CHAPTER XII.

Tomb of Napoleon—The willows—Contrasted feelings of the French

and English visitors to Buonaparte’s grave—Fish—Sail from St.

Helena—Island of Ascension—Frigate birds—Shark sucking a Pilot

Fish—The Sargasso weed—Condition of the Crowned pigeons—A

swallow captured during migration—Temperature—Arrival at

Gravesend.

The day of our arrival we visited the place of repose of the mortal

remains of Napoleon. The rising road towards Longwood was cut on the

surface of a lofty, barren hill, gradually ascending as we advanced,

which afforded a sterile view, varied by a few scattered shrubs of

Cactus, Furze-bushes, and Frocoides, bestowing some animation by their

blossoms to the arid soil, which barely seemed capable of affording them

nourishment. The varying view of the town and shipping on the ascent,

formed a picturesque scene, and gave some interest to the monotonous

character of the country. On advancing, the distant view of a cascade,

which falls into a small stream over a fresh-looking green sward, and

which supplies the shipping with that necessary article of life, is a

pleasing sight, the water being conveyed to the landing-place at the town

by means of iron pipes.

The Briars is passed on the right, but much altered in appearance since

it was honoured by being the temporary residence of the Corsican. There

are some plantations of mulberry-trees at this place, for the purpose of

introducing the cultivation of silk on the island; but which, I should

suppose, will never succeed to any extent.

Before reaching the grave, the eye is charmed by the deep glens,

plantations, and neat houses. The furze-bushes with their yellow

blossoms, the bramble, and other European plants, reminded the voyager of

home and all its endearing charms. The hedges of the aloe, with its high

stem surmounted by clusters of flowers, together with the carolling of

the numerous birds from all countries, which had been introduced and set

at liberty on the island, increased the delight which had been already

experienced.[82] The pheasant and partridge have also been introduced,

and thrive well. At last, on arriving at a more level road, the beautiful

fertile vale was seen, descending from Huyt’s Gate, but becoming, as it

advances towards the sea, a series of deep, rugged and romantic ravines,

destitute of any vegetation, and varied by the different tints afforded

by the volcanic strata.

The grave of Napoleon, when descried from the height above, has a

pleasing aspect, and the view of it from that situation is very

picturesque. A pathway leads to the place; and by a gradual descent the

visitor arrives at the tomb of Napoleon, overshadowed by the weeping

willows. About the spot are gay hedges, brilliant with the blossoms of

the scarlet geraniums, the flowers of a pretty _Althæa_, of a straw

colour, and others. The green-sward around the tomb gives a freshness and

beauty to this spot, consecrated by the late ruler of thousands, who now

reposes in the solemn stillness of death, under the shade of his chosen,

mournful, but fast-perishing trees.

The willows show evident symptoms of age. They seem to be getting more

and more thin of branches. Since a visit I made to this spot, in

February, 1831, another of the trees has perished, although the trunk

still remains erect in its place. Thus, of five trees (the original

number) only three now remain: their age is about thirty-five years;

they were planted by Mr. Tarbut, a resident at St. Helena, and former

possessor of the spot we were now visiting. A number of slips from the

old trees have been planted on the opposite side of the grave, and being

in a flourishing condition[83] on the death of the old trees, the stock

will be perpetuated by the young ones. There are also several cypresses

planted in the inclosure, with every appearance of becoming handsome

trees.

On entering a wicket-gate, a short path leads to a paling, inclosing

a green lawn, in which, surrounded by a plain cast-iron railing, is

the vault in which the body of Napoleon, arrayed in full uniform, is

deposited, inclosed in four coffins. The vault is extensive, and covered

by three plain Portland stones taken from the kitchen of the new house

at Longwood,[84] and cemented together. An order from the town-major

enables strangers to enter the inclosure, procure slips of the willow,

and, one of the cast-iron railings surrounding the vault being broken,

either accidentally or on purpose, the attendant will permit visitors to

enter and tread over him now dead, who, when living, trod on the necks of

monarchs.

Should there be visitors of both the French and English nations at the

sepulchre of Napoleon, it is interesting to observe the feelings produced

in the minds of both: the first regarding the spot as both sacred and

classic, by the presence of the mortal remains of one, the former ruler

of their nation, and who, under the revolutionary flag, had gained so

many laurels, which it was his fate to lose at Waterloo, against an

allied army. He then found himself a voluntary prisoner, on board one of

those British ships of war, which had, under the proud banner of Britain,

cleared the ocean of his ships, and he at last died an exile on the

rock of St. Helena. This affords a fine lesson to posterity, of a great

genius, who having elevated himself to be the ruler of a powerful nation,

fell, and died in captivity, through his over-ambition. The French shed

tears on visiting the grave of their beloved emperor; and the album, kept

at the tomb for the reception of the names and tributary effusions of

the visitors gives ample evidence of the feelings which a visit to this

spot produces in their minds, and displays the characteristic fervor of

the nation.[85]

Such may be the feelings of the former; but the majority of the English

display a recklessness of manner, or mere feelings of common curiosity,

on visiting a place so interesting. No one ought to visit this spot

without reflecting on the life of him, whose sceptre fell from his grasp,

and left him to live and die an exile, attended only by a faithful

few,—all they asked was

——“To divide

Every peril he must brave;

Sharing by the hero’s side

His fall, his exile, and his grave.”

Close to the grave is the clear spring whence the water for his use

was procured, and on once visiting the spot, he selected it as his

resting-place, should he die upon the island; a foreboding realized not

a very long time after.

On returning from our visit to the tomb, and dining, we took a walk

about the town, and entered the small garden, kept in very neat order,

dignified by the name of Botanic Garden; it affords a cool and agreeable

promenade, but contains nothing to excite the attention of any one who

had previously visited India.[86]

News having arrived at the island, of its having been changed from the

Honourable the East India Company’s to the King’s government, much

speculation has been excited in consequence both among the Company’s

officers and residents. As may be expected, on such a subject, there is a

great variety of opinions: the inhabitants enjoy their own notions, none

of which will probably ever be realized. They are daily in expectation of

news from England on the subject, to relieve them from suspense.

Fish is very abundant, and not confined, as I formerly supposed, to

albicore, mackarel, boneto, and flying-fish; but they have a great number

of species, (it has been stated amounting to even so many as a hundred

and twenty,) consisting of bream, perch, &c.; and many I tasted, were of

very excellent and delicate flavour.

On the afternoon of the following day, (25th,) we sailed from St. Helena,

and experienced between that island and Ascension a light trade-wind,

which would occasionally freshen for a short period. Early on the

morning of the 4th of March, the _Island of Ascension_ was seen, bearing

north-west-half-west, by compass distant about twenty-five miles.[87] Our

course was steered, so as to pass close to the settlement. The appearance

of the island is sterile in the extreme, seeming only calculated for

the habitation of the numerous oceanic birds which hovered about the

ship in great numbers. Volcanic rocks, in rugged and mis-shapen masses,

terminating in abrupt precipices, or shelving declivities, form the

principal feature of the island. And when the clouds which enveloped

the Green Mountain passed away, its verdant character contrasted in a

very beautiful manner with the sterile rocks and mountains, red with the

_tufa_, or volcanic ash, beneath. Some little white habitations, perched

on the ledge of one part of the lofty eminence, and distinctly seen from

the ship, had a very pretty and pleasing effect, as a bright sun diffused

its rays over the scene, which for some time remained clear from even a

passing cloud.

A number of gannets were busily engaged in fishing, and, from the shoals

of flying-fish about, must have enjoyed excellent sport. The frigate

birds, (_Trachypetes aquila_, Vieill.) on the contrary, hovered over the

vessel, viewing with curiosity the expanded sails and progressive motion

of the ship, “walking the waters like a thing of life,” regarding it,

with their usual indolence and aristocracy of manner, instead of fishing

like the other industrious birds about them. From all the frigate-birds

having white abdomens, and being deficient in the red pouch, I presume

they were females. The bills of the whole of those about the ship were

of a dirty white colour, although described in several works of natural

history as red.

On a former voyage, a female of the man-of-war hawk (_Trachypetes

aquila_) was shot off this island from the deck of the ship, from the

numbers which hovered over the vessel. The bird, when struck by the shot,

made for the land; but soon after, as if feeling that it would be unable

to reach it, returned, with a wavering flight, towards the ship, and

we felt confident that she would come on board; approaching the ship,

her flight became lower and more unsteady, until she fell dead into the

water, quite close to the ship, near the mizen chains, just as we were in

expectation that she would have fallen upon the poop.

Numerous sea-swallows (_Sterna hirundo_, Linn.) and brown boobies flew

about the ship as we approached nearer the land; the former fishing

in groups. After the toil of the day, they return in small flocks to

the island, usually about the close of the evening, (as well as the

gannets and other birds that do not wander far from the land,) reposing

and breeding among the ledges of the huge masses of sterile volcanic

rocks.[88]

The frigate birds, (or sea-hawks, as they are also named,) are seldom

or never seen far distant from land: the male birds are black, and have

a red pouch; the females have a white breast, and are destitute of the

pouch. In procuring fish for their food, these birds prefer seizing it

from the boobies and gannets, instead of catching it themselves. To

attain this object, the sea-hawk hovers above the gannet, (which is

the bird most usually selected for attack,) and, darting rapidly down,

strikes him on the back of the head, causing him to disgorge his prey,

which is seized by the hawk with an inconceivable rapidity before it

reaches the water, and afterwards soars aloft to look out for another

object of attack. It is not an uncommon circumstance to observe a single

gannet selected from a flock, and come out to be the subject of attack,

as if he had been called by the hawk in preference to the others. The

gannet, however, manœuvres to avoid the blow, by darting about, lowering

himself from his elevation in the air at every dart, and, raising his

beak in a perpendicular direction; by these means it eludes the blow

of the hawk from behind, and they frequently both fall into the water

together; the hawk only having the advantage over the gannet when

hovering in the air, the latter escapes. At the Island of Ascension,

where these birds are common, I was informed by Lieutenant M’Arthur,

(Marine Artillery,) that the method practised by the hawks to oblige

the gannet to disgorge their prey, was tried by a gentleman who lately

visited the island: he had seen the attack of the hawk on the gannet, and

the successful result. When he visited the part of the island named “The

Fair,” where these birds congregate in great numbers, he struck some of

them with a cane on the back of the head, and the disgorgement of the

fish they had swallowed immediately took place.

By three P.M. we were off the settlement, in the roadstead of which an

American ship, and several British men-of-war, were lying at anchor.

We did not enter the roadstead, but, hoisting our ensign and number,

proceeded on our voyage, and by the evening left the island far in the

distance.

Having on a former voyage, in 1831, visited and landed upon this island,

I perhaps may be excused for introducing the following account, from

observations made at that period:—

About noon (of the 10th of February, 1831) we were off the settlement

situated on the north-west side of the island, and several

neatly-constructed houses appeared enlivening a little the barren scene

around. A transport (St. Croix) was at anchor in the roads, having just

arrived with stores; a boat came off from the settlement, with a book,

in which the ship’s name, &c. was inserted. I accompanied the commander

on a visit to the shore: the landing is sometimes dangerous, on account

of the surf; at this time it was very easily effected. The landing-place

was on a flight of steps, at the extremity of a wharf; a small crane

was near, to assist boats in approaching, and persons in landing. A

delightful trade breeze rendered the air cool, which would otherwise have

been intolerable, on account of the reflection of the sun from the sand

and lava. The residences of the garrison, store-houses, &c., were neat

constructions, and had been lately completed: many other buildings were

in progress. The island has now been fortified at every part considered

accessible; these points being few, however, not many batteries were

required. The establishment consists of marines and marine artillery,

(about four hundred,) under a commandant, Captain Bates. The privates

are masons, carpenters, quarrymen, &c.; the houses are constructed by

them, and, in fact, they undertake all the laborious work. This island

is considered of great importance, being directly in the track of our

homeward-bound shipping from the East Indies, &c., and would, in the

event of a war, have afforded a rendezvous for the enemy’s cruizers.

I was informed that excellent soil was found under the lava, at a depth

of two feet: cultivation of vegetables, &c. is at present confined to the

green mountain; the present object of fortifying and erecting buildings

on the island being completed, cultivation will be more attended to.

The beach, at first thought to be composed of sand, was found to consist

of very small fragments of shells: in some places they had become (from

some cause not readily accounted for) firmly compacted together. These

slabs were formed of several layers, of which the size of the fragments

differs in each layer: they are used for tomb-stones, steps of doors,

and are broken and burned for lime. Of the vegetable kingdom, a species

of Euphorbia only was growing, distributed in small tufts, but not very

abundantly, about the rugged lava; it was at this time in flower: this

simple plant was, indeed, a beautiful object amidst such barren scenes.

There are three species of butterflies on the island, of handsome colours.

