | 717,644,750 | 247,338,265 | 23,714,638
Kansas | 188,892,014 | 31,327,895 | ----
Kentucky | 604,318,552 | 666,043,112 | 301,628,456
Louisiana | 323,125,666 | 602,118,568 | 233,998,764
Maine | 348,155,671 | 190,211,600 | 122,777,571
Maryland | 643,748,976 | 376,919,944 | 219,217,364
Massachusetts | 2,132,148,741 | 815,237,433 | 573,342,286
Michigan | 719,208,118 | 257,163,983 | 59,787,255
Minnesota | 228,909,590 | 52,294,413 | ----
Mississippi | 209,197,345 | 607,324,911 | 228,951,130
Missouri | 1,284,922,897 | 501,214,398 | 137,247,707
Nebraska | 69,277,483 | 9,131,056 | ----
Nevada | 31,134,012 | ---- | ----
New Hampshire | 252,624,112 | 156,310,860 | 103,652,835
New Jersey | 940,976,064 | 467,918,324 | 200,000,000
New York | 6,500,841,264 | 1,843,338,517 | 1,080,309,216
North Carolina | 260,757,244 | 358,739,399 | 226,800,472
Ohio | 2,235,430,300 | 1,193,898,422 | 504,726,120
Oregon | 51,558,932 | 28,930,637 | 5,063,474
Pennsylvania | 3,808,340,111 | 1,416,501,818 | 722,486,120
Rhode Island | 296,965,646 | 135,337,588 | 80,508,794
South Carolina | 208,146,989 | 548,138,754 | 288,257,694
Tennessee | 498,237,724 | 493,903,892 | 201,246,686
Texas | 159,052,542 | 365,200,614 | 52,740,473
Vermont | 235,349,553 | 122,477,170 | 92,205,049
Virginia | 409,588,133 | 793,249,681 | 430,701,082
West Virginia | 190,651,491 | ---- | ----
Wisconsin | 702,307,329 | 273,671,668 | 42,056,595
+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
Territories | 245,983,367 | 73,096,297 | 20,179,428
+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
Arizona | $3,440,791 | ---- | ----
Colorado | 20,243,303 | ---- | ----
Dakota | 5,599,752 | ---- | ----
District of Columbia| 126,873,616 | 41,084,945 | 14,018,814
Idaho | 6,552,681 | ---- | ----
Montana | 15,184,522 | ---- | ----
New Mexico | 31,349,793 | 20,813,768 | 5,174,471
Utah | 16,159,995 | 5,596,118 | 986,083
Washington | 13,562,164 | 5,601,466 | ----
Wyoming | 7,016,748 | ---- | ----
--------------------+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
THE AVERAGE WEALTH TO EACH INDIVIDUAL.