A great acquisition to the island has been a good supply of water: a

shaft had just been sunk upon one of the mountains, and several tons

of water had been raised daily. The only inconvenience is their being

obliged to bring the water down by casks in carts; but iron pipes, from

England, are now being laid down, to convey the water to the wharf, and

the shipping will be supplied by means of hoses. Moorings are laid down

in the roadstead. The turtle-ponds were well stocked with turtles of

large size, varying from two to eight hundred weight each: the price

fixed, was fifty shillings each. We were politely invited, and dined

with the officers at their mess. At a place called “The Fair,” the birds

named sea-swallows, as well as numerous other aquatic birds, congregate;

and the eggs of the sea-swallows, which are of a dirty white, with dark

red spots, and about the size of crows’ eggs, are there collected at

certain seasons of the year, in thousands: several of these were given

to us, and found delicate and excellent eating. It was dark before we

went off to the ship, and a heavy surf rendered the embarkation very

dangerous: no boats should attempt going off after dark. A marine, named

James, who was a little intoxicated, fell into the water, and, being

overpowered by the violence of the surf and the eddy, perished. After

some difficulty, we all re-embarked, and, getting safely on board,

resumed our voyage.

The island is considered generally healthy, dysentery being the only

disease experienced; and the temperature of the air pleasant, being

seldom higher in the shade than 83°, the constant trade-breeze tending to

keep the atmosphere temperate. Merchant-ships, in distress for supplies,

may here obtain them, the only extra charge made by the government being

the freight from England. Fish can be procured in some quantity, and a

kind of conger eel, procured at this island, had, when brought to the

table, the bones of a lilac colour.

We experienced a very light south-east trade-wind for almost its whole

limit, and lost it in lat. 00° 36′ north, and lon. 20° 40′ west. We

afterwards experienced calms and light airs, with but little rain. On the

13th of March, in lat. 1° 23′ north, and lon. 22° 15′ west, several sail

were in sight, steering to the southward; and about two P.M. we spoke

the barque, Lord of the Isles, last from Falmouth, bound to Calcutta:

she left Falmouth the 7th of February. A boat was sent from the barque,

bringing letters for conveyance to England, and newspapers of December

and January, which afforded us some knowledge of how the world was going

on.

Sharks, accompanied by pilot-fish, and having several of the Remora, or

sucking-fish, attached to them, were occasionally about the ship during

the calm weather.

Sharks are formidable from their muscular strength and the numerous

rows of teeth with which their expansive and powerful jaws are armed:

they may be considered as the most destructive and voracious of all the

inhabitants of the deep. Their stomachs, which are of enormous capacity,

are generally found filled with a mixed collection of substances, some of

which seem calculated to try the strength of their digestive powers. It

does not appear that their sense of smell always guides them in procuring

food, as paper, canvas, or indeed any thing thrown overboard which they

are capable of swallowing, is greedily devoured by them. To decide

correctly on the _habitat_, or extent of range, taken by any particular

species, is difficult, and requires a numerous collection of facts.

Frequent mistakes are made in this respect; as in the instance of the

_Squalus cornubicus_, or porbeagle shark, whose _habitat_ was supposed to

be confined to the British coasts, but which I have since discovered has

been found, although rarely, inhabiting the coasts of New Zealand.

The teeth of sharks vary in different species. Blumenbach observes,

that “in most of the sharks the mouth is furnished with very numerous

teeth, for the supply of such as may be lost. The white shark has more

than two hundred, lying on each other in rows, almost like the leaves of

an artichoke. Those only which form the front row have a perpendicular

direction, and are completely uncovered. Those of the subsequent rows

are, on the contrary, smaller, have their points turned backwards, and

are covered by a kind of gum. These come through the covering substance,

and pass forward, when any teeth of the front row are lost. It will be

understood, from this description, that the teeth in question cannot have

any fangs.”[89]

The shark, no doubt, sheds its teeth at certain periods, and the

posterior rows are to supply, in succession, the places of those so lost,

as, in a number of jaws that I have examined of different species, the

second row may frequently be seen in a perpendicular direction, advancing

to supply the place of the first. With respect to such teeth having

fangs, those of most species have merely rudiments of them, excepting

the squalus cornubicus, or porbeagle shark, which has two distinct fangs

to every tooth, and they may be seen in the second and third, as well

as in the first rows. The posterior rows having their points turned

backwards, prevent their prey, when seized, from escaping. The teeth of

the shark are used by the Polynesian natives, fixed in rows, as knives.

They are attached also to their spears, are used for cutting themselves

on occasions of joy or grief, and were employed, previously to the

introduction of European knives, for the ornamental carving of their

weapons, domestic utensils, &c.

There is a species of shark at New Zealand which I have heard named, by

seamen, the _ground shark_: the teeth procured from this species differ

from all others that I have seen; they are long, rather curved inwards,

flattened anteriorly, sharp pointed, _unserrated at the edges_, and have

_two rather long fangs_. They are considered rare at New Zealand, and the

teeth are highly valued by the natives, who wear them, with a hole bored

through them, as appendages to their ears; they carve their green jasper

stone also in the form of these teeth, and wear them in a similar manner:

these teeth were so highly prized by the natives, that to procure one

was a matter of difficulty. I for some time, since my return to England,

endeavoured to ascertain the species to which these teeth belonged, but I

was unsuccessful, until lately examining the jaws of the various species

of sharks in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in London, I

found it to be the _Squalus cornubicus_, or porbeagle shark, which is

thus noticed in the published catalogue of the college:—

“No. 1832.—The skull, and part of the spine, of a small Porbeagle shark.

Squalus cornubicus. Fig. Borlase’s History of Cornwall. Habitat. The

British seas.”

This species, from its magnitude when full grown, has sometimes been

confounded with the squalus carcharias, or white shark.—Presented by Dr.

Leach, 1820.

The fore-teeth, near the symphysis, accorded in every respect with the

New Zealand specimens; more posterior they became equilateral, but were

all unserrated at their edges.

The capture of one of these voracious animals frequently beguiles a

tedious hour during a long voyage. Its struggles, when brought on deck,

are very great, but a few severe blows on the nose soon disable it from

further exertion. When seizing any object, the animal turns on the

side, not (as is generally supposed) on the back. The shark, judging

by an European palate, is not good eating: the fins and tail are very

glutinous, and are the portions most relished by the seamen; when dried,

they form an article of commerce to China, where they are used in soups,

and considered as an excellent aphrodisiac. I have seen several sharks

and bonitos about the ship at the same time, but I never observed the

former attempt to molest the latter. The shark is eaten eagerly by the

natives of the Polynesian Islands, and I have often seen them feasting

on it in a raw state, when they gorge themselves to such an excess as to

occasion vomiting. It is not an unfrequent source of illness among these

islanders, and they suffer so much in consequence, as to lead them to

suppose that their dissolution is nigh; but they cannot be persuaded that

the eating of raw fish is the cause. An emetic soon removes the symptoms,

by removing the cause; and the sufferer considers the cure as almost

miraculous.

Attending the shark, is seen that beautiful little fish, the

_Gasterosteus ductor_, or _pilot-fish_; which first approaching the

bait, returns as if to give notice, when, immediately after, the shark

approaches and seizes it.[90] It is a curious circumstance that this

elegant little fish is seen in attendance only upon the shark. After

the shark is hooked, the pilot-fish still swim about, and for some time

after he has been hauled on deck; they then swim very near the surface

of the water, and at that time I have seen them taken by a basket from

the chains of the ship. When the shark has been hooked and afterwards

escapes, he generally returns, and renews the attack with increased

ferocity, irritated perhaps by the wound he has received.

On the 18th of March, 1831, during my former voyage, in lat. 44° 56′

north, and long. 25° 10′ west; in the evening, two sharks of a very

large size were seen at a short distance from the ship. A high dorsal

fin, projecting from the water, was at first only discernible, and had

a resemblance to a rock.[91] It was at first stationary, but soon began

to move steadily along, and then occasionally the tail could be seen

partially above the water. I know not to what species to refer it; one

of the crew on board, who had been in a whaler, said that it was what

they named a “_bone shark_” which is seen in numbers alongside the ships

when they are cutting up a whale. He said, also, that he had seen them as

large as a _twenty-barrel whale_; that “the mouth resembled the gill of

a fish, and they are spotted over the back.” Whether the latter part of

this account accorded with the actual appearance of the fish, I was not

sufficiently near to ascertain, but it appeared correct with respect to

its large size.

The natives of the Polynesian islands have such a dread of sharks as

to worship some of them as gods; not from any respect or love towards

them, but from fear. Ellis states, that, “although they would not only

kill, but eat certain kinds of shark, the large blue sharks (_Squalus

glaucus_) were deified by them; and, rather than attempt to destroy them,

they would endeavour to propitiate their favour by prayers and offerings.

Temples were erected, in which priests officiated, and offerings were

presented to the deified monsters; while fishermen, and others who were

much at sea, sought their favour. Many ludicrous legends were formerly

in circulation among the people, relative to the regard paid by the

sharks at sea to priests of their temples, whom they were always said

to recognize, and never to injure. The principal motive, however, by

which the people appear to have been influenced in their homage of

these creatures, was the same that operated on their minds in reference

to other acts of idolatry: it was the principle of fear, and a desire

to avoid destruction in the event of being exposed to their anger at

sea.”[92]

In olden times sharks were considered to be allied to the Leviathans

of the deep, and afforded then, as at the present day, amusement to

passengers traversing the ocean. The following account of the capture of

one of these voracious animals, from Dr. Fryer’s “New Account of India

and Persia,” published in 1698, is amusing:—

“Two of the _lesser offspring of the great Leviathan_ (the weather being

calm, these sort of them else not visible, being of no swift motion)

came sailing after us; our men, as eager of them as they of their prey,

hastened their engines for to take them; which no sooner in the water

but each of them, guided by some half-a-dozen delicately-coloured little

fishes, which, for their own safeguard, perform the office of pilots,

(they never offering to satisfy their hunger on them,) who lead them to

the baits; when they, turning their bellies up, seize upon them on their

backs, hook themselves in the toils, beating the sea into a breach, and

not without a great many hands are drawn over the sides of the ship;

which seen by the poor silly little fishes, (as conscious of their

error,) they swim to and again, and hardly forsake the ship; but being

within board, the ship’s company, armed with hatchets, presently divide

the spoil. They are not scaly, and therefore imagined to be a kind of

whale, being finned like them, with a great fin on their backs, near

their tails, (which dried, is used instead of a slate,) of a darkish-grey

colour on their backs, lighter on their sides, and white under their

bellies; their snout on the same plain with their mouths, but their mouth

within that a great way; the cause why they turn their bellies when they

take their prey. The mouth of one of them extended, is two spans wide,

armed within with three tier of sharp-pointed teeth on both jaws, so

piercing that needles exceed them not, and of such strength that a leg or

an arm, bone and all, is but an easy morsel; wherefore called _sharks_

by the seamen, on whom they are bold enough to fasten and dismember, if

not shunned, when they wash themselves. They are of a rank smell, and

not good to eat but by stout stomachs; of length they are ten, sometimes

fourteen feet.”

I shall now make a few observations on muscular irritability, as

exemplified by the shark. That which is termed muscular irritability,

and which is met with to a great degree in all cold-blooded animals, is

well exemplified in the shark, which perhaps possesses it to a greater

degree than other kinds of fish. I have seen a shark transfixed with a

harpoon after it had been hooked, so as to cause the viscera to protrude;

it was hoisted on deck, when, after a quarter of an hour had elapsed, the

lower part was separated from the upper; (which detached lower portion

for a long time displayed great powers of vitality;) the head and upper

portion were afterwards thrown into the water, when the pectoral fins

were moved as in the action of swimming. How long this irritability

continued I cannot say, (but from other instances that I had seen, I

should consider for a long period,) as it soon went astern of the ship. I

have frequently seen the animal hauled on deck, the whole of the viscera

extracted, and the body otherwise mangled when thrown overboard, swim for

some distance in this mutilated state. Again, a shark has been hung up

with the abdomen ripped open, the whole of the viscera extracted, and the

head detached; yet symptoms of vitality, or rather muscular irritability,

remained for three hours from the time of its removal from the water; and

this frequently occasions the spectators to consider that the animal is

in a state of suffering. It is only in the cold-blooded animals that we

meet with it to such an extent; in the warm-blooded animals it occurs,

but in a very slight degree.

Blumenbach, in his Manual of Natural History, thus mentions the

reproductive power and independent vitality with reference to the

Amphibia:—“The extraordinary strength of the reproductive power in

several Amphibia, and the astonishing facility with which the process is

carried on, depend, if I mistake not, on the great magnitude of their

nerves and the diminutive proportion of their brain. The former parts

are, in consequence, less dependent on the latter; hence the whole

machine has less powers of motion, and displays less sympathy; the mode

of existence is more simple, and approaches more nearly to that of the

vegetable world than in the warm-blooded classes; but, on the contrary,

the parts possess a greater individual independent vitality. Since, in

consequence of this latter endowment, stimuli which operate on one part,

or one system, do not immediately affect the whole frame by sympathy, as

in warm-blooded animals, we are enabled to explain the peculiar tenacity

of life which is displayed under various circumstances in this class—viz.

frogs still continue to jump about after their heart has been torn out,

and turtles have lived for months after the removal of the whole brain

from the cranium. The long-continued power of motion in parts which

have been cut off from the body, as in the tail of the water-newt and

blind-worm, may be explained upon the same principles.”

The length of time that this irritability exists in snakes, has given

rise to the opinion of the vulgar, that “if a snake is killed in the

morning, it will not die before sunset.” Among numerous instances of

irritability in the warm-blooded class, shortly after death the heart may

be stimulated to perform its natural action, by being punctured; and in a

limb after amputation, the muscles are excited to contract by a scalpel

being plunged into them.

The sucking-fish is commonly found adhering to the body of the

shark. It is placed, by Cuvier, among the third order of fishes, or

the _Malacoptérygiens subbrachiens_, which is characterized “Par

des ventrales attachées sous les pectorales, et dont le bassin est

immédiatement suspendu aux os de l’épaule.” Its generic character is as

follows:—Head furnished above with a flat, ovate, transversely sulcated

shield. Gill membrane six-rayed. Body without scales.

When first removed from the water, the colour of the fish of the

common species was an uniform grey or lavender, which soon changed to

a brownish colour; the tail was forked, or rather crescent-shaped. The

sucking-plate, of an oval form, was situated on the upper part of the

head, and was composed of seventeen transverse moveable cartilaginous

plates, (but they vary in number, according to the size of the fish,)

each armed with minute teeth directed backwards; from which cause it was

difficult to detach the animal in a direction perpendicular or backwards,

but it was removed with facility when drawn off in the direction of the

head.

On inspecting the mouth I observed two rows of teeth situated on the

margin of each jaw, one internal to the other, the outer row being larger

and stronger than the inner; and it is probable that the inner row is

intended, as in the shark, to replace the front row, when lost from

time or accident. On the palate were also placed two rows of very fine

teeth, and the other parts of the mouth were rough. I made several dried

preparations of the head of this fish, which well displayed the form of

the disk; and, by keeping the mouth distended, the rows of teeth could be

distinctly seen and examined.

The fins are, two pectoral, two ventral, one dorsal, and one anal; the

whole of which are of small size, in proportion to the body of the fish,

as well as the tail. The disproportion of the size of the head, and the

diminutive size of the fins and tail, must consequently prevent its

swimming to any distance, for when swimming its motion is very tardy, and

apparently laborious. Nature has, therefore, provided it with a means of

attaching itself to rocks, the bottoms of ships, &c.

I have seen them attached more commonly to the body of the _Squalus

carcharias_, or white shark, than to any other species: whether it

is that this species of shark is the most usually met with, I cannot

determine; but on a blue shark, although accompanied by pilot-fish, I

never, in the few instances I have met with, saw a Remora attached,

although, in the other species, I have always seen some attached: if

this, on further observation, is found to be the fact, it may be probably

accounted for by the _Squalus carcharias_ more frequently approaching

the land. The sucking-fish not being able to swim any distance, must

generally remain attached to rocks, &c., and from them removes itself to

the shark as he approaches.

The sucking-plate enables these fish to change their locality, by

attaching themselves to the stronger inhabitants of the deep, and

precludes, as on the rocks, the danger of their being driven by tempests

remote from their usual food and rest. This fish is also destitute of an

air-bladder.

The Remora was supposed, by the ancients, to have the power of arresting

the progress of a ship under full sail; and, by others, their nourishment

was supposed to be derived from the body of the shark, or from any

substance to which it adhered: all these chimeras have, however, been

long since dispersed. Their food has been found (from the examination

of the contents of the stomachs of the specimens captured) to be minute

marine insects, &c.

I have seen the Remora of a very large size. During a visit to the island

of Tongatabu, one of the Friendly group, on August 1st, 1829, several

were brought on board for sale, by the natives, which measured three feet

and upwards in length. They had taken them with a hook and line. They

were cooked, and found delicate and well-tasted. During also our passage

through the straits of St. Bernardin to Manilla, several, of a large

size, were seen swimming about the ship, but their movements were slow

and heavy.

The most usual size taken from the body of a shark, is from six to twelve

inches. The Indian Remora is said to be found of the length of two or

three feet; and even, according to a description quoted by Dr. Bloch, to

extend to seven feet. The usual number of divisions on its shield is from

twenty-two to twenty-four.

The power of adhesion is retained for a long time, by this fish,

after decapitation. I detached one of them from the body of a shark,

decapitated it, and then applying the sucking-plate to a smooth surface,

found the power of adhesion remained, and it continued for the space of

nearly twenty minutes. The body of the animal, after the removal of the

head, displayed much muscular irritability on being touched, and the

pectoral and ventral fins moved for a long time afterwards.

The pilot-fish, as I have before observed, (_Gasterosteus ductor_,) is

usually seen in company with the shark, and with no other voracious

fish; it is of a beautiful azure colour, girded around the body by broad

bands of a very dark blue. I have seldom seen them larger than a foot in

length, but in breadth some exceed others. They have never been taken

when in company with the shark, but, on the capture of that voracious

animal, they hover about him as long as he remains in the water; and a

very short time after he has been hauled on board, they can sometimes

be taken by a basket from the chains, as they swim at that time very

superficially, and sometimes have been known (but rarely) to take bait.

On the 18th, in latitude 2° 20′ north, and longitude 25° 26′ west, we

got the north-east trade, far to the northward, being north-north-east,

moderate and fresh breezes,[93] and on the 7th of April, we lost the

north-east trade in about 30° 31′ north, and longitude 44° 20′ west.

On the 1st of April, in latitude 23° 17′ north, and longitude 42° 50′

west, several tropic birds (_Phaeton oethereus_) were seen hovering

over the ship; this was considered a very unusual circumstance, from

the distance we then were from land. The longest distance these birds

have been seen from land, has been stated to be three hundred miles,

but by the observations at noon we were distant full one thousand miles

from land; the nearest being the northernmost island of the Cape de Verd

group. The distance at which birds supposed not to wander far from land,

are sometimes seen, is surprising. Penguins have occasionally been met

with several hundred miles from land, although they are commonly supposed

not to wander from it any considerable distance. An intelligent lady

informed me, that, during a voyage from England to Batavia, in the ship

Orynthia, between the Cape and the latter place, a Penguin was shot,

being rather more than a foot in length, and of a smooth slate colour

over the body, with a white breast, (as well as can be recollected at a

distant period,) the ship being then at a distance of eight hundred miles

from the Marion or Crozette islands, with fine weather, nearly calm at

the time. This occurred on the 22nd of October, 1831.

Captain Beechey also states, (Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait,

8vo. vol. i. p. 16,) which tends to confirm the above fact, that, “as we

approached the Falkland Islands from Rio Janeiro, some Penguins were seen

upon the water in latitude 47° south, at a distance of three hundred and

forty miles from the nearest land; a fact which either proves the common

opinion that this species never stray far from land to be in error, or

that some unknown land exists in the vicinity.”

On the 31st of March, in latitude 22° north, and longitude 41° west,

the Sargasso weed was first seen, a few pieces occasionally floating by

the ship. That these plants are produced within the tropics, there can

hardly be a question; but at what depth they vegetate is still involved

in obscurity: neither is it clearly ascertained why the banks of weed

should always occur in the same places. The supposition that they proceed

with the Gulf Stream from the Gulf of Mexico—whence the original name

of gulf weed—is now exploded. This weed is considered to extend between

the eighteenth and twenty-second parallels of north latitude, and the

twenty-fifth and fortieth meridians of west longitude.

Mr. Neill justly observes, that “the gulf stream would convey them rather

to the banks of Newfoundland than to the latitudes in which they usually

occur; and it could not in any case accumulate them to the south of the

Azores.”[94]

Horsburgh, in his Directory, mentions the range of the weed, as being

first seen in latitude 24° or 25° north, and extending as far as latitude

40° or 42° north, but I regard the limits of its range as depending much

on the prevailing winds blowing strong for some time in a particular

direction. On the 3rd of March, 1831, I first saw the weed in latitude

20° 12′ north, longitude 35° 39′ west. In latitude 24° 16′ north, and

longitude 36° 55′ west, large quantities of it were passed, and in

latitude 37° 53′ north, and longitude 35° 32′ west, we left it.

During this voyage it was first observed, as I have previously mentioned,

on the 31st of March, in latitude 22° north, and 41° west longitude; and

was seen in large quantities nearly the whole distance. From the trade

wind being much to the northward, we were driven as far to the westward

as 44° 7′, still continuing to have a quantity of weed about the ship;

indeed it rather increased than diminished, for large masses were seen

even thus far beyond the usual limit assigned to it; on the 12th of

April extending to 38° 32′ north latitude, and 34° 30′ west longitude.

The utmost western limit I had an opportunity of observing it in being

44° 7′, and the range of the temperature of the atmosphere in its limits

being maximum 76°, medium 70°, minimum 59°.

Of the genus _Sargassum_[95] there are numerous species distributed over

the globe; but the _S. vulgare_, or _Fucus natans_, and other species,

are also described as having their _habitat_ in the particular range

I have before mentioned; but I have not been able to find more than

one species, some sprigs of which exhibit anomalies, but not specific

differences; for although apparently differing in having the leaves

broader, and not so serrated at the edges, yet many of these were growing

from plants which had not such distinctions. According to Greville, this

genus, the most extensive of the FUCOIDEÆ, comprising above seventy

species, is nearly confined to the two tropics, and examples rarely occur

beyond the forty-second degree in either hemisphere:—

“Flung from the rock on ocean’s foam to sail,

Where’er the surge may sweep, the tempests breath prevail;”

will only now be partly applicable to this weed, as it is tolerably well

ascertained to vegetate floating on the water, each sprig becoming, as

detached by the violence of the waves, the contact of ships, or other

causes, a perfect and large plant.[96]

This species of the _Sargassum_, found in such immense quantities,

floating upon the surface of the ocean, is of a fine yellow colour,

lighter or deeper in tint, being when very young of a greenish yellow

colour; it is very buoyant, occasioned both by its lightness of structure

and body of water to support it, as well as by the number of air vesicles

with which it is profusely covered; it has a handsome appearance when

seen spread out and swimming on the surface, or when just taken out of

the water. On drying, it first retains the yellow, or greenish yellow,

afterwards becoming of a reddish brown colour, but turning black, if

exposed to the atmosphere when drying. The leaves are long, narrow,

scattered, serrated at the edges in an irregular manner; the stems

are studded with numerous air-vesicles in different stages of growth,

spherical, and attached by a short pedicle to the stem. In many instances

a young leaf would be seen emerging from the air-vesicle, and in others

many of the leaves would have the air-vesicle (instead of being, as

usual, on the stems) at the summit, forming a rounded termination to

the leaf; some of the vesicles would have a longer and broader pedicle

than usual, which assumed the character of an embryo leaf just forming,

similar to what has been just mentioned as occurring.[97] All the

weed was more or less profusely covered with parasitical _confervæ_,

displaying much delicacy and beauty.

I succeeded in capturing with the weed numerous specimens of small

crabs, and some even of large size, small nereis, together with various

specimens of fish, the _Syngnathus_, or pipe-fish, &c. The _Scyllea

pelagica_ was also abundant, clinging to the plants; and also numerous

small sepiæ of a beautiful purplish colour.

In support of the opinion that the attachment of the fuci to rocks is

not absolutely necessary for their nourishment, it has been observed of

the fucus nodosus, that “this and some other fuci have no dependence on

their root for nourishment, and therefore, instead of being ramified,

it is merely a disc or button, by the adhesion of which, assisted,

perhaps, by atmospherical pressure, the weed keeps an uncommonly firm

hold of the rock to which it is attached.” The air vesicles on a plant

of course render it more buoyant than those destitute of them. I have

found, that detaching the air vesicles from a plant, and placing it in

shallow water, it sunk, but where the depth of water was great, the bulk

of water was in itself sufficient to keep the weed afloat; the use of

the air vesicles is most probably intended for the purpose of bringing

some portion of the plant in contact with atmospheric air, or by keeping

the plant to the surface of the water, to receive a greater benefit

from air and light, or to prevent the young shoots or other parts of

the plant being injured by the violent action of the waves. We find in

the fucus buccinalis, or trumpet weed of the Cape, that stem is hollow,

accommodating itself in length to the depth of water in which it grows;

is attached to the ground by ramified roots; the stem terminating in a

crown of broad leaves expanded on the surface of the water, and kept in

that situation by a broad air bladder, in which the stem terminates under

the crown; it may aid the plant also in maintaining itself against the

force of the waves in the exposed situations in which it is usually found.

Air-bladders are not confined to sea weeds; several plants growing in

fresh water are similarly provided. Of these, the _Jussiæa tenella_,

found in the rivers of Amboyna, is a remarkable example. Along its

stalk are many large oval tubercles, full of air, and each of these

is compounded of many others, so that the injury which the plant

might sustain from foreign bodies striking against it and breaking the

bladders, is obviated.[98]

On the 8th of April we were in latitude 31° 34′ north, longitude 41° 27′

west. It has been remarked, during the time the Crowned pigeons have been

on board the ship, that they do not eat for five days, or a week, and

then recommence eating so much, that the man attending on the poultry can

hardly supply them with sufficient: they continue thus to eat for the

space of a fortnight, or more, and then cease for a certain period, as

I have just before observed. At first this was supposed very naturally

to proceed from illness; subsequent observation, however, decided that

it did not originate in such a cause. They have not now eaten for three

days, the paddy placed in their trough still remaining untouched. The

birds have a healthy appearance in plumage and general looks, and are in

as excellent, if not better condition, than when they first came on board

the ship at Singapore. Paddy is the only food given them, as they prefer

it to all other kinds of grain that have been tried.

I am not aware of the differences of plumage in the males and females of

these birds, but am inclined to consider these male and female birds,

from one running after the other in sportive wooing, and the mournful,

cooing noise, proceeding from only one of them. They are shy and timid,

fluttering about very much when any one comes near, or attempts to touch

them; they even show this shyness towards the man who is accustomed daily

to supply them with food.

_April 16th._—During the late prevailing strong breezes and gales, with

damp and rainy weather, the birds have appeared well, only occasionally

fluttering by the heavy lurches of the vessel: that has been prevented,

for the most part, by bagging being placed underneath their feet. The

range of temperature has not been lower than 55°; medium 60°, and maximum

64°.

_April 18th._—The pigeons, although they have their feathers ruffled, and

mope, from the change of temperature and wet weather, do not appear to

suffer in health: they move often about the coop, and eat as usual.

_April 23rd._—In latitude 49° 35′ north, longitude 14° 8′ west:

thermometer 53° to 55°. I had the misfortune to lose another of the

Crowned pigeons. Yesterday the bird seemed healthy, the eyes brilliant,

and plumage unruffled; but this morning it was found dead; so sudden

does death occur, without any previous indication being given, among the

feathered tribe.

From the 8th to the 16th of April we had strong westerly winds and gales,

coming on at first, from north-north-west, veering to south-west and

south. On the 16th of April, we were in latitude 44° 34′ north, longitude

25° 00′ west.

Early on the morning of the 28th, a swallow (_Hirundo rustica_, Linn.)

was seen flying about the ship; and, having entered one of the stern

cabin windows, was readily taken. It appeared quite exhausted, and made

no efforts to escape, until, having been confined for a short period

of time in one of the cabins, it flew out again on the door being

opened, but was soon recaptured. It is probably the straggler of a flock

migrating to the northward, as they are usually considered to arrive in

England in April or May, earlier or later, according to the mildness of

the season.

This bird may be considered to be detained on its passage by easterly

winds, similarly to ourselves. It was in an excellent plump condition,

although now, no doubt, tired and hungry. The little traveller is

preserved alive, and permitted to fly about one of the cabins. It became

in a short time after its capture, very tame, perching on the head of

the person in whose cabin it had taken refuge, eating food also from the

mouth. The following morning, however, it flew away.

In the evening several of the common swallow, (_Hirundo rustica_, Linn.)

and also, from a specimen which I caught and examined, the martin

(_Hirundo urbica_, Linn.) were flying about the ship, occasionally

seeking refuge in the cuddy: they appeared strong on the wing, in

excellent plumage, and plump condition. They no doubt formed part of

a flock migrating to the British shores, where the latter are said to

arrive about the 16th of April; but the computation of the time of their

arrival cannot be mentioned with any degree of certainty. Now their

passage has probably been retarded by the long prevalence of easterly

winds; and the cold, rainy weather, may have caused the little emigrants

to seek refuge on board the ship. From calculation at noon, we were in

north latitude 50° 14′; north and west longitude 12° 40′.

The swallow is found an inhabitant of the tropical regions of the globe,

visits the northern climates during the warm months of the year, and

is regarded as the harbinger of summer; emigrating, however, with its

young, to a more congenial climate on the approach of winter. It is then

that they are met with at sea, perching, in an exhausted condition, on

the rigging and decks of ships. Being interrupted by adverse winds, they

waver in their course, spent with famine and fatigue, until the ship

affords them a temporary resting-place; from which, refreshed by a few

hours’ rest, they renew their flight. They are said to arrive in Africa

about the commencement of October, having performed their fatiguing

journey in the space of seven days.

During a passage from England to New South Wales, on the 27th of

September, 1828, several of these birds alighted in an exhausted

condition on the rigging and deck of the ship, and were readily captured.

We were at that time in latitude 13° 40′ north, and longitude 23° 20′

west. They were the _Hirundo rustica_ of Linnæus.

These birds emigrate from one tropical country to another; and during a

passage from Manilla to Singapore, through the China sea, on the 20th of

October, 1830, for several days a number of these birds were flying about

the ship; and I am inclined to suppose, derived at that period sustenance

from the flies which infested the ship, as soon afterwards but few of

those insects remained. In the evening they would roost on the rigging;

and some even took refuge for the night in the chief officer’s cabin,

which opened upon the deck, and were again set at liberty in the morning.

They became after a few days exhausted; several were found dead, and

others became so tame from fatigue and hunger, as to be easily caught,

and would afterwards remain perched on the hand, without making any

effort to regain their liberty. These were also of the species _Hirundo

rustica_ of Linnæus, which is widely distributed over the globe. We first

observed them in latitude 15° 29′ north, and longitude 117° 40′ east; and

we lost them, most having perished, in latitude 9° 30′ north, longitude

110° 45′ east, having been about the ship for thirteen days.

The question that arises is, whether in the latter instances they were

emigrating, or had been blown off the land by the westerly gales we had

experienced since leaving Manilla Bay. It may be mentioned, that as we

had at the same time numerous other land birds about the ship, the latter

supposition is not improbable.

After having been detained for several days by easterly winds, on the

29th of April we had fair breezes,—the swallows then departed, perhaps

as glad as ourselves at having some chance of terminating a long voyage.

We made the Scilly Islands on the 30th, and arrived at Gravesend on the

5th of May, 1834.

APPENDIX.

THE COCOA-NUT TREE.

(_See Page 405_, Vol. i.)

“The Indian’s nut alone

Is clothing, meat and trencher, drink and can,

Boat, cable, sail, and needle, all in one.”

Of all the trees, beautiful either in form, height, or the splendid

colour of their flowers, so profusely scattered over the face of nature

in tropical climes, perhaps none has excited more interest, both for its

elegant and majestic growth, as well as for its utility, than this palm,

producing fruit, shade, utensils, and numerous other articles, to supply

the wants of mankind. These palms impart a grandeur to the tropical

landscape; their stems, towering to a great elevation, are crowned

at the summit by elegant fronds of gigantic character; they overtop

the more diminutive trees, and excite the admiration of the traveller

by their elegant and novel appearance, decorating the sea-coasts of

large continents, and waving their dark plumes over the insignificant

coral-reefs. The cylindrical rough trunk[99] towers to an elevation of

one hundred feet, and the terminating crown of feathered fronds gives to

them an elegant appearance, more so when seen loaded with fruit in all

its different stages, from the first bursting of the spathe displaying

the delicate white fruit and minute flowers, to the huge, fully mature

nut, in bunches of from twenty to thirty, or more, the ponderous burthen

appearing to be suspended on a very fragile stalk.

The fecundity of the palms is surprising; a single spathe of the date is

said to contain about twelve thousand male flowers; _Alfonsia amygdalina_

has been computed to have two hundred and seven thousand in a spathe,

or six hundred thousand upon a single individual, while every bunch of

the Seje-palm of the Orinoco bears eight thousand fruit.[100] On the

cocoa-palm, frequently two or three hundred nuts may be seen at one

time, yielding an inexhaustible supply for the use of man at all seasons

of the year.

This palm delights in, and grows with the greatest luxuriance in the

vicinity of the sea, and is found in great perfection on the south and

west coasts of Ceylon; (giving a beautiful appearance to those coasts;)

those of Malabar and Coromandel, on the Maldive and Laccadive Islands;

those of Polynesia, where it adorns the small coral islands, as well

as those of magnitude, glowing in all the brilliancy and beauty of

tropical scenery. At Penang and Singapore I remarked these palms to be

comparatively unproductive, and they are rarely seen cultivated to any

extent.

The Singalese have a curious tradition regarding the original discovery

of the cocoa-nut tree, by a prince of the interior of the island of

Ceylon. About half-a-mile from Belligam, (a fishing hamlet on the

southern coast of Ceylon, situated between the towns of Point de Galle

and Matura, in about 80° 20′ east longitude, and 5° 30′ north latitude,)

completely concealed from view, whether approached by land or sea, by

the density of the cocoa-nut groves, is a large rock of granite, to

the left-hand on the road to Galle, which at that particular spot is

completely overshadowed by umbrageous _Jack_,[101] _Kettule_,[102] and

cocoa-nut trees, and which displays the gigantic representation of a

former prince of the interior, called “Kottah Rajah,” to the attention of

the traveller.

The figure, about sixteen or eighteen feet in height, is sculptured in

the solid rock; and, according to the Singalese tradition, the original

discovery of the cocoa-nut tree is attributed to a vision, which first

communicated to this highly-favoured rajah a knowledge of that principal

of all vegetable productions, which omnipotent wisdom and munificence has

so liberally bestowed upon the sable portion of mankind.

A Singalese king, or sovereign prince, as the term “rajah” implies, of

devout conduct and character, became suddenly afflicted with a cutaneous

disease, which covered him with a white scaly substance from head to

foot, to so great a degree as almost to deprive him of human appearance:

so very rapidly did the loathsome distemper extend its malignant

influence over the rajah’s person, that sacrifices were resorted to by

his people, in the hope of thereby appeasing the anger of the supposed

author of the rajah’s sufferings, the Maha Yaka, or great demon.

The Kottah rajah (the _image_ itself is now so styled) objected to assist

in person at any such diabolical sacrifices, and however prejudiced

his people were in the belief of their eventual efficacy, he himself

preferred humbly to submit to the decrees of that superior power from

whom alone the Maha Yaka could have derived dominion, if he really

possessed any, over the destinies of mankind. At this period, the

cocoa-nut tree was not known in the interior of Ceylon; and to this day

its scarcity is remarked by every traveller who visits the interior of

the late Kandyan territory.

The resigned, but suffering rajah, having, with all due humility, paid

his accustomed devotions, and offered sweet-smelling flowers, according

to the Budhoo religion,[103] and repeated the Budha-Sarana,[104] fell

into a sound sleep, which lasted for several days. During his trance,

he beheld a large expanse of water, which he tasted, and found it both

salt and nauseous, although of a fine green[105] colour near, and blue

in the distance; having on its margin immense groves of trees of a rare

kind, such as he had never before seen; for, instead of branches in

various directions, as other trees had in his country, a tuft of large

leaves, as they then appeared to him to be, crowned the lofty summit of

each individual tree, which, to an immense height, was totally divested

of branches or foliage.—This tradition is believed by many eminent

Tirinanses, or high priests, of Budhoo, who attach to it great antiquity.

The Kottah rajah, having awakened from his trance, felt his mind deeply

impressed with the unusual nature of his dreams; but, in the natural

excitement which the hope of his recovery encouraged, he renewed his

oblations and prayers, believing that a display of omnipotent mercy would

be the result. A Cobra de capello, the Naya of the Singalese, (_Coluber

naja_, Linn.) and sacred snake of the Budhists, shortly afterwards

approached, and, having expanded its spectacle-marked hood, raised its

head a cubit above the ground, and observed the rajah steadily for some

moments; after which, the animal, extending its blue forked tongue, and

thrice bowing its head, lapped water from the leaf in which it had been

reserved for the rajah’s particular use. Having thrice repeated the

draught, the animal, still keeping its eyes fixed on the rajah, gradually

retired to the jungle. This was conviction itself of Budhoo’s[106] favour.

Again the prince felt his eyelids grow weary; but, in his then state

of disease, he had determined to occupy no place of shelter save that

which the shady Bogaha, (_Ficus religiosa_,) the tree under which he

reposed, afforded him. No sooner had sleep a second time exerted its

magic influence, than his former vision recurred, with the additional

appearance of an aged man, whose face bore the appearance of the moon

in all its splendour. It was _Maha Sudona_, the father of the god

Budhoo,[107] who stood before the astounded rajah, and thus accosted him:—

“From ignorance of the sacredness of the ground over which the god’s

favourite tree casts its honoured shade, thou once didst omit the usual

respect due to it from all created beings. Its deeply-pointed leaf

distinguishes it above all other trees as sacred to Budhoo; and, under

another tree of the same heavenly character thou now liest a mass of

sores and ulcers, which the impurity of the red water within the large

and small rivers of thy body, has, at the great deity’s command, brought

upon thee externally. But since the snake, the kind snake, the shelterer

of the god Budhoo, when on earth, has thrice partaken of thy drink, thou

wilt derive health and long life by obeying the commands which I now bear

thee. In that direction (pointing towards the south) lies thy remedy.

One hundred hours’ journey will bring thee to those trees, which thou

shalt see in reality, and taste their fruits to thy benefit. But as on

the top only it is produced, by fire it must be obtained. The inside,

partly of transparent liquid, partly of innocent food, must be thy _sole_

diet, till thrice the Great Moon (Maha Handah) has given and refused her

light. Disease will, at the expiration of that time, leave thee; thou

wilt be clean again; but forget not, with the restoration of thy health,

(the Singalese language renders it, ‘the skin of thy flesh, renewed by

the fountains of thy life, being made red again,’) sacrifices of sweet

flowers and fruits, with much thanksgiving, to that great Brahma of

all Brahmas,[108] to whom all other gods, and even demons, pay homage,

through whose mercy and forgiveness of thy neglect and transgressions

thy bodily vigour will have been restored, and the days of thy enjoyment

in the splendour of the mighty and flaming chief ruler[109] of the moon

prolonged.”

A sound, as of ten thousand tom-toms,[110] struck at once seemed to

the delighted rajah a manifestation of the messenger’s authority. It

reverberated on his ear for hours together, after he had awakened from

his second trance; and, impressed with a belief that the invisible

powers had thus intimated a disposition to take him under their especial

protection, and that, consequently, it was his bounden duty to obey

commands so mysteriously conveyed, the rajah, placing the palms of his

hands across his forehead, and bending to the ground, prayed for strength

to act in obedience to the Ossah Pollah Dewyo, the ruler and creator of

all gods and demons, and of the flat world itself.

Having summoned his immediate followers from the various resting-places,

which they had constructed with the branches and leaves of the

neighbouring trees, by way of temporary shelter, the rajah repeated

to them the prophetic words of the divine messenger; and, having gone

through the ceremony of making a propitiatory offering under the

Bogaha-tree, of fruits, Betel-leaves, (_Piper-betel_,) and flowers of

sweet perfume, he, attended by his retinue, proceeded in a direct course

through rivers and forests, and over mountains immense, to the southward,

as directed by the Maha Sudona.

The one hundred hours’ journey having been miraculously performed without

any perceptible fatigue, either to himself or attendants, the anxiously

anticipated view of that boundless expanse of blue water, which, in his

dream, had appeared to him so beautiful, yet nauseous to the taste, and

on its margin immense groves of trees, with tufts of leaves, (for the

first time plainly perceived to be large branches,) as his visions had

foretold, gratified his astonished, but delighted sight. Beneath the

branches, sheltered from the vertical sun, hung large clusters of fruit,

much larger than he had ever seen in his own country of the interior, of

green, yellow, and red[111] colours, and others apparently black.

There were no human beings on the coast; but wild beasts, such as

leopards, bears, sloths, and elephants innumerable. To climb the

cocoa-nut tree, (the promised source of health,) was then unknown, and

considered beyond the power of mortal man; but, as fire had been pointed

out as the means of obtaining its fruit, the rajah’s followers procured

two dry sticks, which having prepared, by pointing the end of one, and

making a small hole in the middle of the other, for the reception of the

pointed stick, friction produced fire, which was immediately increased,

by the application of dried leaves to the emitted flame.

Scarcely had an hour elapsed, after the fire had been kindled that was to

fell the pride of the coast and the most valuable boon of nature to the

Indian world, ere, with a tremendous crash, it became prostrate upon the

earth, whence, from its capacious and verdant crest, crept out creatures

innumerable: large blue scorpions, brown and yellow centipedes, snakes

of various hues, from the Polonga to the less dreadful rat-snake; blue,

black, green, and yellow beetles; tarantulas, and other spiders, of all

sorts and sizes and colours; whilst, running from branch to branch, the

detested rat seemed to imitate the motions and equal in agility the

beautiful tri-striped squirrel, or lena of this paradise, (as the glad

rajah and his suite at that time considered it,) of the universe.

The novel fruit was, at first with some difficulty, opened; but the

rajah’s superstitions were more powerful than even the effects of hunger

itself. With awe, he approached the beach, over which wave followed wave

in quick succession; whilst the surf beat with violence against the roots

of those stately trees, which seemed to thrive best where no other tree

of any utility whatever could survive even a temporary sprinkling from

the briny spray.

Mute with astonishment at the vast expanse of ocean, which he then for

the first time approached, the rajah bent to taste the liquid aliment.

It was as his vision prognosticated. Again his wonder was increased;

but his faith had kept pace with it, in the full belief, that “ere the

great moon had thrice given and refused her light,” he would be cleansed

from his foul distemper; and his disrespectful demeanor under the sacred

Bogaha, which had originally drawn down upon him the anger of the

“All-seeing,”[112] be forgiven.

Having once commenced, the rajah and his followers continued to live on

the prescribed diet. The former, in obedience to the commands of Budhoo,

by the Maha Sudona; and the latter, from necessity, there being none of

their accustomed fruits, rice, or roots to be met with so near the ocean.

They found the water[113] within the nuts sweet and delicious, and pure

as crystal itself, (of which mineral their country produced abundant

varieties,) whilst the fleshy part of it was a cooling and satisfying

food.

The prescribed time rolled on; and day after day convinced the delighted

followers of their suffering prince, that truth came from above. The

rajah gradually lost the white and scaly skin, which had enveloped him

like the armour of the great ant-eater of the interior;[114] whilst the

glow of heat which pervaded his extremities, convinced him of the near

approach of his promised recovery. Thankful to his great preserver, he

omitted not to perform the duties which in his visions had been dictated

to him; and on the first stone, which appeared durable and beyond the

reach of the sea, in token of his gratitude, he, with the assistance of

his followers, carved on the granite rock (“which you now see,” is added

by the narrator) a gigantic statue of himself; remarking, that its great

height would show the wonderful recovery he had experienced, being a very

little man in stature; “for he had risen, by the blessing of the god of

all gods, to an undeserved height of happiness and bodily vigour; the

memorial of which would thus be handed down to millions yet unborn.”

Numerous families, from the high[115] country of the interior, soon

afterwards emigrated to the sea coast; for it had become an imperious

duty on the part of the rajah, on whom a miraculous cure had been

so unexpectedly wrought by the fruit of the cocoa-nut tree, to give

publicity to the circumstances which originally introduced to him and

his followers a knowledge of that splendid production; whilst the

conviction of its transcendent utility pointed out its propagation as a

never-failing source of individual advantage and of progressive national

prosperity.

This useful tree is of the Monoecious class, order Hexandria, and is the

Cocos[116] nucifera of Linnæus: it is called Haari by the Tahitans,

Polgaha by the Singalese. The varieties of the cocoa-nut are numerous

at Tahiti, (one of the Society Islands.) I am acquainted with six, each

having a distinct appellation by the natives. At Ceylon, five varieties

are indigenous; but are seldom, if ever, found in the same plantation,

except it be in the vicinity of a Budhoo temple of some importance. The

first, or King cocoa-nut may be well known to those who have resided in

Ceylon: its bright orange colour, and somewhat oval shape, cannot fail to

attract notice, and is usually presented to respectable Europeans, by the

Modeliars, or by the priests, as a compliment to those whose curiosity

may have induced a visit to the shrine of Budhoo. This variety is the

Tembili of the Singalese, and they have of it three sub-varieties. The

second is of a similar colour to the preceding, but of a more spherical

shape. The third is of a pale yellow, and rather heart-shaped: it is

the _Nawasi_, or edible husk, and has the peculiar quality, that after

the epidermis has been removed, the inner rind turns to a pale red, and

is edible. The fourth is the common cocoa-nut, which is in general use,

and the one most known. The fifth is a species of Maldivia, or dwarf

cocoa-nut, about the size of a turkey’s egg, which being rare, is more

esteemed as a curiosity than for any peculiar good quality it possesses.

The elevation[117] this tree attains is from sixty to one hundred feet,

and a diameter of one or two feet; its cylindrical stem, crowned on the

summit with numerous waving, plumy branches, has a splendid effect, and

forms an elegant object of intertropical scenery: it is seen on the arid,

sandy shores, with its roots laved by the surges, as well as in the rich

valleys, overshadowing the huts of the natives; but when this valuable

tree is found growing inland, they are inferior in size to those on

the sea-shore and about the dwellings of natives. The Singalese have a

saying, that cocoa-nut trees do not thrive unless “you walk amongst them,

and talk amongst them.”[118]

The cocoa-nuts intended for planting are fully ripe, and being taken

down, are laid aside for several days: they are then taken, and being

partially covered with earth, they are left for two or three months; in

which time a white, spongy, sweet substance forms in the interior of

the nut; after which the white shoot (the rudiment of the future tree)

emerges from one of the three holes, (which are seen at one end of the

nut, wisely provided by nature for this purpose,) pierces the nut, and

rising to the height of a few inches, the foliaceous rudiments are

distinctly to be perceived;[119] the radicles emerge from the other two

orifices, in a direction opposite to the shoot, and penetrate the ground.

In the course of four or five months, the plant will have attained the

height of sixteen or eighteen inches, and have thrown out three or four

foliaceous branches. The Singalese plant their _topes_,[120] or groves,

with great regularity, the distance observed between the plants being

twelve or eighteen feet. The cocoa-nuts are never planted until they

have sprouted, and the young plant even attained the elevation of three

feet or more; the natives, therefore, usually keep the nuts intended for

planting about their houses, until they are considered to be of growth

sufficient to plant. At the Island of Rótuma, South Pacific Ocean, I

have seen them ranged along in great numbers before the huts, the young

plants growing luxuriantly from the nuts, but as yet unplanted. At this

island the cocoa-nut tree is planted abundantly, and covers the island

profusely, from the margin of the beach to the summits of the hills,

giving a beautiful appearance to this small but fertile island. In time

of sickness the natives often make use of the young cocoa-nut trees as

offerings to the supposed offended spirits.

For the first three or four years, the young plants are fenced, to

protect them from the depredations of hogs, &c. to whom the young,

delicate leaves would form a tempting morsel. In five or six years,

(if the tree is planted in a healthy situation,) the tree will have

attained an elevation, probably, of eight feet; and at that time the

enormous size of its fronds are more conspicuous than when the tree has

obtained its full elevation: it then usually commences to bear fruit,

and continues for sixty years to yield it in abundance; but beyond that

period, the produce begins decreasing, until it ceases altogether.

The wood of this tree is used for various purposes: among the Polynesians

it is used for spears, rafters for their huts, fences &c.; and it also

makes excellent charcoal. When the tree has ceased to bear, it is most

valuable, and is imported into the European markets under the name of

_porcupine wood_. Among the Singalese it is used for rafters, laths,

shingles, chairs, ladies’ work-boxes, &c.; but during the period of its

most abundant bearing, (considered to be between ten and thirty-five

years’ growth,) the heart is of so soft and spongy a nature, that it is

merely used for fences, water-pipes, &c.

The fronds are from eighteen to twenty feet long, and composed of a

strong, tough stalk, diminishing from the base, and has a number of

narrow leaflets[121] ranged on each side. The Singalese split the

fronds in halves, and plait the leaflets neatly, so as to make excellent

baskets; and, under the denomination of cadjans, form the usual covering

of their huts, as well as the European bungalows. Many of the natives’

huts are constructed there, as well as in Polynesia, almost entirely of

materials derived from the cocoa-nut tree.

The Tahitans also plait the branches (_niau_) for screens, or a covering

for the floors; for similar purposes, and also as a thatch for the huts,

it is also used by the natives of the islands of Rótuma, Tongatabu,[122]

and other of the Polynesian islands. The Tahitans call these screens

_paua_, and they also manufacture neat baskets, one kind of which is

called _arairi_, and another kind of basket called _oini_; a shade for

their eyes, called _tapo niau_, is made of the plaited leaves, and

placed by the natives over the eyes to protect them from the unpleasant

solar reflection from their sandy roads and beaches; the yellow leaves

(_rau-para_) are preferred for the purpose, their colour being much

admired. The leaves were used in many of the religious ceremonies of

the Tahitans, and was also an emblem of authority; it was sent by the

chief to his dependents when any requisition was made: through the

cocoa-nut leaf, tied to the sacrifice, the god was supposed to enter;

and by the same road the evil spirits, who, it was imagined, tormented

those affected with diseases, were driven out. Bunches or strings of the

leaflets were also suspended in the temple on certain occasions, and

answered the same purpose as beads in Roman Catholic worship, reminding

the priest, or the worshipper, of the order of his prayers.[123]

The heart, or very young foliaceous fronds of this tree, is called the

cabbage, which is an excellent vegetable, either cooked or dressed, in

stews, hashes, or ragouts.[124] The Singalese use the dried fronds as

torches, both for themselves during the dark nights, or to carry before

the carriages and palanquins of Europeans; they also use the spathe for a

similar purpose, as well as for fuel; and at Rótuma and other Polynesian

islands it is also adopted for a like purpose. At Tongatabu (one of

the Friendly Islands) combs are made by the women of the midrib of the

leaflets of the cocoa-nut tree, the upper part being beautifully worked

with the fibre of the husk of the cocoa-nut, or Bulu; these combs, from

their neat and ornamental appearance, were in great requisition during

the time I visited that interesting island, and all the women were busily

employed during the stay of the ship in making these combs, which they

readily exchanged with the Papalangi[125] (foreign) officers and crew for

trifling articles. The combs were stained by the bark of the Koka-tree,

of a dark reddish colour, intended as a rude imitation of tortoiseshell.

There is one portion of this valuable tree which attracts much the

attention of the observer,—it is a kind of net-work; when very young

it is delicate, beautifully white, and transparent, and is seen at

the bases of the young fronds; but as the frond attains maturity, this

natural matting becomes coarser and tough, and changes to a brown

colour;[126] it may be stripped off the tree in large pieces, which are

used in Ceylon as strainers, particularly for the toddy, which is usually

full of impurities when recently taken from the tree, as its sweetness

attracts insects innumerable. In most countries which I have visited,

where this valuable tree is produced, this portion of it is used for a

similar purpose. At the island of Tahiti (Otaheite) it is called _Aa_;

and besides being used as sieves for straining arrow-root, cocoa-nut

oil, &c., the natives, when engaged in such occupations as digging,

fishing, &c., in order to save their bark cloth, would join several

portions of this net-work together, and having a hole in the centre, in

a manner similar to their mat-garment, called Tiabuta, wear it as an

article of apparel, merely for the time in which they may be engaged in

those occupations. It is certainly a garment, neither to be admired for

its flexibility or firmness, but better calculated for fishermen, or

those occupied in the water, as it will not be destroyed by wet, whereas

their bark cloth would be utterly destroyed in the water, its substance

resembling paper, both in strength and appearance.[127]

This fibrous net-work must also act as a security to the huge fronds,

against the violence of the winds; and a valuable precaution, by which

the sudden fall of the branch is prevented, which otherwise might

endanger the lives of those passing under the trees; it is not uncommon

to see the dead branches hanging from the trees perfectly dry, attached

to the trunk only by this tenacious substance, and even then it requires

no little muscular exertion to bring them down.

When a large bunch of the fruit is seen pending from, apparently, so

fragile a stalk, it seems as if it were an impossibility that it could

support such a cluster; from twelve to twenty large nuts, besides

several small, unproductive nuts, may be seen on each bunch, and in good

situations the tree will admit of the fruit being gathered four or five

times in the course of the year. The state in which the fruit is most

used as an article of food, both meat and drink, is the green or young

cocoa-nut, (Oua of the Tahitans, Koroomba of the Singalese,) at which

time it yields an abundance of a delicious, cooling beverage, to which,

sometimes, Madeira wine, brandy, &c. is added. The water, beautifully

clear, has a sweetness, with a slight degree of astringency which renders

it very agreeable; this liquid has been erroneously considered by most

persons as injurious, producing a predisposition to dropsical complaints,

and has been considered among the Tahitans one of the exciting causes of

that prevalent disease amongst them termed _féfé_ or _elephantiasis_; but

I have recommended and adopted this cooling beverage during my frequent

and long visits to intertropical countries, and have always found it

the most cooling and refreshing beverage during my botanical and other

excursions; but when an immoderate quantity is drunk, I have known a

slight degree of strangury produced by it. The ladies, however, who may

fear taking it internally, are informed that to the water of the green

cocoa-nut is ascribed that inestimable property, to them, of clearing the

face of all wrinkles and imperfections whatever, and imparting to it the

rosy tints of youthful days!

In Ceylon, house-plasterers use the water of the green cocoa-nut, to

which they attribute an adhesive quality in their white and other washes,

in which Chunam[128] forms a chief ingredient for the walls of houses,

&c. &c.; and the shells of the green cocoa-nut,[129] fixed on stakes, are

used as illumination lamps for roads, trees, &c. The pulp in the interior

of the young nut is very delicate, easily removed from the shell with

a spoon, and may very well be named a vegetable _blanc mange_; in this

state it is called _niaa_ by the Tahitans, who use it as well as the

natives of other of the Polynesian Islands, in several made dishes. After

the fruit is suffered to remain a short time longer, and the pulp becomes

firmer, the Tahitans change the name to _Omato_, and the fully ripe nut

is called _Opaa_; in this state it is sometimes but seldom eaten, being

used principally for making oil, and contains a small quantity of oily

milk; it is in this state the nuts are seen and sold in England. In

Ceylon, when the nut is fully ripe, it is denominated by the Singalese

_Pol_, or _Curry cocoa-nut_, the kernel of which is reduced to a very

small size by an instrument called _Hiromane_; (a circle of notched iron

fastened to the raised end of a piece of wood;) the kernel thus reduced

is placed in a cloth, and water being poured on it, a white juice, which

may with propriety be termed “cocoa-nut milk,” is extracted by pressure,

and used invariably, either with or without the grated kernel, in their

various curries and mulligatawnies.

I have never met with the water contained in a cocoa-nut of a brackish

taste, as has been asserted, although the tree from which it had

been produced had its roots laved by the sprays of the ocean. Mr.

Finlayson[130] says, respecting some plantations of cocoa-nut trees,

which surrounded a village situated on Pulo Condore, at the extremity of

a plain, that “although they grow in great abundance, they are rather

stunted in the stem, and their fruit, as well as the fluid it contains,

has a peculiar and rather bitter taste.”

The shells of the cocoa-nut, when fully ripe, are of a tolerable

thickness, and great hardness; they are cut transversely, scraped,

polished, and mounted on silver, being edged also with the same metal,

and are preserved as goblets, more for curiosity than utility; but the

shell is also used for cups, (elegantly carved,) lamps, ladles, skimmers,

spoons, &c.; they are used by the Polynesians, as well as other natives,

entire, for containing their water, having two holes on the summit. The

interior of the nut is extracted without breaking the shell, by filling

it with salt-water, after which it is buried for some time in the sand,

when the inside pulp becomes decayed, and the shell is then well washed

out. The largest nuts are chosen for the purpose, and are often seen

highly polished, and of a fine black colour. The cups of the natives are

usually made of sections of the cocoa-nut in that stage of ripeness,

when they are denominated by the Tahitans _Omutu_; they are then scraped

so thin as to be nearly transparent, and are of a light-brown colour.

The shells will make good lamp-black, and, reduced to charcoal and

pulverized, also an excellent dentifrice.

The flowers are insignificant when the magnitude of the tree is

considered, and are inclosed in a thick, tough spathe, which, when either

opened artificially, or when seen just expanding naturally, have a

beautiful milk-white appearance. The Tahitans call the flower _Tiari_,

a name applied generally to all flowers; and the spathe is denominated

_Pa tiari_; _Pa_ signifying a shell or any thing hard, sometimes applied

to the shell of the cocoa-nut; and the spathe is thus considered the

shell of the flowers. The first appearance of these flowers on a tree of

moderate elevation (when they are well seen) has an elegant effect—the

cluster erect, drooping, and delicately white. The taste of the flowers

is most powerfully astringent, and in Ceylon is used medicinally in

various debilitating diseases, more particularly that distressing malady

in tropical climates—gonorrhœa. The mode in which it is administered

is the expressed juice of the flower mixed with new milk, and taken in

small quantities not exceeding a wine-glass full, but at regular periods,

affords almost immediate temporary relief, and, if persevered in,

effectual cure. It is from these flower spathes, before the flowers have

yet expanded, that the delicious beverage, known to Europeans as toddy

or palm-wine is made;[131] it is called by the Singalese _Ra_, and the

Hindoo Portuguese _Soura_, but is unknown to the natives of Polynesia,

although at some of the islands Europeans, who have visited those parts

of India where they had seen the process of collecting it, had commenced

instructing the natives, who were delighted to have a beverage possessing

the stimulus of their favourite rum.

To procure the toddy[132] the spathe is tied with stripes of the

milk-white leaves of the very young branches, (which are much tougher and

stronger than the old ones,) to prevent its expansion; it is cut a little

transversely from the top, and beaten either with the handle of the

toddy knife or a small piece of ebony or iron wood; this process having

been continued morning and evening (at dawn of day, and just as the sun

declines below the horizon) for five or six successive days, the under

part of the spathe is taken off, so as to permit of its being gradually

bent, when the Chandos or toddy-drawers, for the purpose of keeping

it in that position, attach it to some neighbouring branch. After a

farther period of five days an earthen chatty or calabash is hung to the

spathe, so as to receive the toddy that exudes, which is collected every

morning and evening, and the spathe cut a little every day: the quantity

collected varies much.

The toddy should be drunk at sunrise, when it is a most delicious drink,

having a slightly stimulating effect, and acting as a gentle aperient, a

remedy admirably adapted for constipated habits, particularly in those of

delicate constitutions. The Singalese prefer it after fermentation has

taken place, and with it they often intoxicate themselves. Fermentation

takes place in a few hours after the toddy has been collected, and is

used by the bakers as yeast, the bread made with it being remarkably

light. Toddy is seldom or never used by Europeans during the rainy

season, being then regarded highly unwholesome. I have often found the

toddy in Ceylon, and a refreshing bath before or just on the eve of

sunrise, cooling, and it braces one up to go through the heat of the day

in that sultry, debilitating climate.

The spirit known in India by the name of _arrack_, or _rack_, is in

several parts distilled from rice; but in Ceylon, where this spirit is

named Pol, wakéré, it is distilled from toddy after it has undergone

fermentation and become quite sour. One hundred gallons of toddy, it is

stated, will produce, by distillation, twenty-five of arrack. Like all

other spirits, when new, it is regarded injurious to the constitution,

but when old, very wholesome. It is a favourite spirit among the drinkers

of that far-famed English beverage, named punch.

Toddy, besides the foregoing uses, makes excellent vinegar,[133] &c. The

toddy-drawers are a separate caste in Ceylon, called Chandos: almost all

the families of this class reside in the neighbourhood of the sea-coast,

where the trees grow in the greatest luxuriance and abundance, the

whole line of coast between Point de Galle and Colombo being thickly

planted with them; and the topes or groves are let at a stipulated sum

of rix-dollars by the month; and it is also not uncommon for one or

two families or more to have a share in a single tree, affording them

sufficient for their favourite and universal food, the currie.

Besides vinegar, arrack, &c., the toddy yields abundance of jaggery or

sugar. The toddy, being collected in a calabash, as before mentioned,

in which a few pieces of the bark of the Allghas (_Hellenia Allughas_,

Linn.) had been placed, a supply of sweet toddy is procured mornings and

evenings; but particular care is required that the vessels be regularly

changed, and that none are employed unless they have been well cleaned

and dried. Eight gallons of sweet toddy, boiled over a slow fire, yield

two gallons of a very luscious liquid, called Penni, or honey, or

jaggery, or sugar-water; which quantity, being again boiled, a species

of coarse brown sugar, called jaggery, which is formed into round

cakes, and dried in the smoke of the huts; and, in order to preserve it

free from humidity, each cake of jaggery is tied up in pieces of dried

banana leaves, separately, and kept in smoky places, unless required for

family use or the market. Jaggery is exported from Ceylon to various

parts of India. In the interior a jaggery is drawn from the Kittul

tree, the _Caryota urens_ of Linnæus, and is considered to possess more

saccharine properties than that produced from the _Cocos nucifera_. The

jaggery-makers are called in Ceylon _Hakuroos_, and are one of the

subdivisions of the second in rank of the Singalese castes.

The rind or husk of the cocoa-nut[134] is very fibrous, and, when ripe,

is the Koya or Koir of commerce. It is prepared by being soaked for some

months in water, washed, beaten to pieces, and then laid in the sun to

dry. This being effected, it is again well beaten until the fibres are

so separated as to allow of their being worked up like hemp, similar to

which it is made up in ropes of any size from the smallest cord to the

largest cable, but will not receive tar; it is rough to handle, and has

not so neat an appearance about the rigging of shipping as that made

from hemp, but surpasses the latter in lightness and elasticity, and

even, it is said, durability; more so if wetted frequently by salt-water.

From its elasticity it is valuable for cables, enabling a ship to ride

easier than with a hemp or even chain cable. I was once on board a ship,

in a severe gale, when chain and hemp cables gave way; and we, at last,

most unexpectedly rode the gale out with a small coir-cable. Among the

Polynesian islands, where this valuable tree rears its elegant crest,

the coir is used in the manufacture of “sinnet,” some of which is

beautifully braided, and used by the natives for a variety of useful

purposes, and at Tahiti is called Napé. At Tonga, (one of the Friendly

Islands,) the natives dye the “sinnet,” called _Kafa_, of various

colours, using it in tying the rafters of the huts, &c. and it has a very

ornamental appearance. The rope for their canvas is all manufactured from

this substance. The husk, from which the fibrous substance has not been

separated, is used in Ceylon in lieu of scrubbing-brushes for the floor;

and also brooms, mats, and bags are manufactured from it. A quantity of

coir cordage, such as cables, hawsers, &c., is exported annually from

Ceylon to various parts of the globe. At the Pulowat Islands, (Carolina

Group, South Pacific Ocean,) we purchased an abundance of cordage, an

inch and one and a half inch in diameter, for merely pieces of iron

hoop.[135]

From the trunk of the cocoa-nut tree the Tahitans extract a gummy

substance, called by them Pia, pia; it possesses no fragrant property,

but is used by the native females to spread over their hair, in the same

manner that they are accustomed to use the viscid gum of the bread-fruit

tree.

Mariner mentions the charm at the Tonga islands of _Ta Niu_, which

consists in spinning a cocoa-nut with the husk on, and judging, by

the direction of the upper part when again at rest, of the object of

inquiry, which is chiefly whether a sick person will recover: for this

purpose, the nut being placed on the ground, a relation of the sick

person determines that if the nut, when again at rest, points to such a

quarter—the east for example—the sick man will recover; he then prays

aloud to the patron god of the family, that he will be pleased to direct

the nut, so that it may indicate the truth. The nut being next spun, the

result is attended to with confidence, at least with a full conviction

that it will truly declare the intentions of the gods at the time.

The other occasions on which the spinning of a cocoa-nut is used, are

chiefly for amusement, and then no prayer is made, and no degree of

credit is attached to the result. The women often spin a cocoa-nut to

decide some dispute at a game.

Another valuable production of the cocoa-nut is the oil, which is a

valuable article of exportation from Ceylon, and other parts of India,

Polynesia, &c. It is used in various articles of domestic economy,

besides being an excellent burning oil, (for which it is much admired,

giving out neither smoke nor smell when burning, and having a clear

bright flame,) it has since had an additional value, and more extended

use at home, by the discovery of its capability of being manufactured

into candles, rivalling wax or spermaceti, at the same time without

being much higher in price than those of tallow. Soap has also been

manufactured from it; and it is lavished by the Asiatics, Polynesians,

and other intertropical natives, over their persons, and at Tongatabu,

and other of the Polynesian islands, is used scented with sandal-wood and

odoriferous flowers, giving a delightful fragrance to the flowing tresses

and elegant persons of the dark beauties of those fascinating islands. In

cold weather, (similar to most of the vegetable oils,) this oil becomes

very hard, and requires to be melted before it can be used for burning.

The singular method of making the oil is very simple. The nut having been

removed from the shell, is boiled in water for a short period; it is then

pounded in a large mortar, taken out, and pressed. The _milk_, as it is

called, is then boiled over a slow fire, when the oil floats on the top,

which being skimmed off, and afterwards boiled by itself, two quarts of

oil may be procured from fourteen or fifteen cocoa-nuts. When fresh,

the oil is used in cookery, and has an excellent flavour; the Singalese

anoint their bodies with it after bathing, and invariably use it for the

sake of giving a glossy and smooth appearance to the hair, and it is in

great requisition by both sexes.

The remains of the cocoa-nut, from which the oil has been extracted,

is called by the Singalese _Poonak_, and the best _Poonak_ is obtained

when the oil is extracted by pressure; it is an excellent food for pigs,

poultry, &c. This substance is termed by the Tahitans _Ota_, and by the

natives of Tongatabu _Efeniu_, and they use it also for fattening their

pigs, poultry, &c. as also at the other Polynesian islands.

At Tahiti they procure the _Morii_, or oil from the nuts, by first

grating the kernel, then depositing it in the hollow trunk of a tree, or

some kind of hollow vessel, which is exposed to the sun during the day.

After a few days have elapsed, the grated nut is heaped up in the trough

or vessel, leaving a space between the heaps, the oil exuding drains into

the hollow spaces, from whence it is collected by the natives into large

bamboo canes; (containing each a gallon, or more;) in this way it is sold

for shipping, or rather exchanged for axes, cotton, cloth, or rum; but

the indolence of the natives prevents its being so important an article

of traffic as it might be in the South Seas.

Sometimes the Tahitans, after the oil ceases to collect in the vessel,

put the kernel into a bag, and submit it to the action of pressure by a

rude lever press; but the oil thus obtained is considered inferior to

that procured by the heat of the sun.

The Malabar method of extracting oil, is, by dividing the kernel into two

equal parts, which are ranged on shelves made of laths of the Areka palm,

or split bamboo, spaces being left between each lath of half an inch in

width; under them a charcoal fire is then made, and kept up for about two

or three days, in order to dry them. After this process they are exposed

to the sun on mats, and when thoroughly dried (then called Koppera) are

placed in an oil press, or Siccoor. The Malabars have a caste of oil

pressers, called the Waany caste.

At Colombo (island of Ceylon) there is a government steam-engine, which

was erected in 1815, for the purpose of extracting the oil from the nut

in much larger quantities, and with greater facility than before. Ceylon

furnishes an abundance of cocoa-nut oil, much is used in the colony, and

a large quantity is also exported to Europe. In Ceylon the average price

is from thirteen to fifteen pence per gallon.

There are medicinal properties attributed to different parts of the

cocoa-nut tree in Ceylon; the root (the Tumu Haari of the natives of

Tahiti) is used by the native doctors, small pieces of it being boiled

with dried ginger and jaggery, and the decoction given at stated

regular periods, and is considered highly efficacious in remittent and

intermittent fevers. When this decoction is used as a gargle, it is mixed

with the fresh oil of the nut, and generally affords considerable relief

to the patient; and has good effect, it is said, in cases where pustules

have formed in the mouth or tonsils. The expressed juice of the leaves,

mixed with the fresh oil of the nut, is considered a sovereign remedy

in hemorrhoids. The expressed juice of the nut, used as an external

application, mixed with new milk, is regarded by the Singalese as a good

remedy for ophthalmic complaints.

It has been asserted, I believe by Lord Valentia, that cocoa-nut trees

were injurious to the air in the places where they grew. Dr. Davy

notices this in his excellent work on Ceylon, and says, “Respecting the

good effect of the wind from the sea, there can be no doubt; and almost

as little can be entertained respecting the ameliorating effect of

cultivation, and the benefit derived from the shade of cultivated trees.

Unfortunate would it be for the island, were the notions of a noble

traveller on this subject correct, or were his suggestions, founded on

these notions, carried into execution; who, supposing cocoa-nut trees

to be injurious to the air, has recommended the destruction of those

fine groves in the neighbourhood of Galle, with the idea of improving

the wholesomeness of a place already remarkably wholesome. It was from

notions similar to this, not long after we had possession of Trincomalie,

that the majority of the cocoa-nut trees at that place were cut down,

to the great detriment of the inhabitants, and to the deterioration

rather than the improvement of the air. It is well established, and ought

never to be forgotten, that it is not shade that is prejudicial in a hot

climate; that it is not vigorous healthy vegetation that is noxious;

but the accumulation of dead vegetable matter and its putrefaction;

and that whilst every means are taken to prevent the latter, too much

encouragement cannot be given to promote the former.”

It is interesting to see the natives ascend this lofty palm, to gather

its fruit: they simply fasten a piece of bark round their feet, leaving

between them a space of a few inches; they then clasp the tree, and

ascend with great agility. In throwing down the nuts, a whirling motion

is usually given to prevent their falling on the side, by which they may

be burst.

The natives of the island of Tahiti, in one of their traditions, ascribe

the origin of the cocoa-nut to its having grown from the head of a man:

they have similar traditions for the origin of the bread-fruit, yams, &c.

&c.

There are other species of the cocoas. The _C. butyracea_, a native of

South America, the _C. guiniensis_, _aculeata_, _nypa_, &c. &c. all of

which yield a fixed oil in use for various purposes.

Lionel Wafer, (1685,) when at the Island Cocoas, southern Pacific

Ocean, (latitude 5° 15′ north,) attributes injurious effects to an

indiscriminate use of the water of the cocoa-nut by some of his crew, by

which that beverage was found unfit for a _jollification_; for he says,

“Nor did we spare the cocoa-nuts, eating what we would, and drinking the

milk; carried several hundreds of them on board. Some or other of our

men went ashore every day; and one day, among the rest, being minded

to make themselves very merry, they went ashore, and cut down a great

many cocoa-trees, from which they gathered the fruit, and drew about

twenty gallons of milk. Then they all sat down, and drank healths to the

king, queen, &c. They drank an excessive quantity; yet it did not end

in drunkenness. But, however, that sort of liquor had so chilled and

benumbed their nerves, that they could neither go nor stand; nor could

they return on board the ship, without the help of those who had not been

partakers in the frolic; nor did they recover it under four or five days’

time.”

The continued use of the water contained in the young or green

cocoa-nuts, is one of the causes attributed, (although I am inclined to

consider it an erroneous opinion,) to produce the scrotal enlargements,

&c. so often seen among natives of intertropical regions, more

particularly those resident on the coast.

In a letter published in the Sydney Herald, of January 14th 1833, it is

said, “The natives of Tahiti alone, make forty or fifty tons of cocoa-nut

oil in the year, and all the other islands of the groups make an equal

proportion. They sell it for calico, that costs about twopence-halfpenny

per yard in England, and receive a fathom for four or five gallons. But

the owners of vessels from this colony, (New South Wales,) find something

more lucrative for their shipping than sending them to the islands, and

the natives are discouraged at having no trade. The indigenous arrow-root

remains undug, and the cocoa-nuts fall to the ground, and rot.” That the

quantity of oil mentioned in the foregoing extract could be made, and

even a much larger quantity, I do not doubt; but that it would pay a

vessel to proceed from Sydney to the islands, I have my doubts: indeed it

has been tried, and found a losing speculation,—native indolence causing

much delay to the vessel; as, at one time they have a quantity of oil

ready, at other times they are too indolent to manufacture any. Sending

a vessel down, therefore, to the islands, is a risk, and as such it is

well known to several of the Sydney merchants, although now and then

good cargoes have been returned. With industry, however, those valuable

and beautiful islands could produce abundance of cocoa-nut oil, sugar,

arrow-root, and other articles of equal value; but, under the present

state of things, I have not very sanguine hopes.

_The names of the Cocoa-nut, and portions of the trees in

different countries, where it is found indigenous._

Cocoa-nut—Niu—Society, Friendly, and Fidge Sandwich Islands,

Rótuma, Annatom, Tanna, and Immer, (New Hebrides group.)

Society Islands Tumu haari, root of the cocoa-nut tree; leaf

of the cocoa-palm, Niau; stalk in the centre of the leaflet,

Niu. (This part tied up in bundles, forms excellent brooms

for ships’ decks.) The fallen unripe fruit, Poniu; cocoa-nut,

nearly ripe, Omato; unctuous part of the kernel, Haro;

coagulated, or old milk of the nut, Utu; outward covering of

the nut, Iri Haari; the hard shell, Abu Haari. At the Tonga

Islands:—The plaited fronds, for thatching houses, &c., Baula;

husk of the cocoa-nut, Bulu; a shell, husk, &c., Gnedji;

cocoa-nut shells, Gnedji niu; a kind of cocoa-nut, the husk of

which is eaten, Gnono-gnóno; a very young cocoa-nut, Gnonu;

large cocoa-nut shells, for water, Hohoni; a cup, or cocoa-nut

shell for drinking out of, Ibu; the oil, emulsion of the

cocoa-nut, Loloi.

This palm is widely spread over tropical regions; even a small islet just

appearing above the surface of the “great waters,” is usually decorated

by several, although yet uninhabited; the tough, thick covering of the

nut protects the germ whilst it floats on the briny wave, borne by

the currents to a barren spot, on which it germinates, and, its fruit

falling, again springs up, until a magnificent grove decorates the

before-barren islet, delighting the eye, and affording refreshment to the

wearied navigator. Ifelue Island, and numerous others in the southern

Pacific Ocean, are instances of this wonderful provision of nature.

At the Marquesas and Washington Islands, “the _Tahunas_, or priests,

have a distinctive dress, consisting of a cap, formed from a cocoa-nut

leaf. A part of the stem, six or eight inches in length, is placed

perpendicularly over the forehead, and the leaflets still attached to it,

are passed round the head, on each side, and neatly fastened together

behind.

“Besides this article on the head, they wear a cape of the same material.

In this the stem is split till within an inch or two of one of the ends:

it is then passed round the neck, so that the extremities rest on each

shoulder, and the separated ends are tied together. The ribs running

through the leaflets being taken out, they hang over the chest and back.

“These articles are usually worn by them on ordinary occasions,

and always when in discharge of the services connected with their

office.”[136]

At the same islands, one of their traditions gives an account of the

introduction of the cocoa-nut tree. It is, “that a god, on a visit to

them from an island which they call _Oatamaaua_, finding them destitute

of this important tree, fetched it to them in a stone canoe: the

whole transaction being described in a minute and equally incredible

manner.”[137]

Among the articles brought off to the ships for barter at the Island of

Tongatabu, were small calabashes, (fruit of _Melodinus scandens_,) filled

with cocoa-nut oil perfumed by the sandal-wood, or various sweet-scented

flowers, indigenous to the island. With this oil both the males and

females anoint the upper parts of the body very profusely, giving a

softness and glossiness to their dark-brown skins, and preventing the

fervid rays of the sun from having any effect upon them, exposed as their

naked bodies are to its influence.

The Papuas of New Guinea “in general wear a thin stuff that comes from

the cocoa-nut tree, and resembles a coarse kind of cloth, tied forward

round the middle, and up behind between the thighs.”[138]

The outer coarse fibres of the husk of the cocoa-nut, is made into a kind

of rope, called Talie, api, or fire-rope, by the Javanese: it retains the

fire for a long time, and is used in Batavia for lighting cigars.

The sinnet, made from the inner fibre of the husk of the cocoa-nut, can

be procured in abundance at the island of Tongatabu, and other islands

in the Polynesian Archipelago, where it is used for canoes, binding the

rafters of their houses, and a variety of other purposes, both ornamental

and useful.

REMARKS ON THE MORBID APPETITE OF BREEDING EWES, IN SEVERAL PARTS OF

THE COLONY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, MORE PARTICULARLY OBSERVED ABOUT THE

MURRUMBIDGEE COUNTRY, OCCASIONED BY EATING EARTH IMPREGNATED WITH SOME

ALKALINE SALTS.

(_See Page 220_, Vol. i.)

On account of the morbid appetite existing in the sheep, which I am about

to relate, their natural innocent dispositions are changed; they become

carnivorous and savage; and it is difficult to drive them away from the

pits in which earth impregnated with alkaline salts may be situated;

although, when taken to a _fresh run_, they proceed feeding as usual,

until this salt earth is again discovered, when they became addicted to

the unnatural custom of devouring their lambs. On discovering one of the

pits, they rush to it with the activity of deer, licking and gnawing the

earth with avidity.

Among breeding-ewes, eating the earth was followed by their devouring

the progeny of the other ewes, when brought forth; and, on the shepherds

endeavouring to save the lambs just born from their voracity, they would

rush upon them, biting their trowsers, and making strenuous efforts to

seize the lambs in the arms of the men.

The different places about the Murrumbidgee country, where this took

place, was shown me during my visit to that part of the colony. One place

was a black bog earth, on which marks of the tongues of the animals, at

those places where they had been licking, could be distinctly seen; the

second place was similar to the first, and two others consisted of a

reddish clay.

The situations were about limestone ranges; and it has been remarked,

that the water holes, as they are termed, (which when dry, are the

places frequented by the sheep, for the purpose of licking and gnawing

the earth,) after standing for three or four days, acquire a peculiar

sickly, sweetish taste: and it is in these pools, after the evaporation

of the water, that the earth is situated, so eagerly devoured by the

breeding-ewes. When driven away, they are seen licking their mouths, as

if enjoying the delicious treat of which they had just partaken, making

every endeavour to return: and men were required to be kept constantly

on the watch, to prevent them; but with every exertion it was almost

impossible to keep them off, for one flock advanced as another was driven

away, and the people are soon tired out.[139]

After eating the earth, they do not feed on the herbage in any regular

manner; they are restless, picking a bit of grass here and there,

according to the statement of the shepherds, until, on the approach of

evening, they feed in a more regular manner.

Sometimes six or eight ewes may be seen running to a particular spot on

the pasturage, about the roots of clumps of grass, and sometimes those of

fallen trees, licking and gnawing about the spot, as if it had a similar

earth to that found in the _water holes_. They will burrow underneath the

bank, to get the saline earth, at those places where it may be most moist.

This quality of the ground is supposed by the shepherds to be more

prevalent about _limestone ranges_ than any other geological formation;

but I cannot consider this as satisfactorily proved. Although it has

prevailed, for the most part, in places at which the limestone has formed

the principal geological character, yet there are other parts of the

country, where sheep have manifested a similar morbid appetite, when no

limestone has existed. An ewe being missing about some limestone ranges,

was seen coming out of a small cavern, in which she seemed to have found

some of the saline earth, as she had a quantity of earth about the mouth;

and the place was afterwards much frequented by other ewes, until they

were removed from the spot.

The sufferers in the loss of lambs and ewes from this morbid appetite of

the latter, are principally Messrs. Dutton, O’Brien, Warby, Hume, Manton,

&c., all having sheep-runs about the Murrumbidgee country.

Mr. Dutton addressed a letter to the government on the subject, with the

intention of getting his grant of land, if possible, changed to some

other part of the country. The following is an extract from his letter,

which clearly points out the destructive effects produced among the

flocks, the most valuable stock of the settler in this colony, and on

which his prosperity greatly depends.

“The disadvantages which I have thus to detail to you, arise from the

novel disease with which the sheep are affected. It appeared after the

first lambing, and within four months from the time of my occupation of

the land in question. Its unaccountable and destructive nature renders

my selection utterly useless. The nature of the disease, as far as I

have yet remarked, is as follows:—The sheep, in the first place, devour

the earth ravenously, the pasture being at the same time luxuriant,

principally rib-grass, and other succulent herbs; they become speedily

emaciated, from this unnatural diet, more particularly as the lambing

season advances, and when lambing commences: the other ewes surround the

one lambing, and devour the young as they emerge from the mother. The

lambs saved through the care of the shepherds become poverty stricken,

from the low condition of the mothers, and generally die before they

become a month old. Thus, instead of having twelve hundred lambs this

season, as my regular increase, I do not count four hundred; besides

a very great decrease from mortality in the maiden sheep, originally

purchased at high prices. The number of shepherds required being at the

same time thrice beyond the proportion usual in the colony.”—November

1832.

The result was, that as the regulations of the government could not

permit the grant to be changed, Mr. D. was obliged to sell it as a

cattle-station, and purchase land in a more favourable part of the colony

for his flocks.

In December he removed them, as a temporary measure, to Yas Plains; some

of the ewes lambed after they had been removed, but the morbid appetite

had ceased with the exciting cause, and the lambs were not attacked by

the other ewes.

At the Murrumbidgee country I saw one of the little lambs, which had just

been saved from the ravenous ewes, and had its tail bitten off before it

was rescued. The circumstance was as follows, which shows the mode of

attack:—The ewe was lambing, when six or eight others rushed towards her,

but were prevented from coming near by the shepherds; they would not,

however, go away, but kept following; and as soon as the ewe dropped her

lamb (the shepherds having been engaged for the moment in driving away

another party from another lambing ewe) it was attacked, the tail was

bitten, but they were prevented from proceeding further by the immediate

return of the shepherds.

They also evince as much eagerness to devour the “_cleanings_,” or

after-birth, if not prevented; but if the little animal has been licked

clean by the mother, and is dry, it may be placed in the hurdles amongst

the other ewes, without their being attacked or injured. Thus showing

that the salt nature of the _liquor amnii_, which at that time covers

the young one, is the principal exciting cause for this extraordinary

propensity to destroy, that appetite being excited by having previously

eaten the saline earth from the “water holes.”

At the places where this destruction to the hopes of the wool-grower

takes place, the pasturage is luxuriant; and the situations would be

selected, by a person ignorant of the before-mentioned circumstances, as

some of the finest sheep-runs in the colony.

The mother will not devour her own progeny, but will sometimes (which is

not unfrequent in maiden ewes) not take to the lambs, but forsake them;

until the shepherds hurdling the mother and young one together, the

mother at last acknowledges her young.

It is not uncommon, however, for them to follow other ewes, attack and

devour the lambs brought forth by them, in as ravenous a manner as the

others would have devoured their young.

The ewes will not even wait until the young lamb is born, but when they

see an ewe yearning, will rush upon her, devour the young one as it

proceeds from the mother, and thus sometimes half the lamb is devoured

before it is wholly born. Although the shepherds, by attention, endeavour

to avert the evil as much as possible, yet when many ewes are lambing,

the number of shepherds attached to the flocks are too small to enable

them to attend to every individual case.

It may be asked, Does not the usual impulse of natural feeling induce the

mother to prevent the destruction of her offspring? In reply, it may be

said, That the poor, helpless, timid creature bleats, but makes no effort

to defend her young one from the furious attacks of the “mob.”

The poorest and leanest ewes are those remarked as being most eager to

devour the lambs of others; they have been brought into that miserable

state, from having previously been fine fat ewes, merely from the custom

of devouring the saline earth.

The head shepherd of Mr. Dutton’s flocks told me that there was not

a finer flock of sheep in the country than those, previous to their

devouring the salt clay and earth; after which they “fell off in

condition,” until they became in the miserable state in which I now saw

them.

The following is another, among too many instances of their voracity.

An ewe had just commenced lambing, was in labour, but no portion of the

young one had yet been born, when from fifteen to twenty ewes were seen

running towards her; the shepherds perceiving this, rescued the ewe, and

remained near her until she had done lambing; the other ewes kept at a

short distance, occasionally advancing to make an attack upon the young

one. The lamb was brought forth, and when perfectly cleaned and dry, was

placed in the sheep-fold, in the evening with the mother, as usual, but

the other ewes then took no notice either of the mother or young one.

Although the breeding ewes suffer both in health, and acquire this morbid

appetite of devouring the progeny of others, and their own cleanings,

yet rams, wethers, and ewes, _not breeding_, fatten to an astonishing

degree upon the same pasturage, where breeding ewes had become miserably

lean, and died in numbers from being in so low a condition. On one of

these spots, I saw a wether killed from a flock, which was so fat as to

render the meat almost uneatable; and Mr. Manton, who, from the cause

before-mentioned, had been obliged to remove all his breeding ewes from

his pastures about the Murrumbidgee, would, nevertheless, send his rams

and wethers on the luxuriant pasturage, as the best place to fatten

them; indeed, all concurred that rams, wethers, and even the ewes, if

not breeding, thrive and fatten upon that pasturage land about the

Murrumbidgee country, which proves so destructive to breeding-ewes and

their lambs.

Mr. Manton had sheep on the limestone ranges, near the banks of the

Murrumbidgee river; they became impoverished, and acquired the morbid

appetite for devouring the young lambs; but when he removed them to a

granite soil, in the vicinity of Yas Plains, they speedily recovered

their former good condition, and the morbid appetite left them, more

probably from there being no “water holes” containing saline earth about

the place, than from the change of strata; however, they never returned

to the unnatural practices, as was so frequent on the sheep-runs at the

former place.

At Jugiong, Mr. O’Brien suffered in the loss of lambs from the same

cause; but by occasionally changing the pasturage, it was checked in some

degree; and although lambs were sometimes lost, yet the destruction was

much lessened.

Even when the lambs are not devoured or destroyed by the other ewes,

yet from the miserable condition of the mothers, the shepherds have been

obliged to remove the young from their care, from inability to support

them, when they endeavour to rear them by hand as “pet lambs.” If this

were not done, the ewe would be more weakened by having to nourish her

offspring, so that (as is known from experience) both ewe and lamb would

be lost.

In rearing lambs away from the mothers many perish; and besides, the

shepherds object to raising pet lambs, if it could be avoided, because

they are seldom good sheep; when turned out in the pasturage they become

_poverty stricken_, still looking for the fostering hand that reared them.

At _Narangullen_ a sheep-station, in the Murrumbidgee country, near

_Guadarigby_, before the sheep discovered the spots in which the saline

earth was situated, they brought forth the young in the usual manner, and

the cleansings (if the delivery happened during the night) were found

in the fold, and given as usual to the dogs; but when the earth was

discovered, the lambs were attacked at birth, and the “cleansings” were

devoured, if not timely removed by the shepherds.

At Darbylara (also situated on the banks of the Murrumbidgee river) Mr.

Warby, who has a fine farm at that place, suffered such losses among his

flocks from this cause, that he was obliged to sell those that remained;

yet at _Brungul_, a station about eight miles distant, near the Tumat

river, there was a small flock of sheep which had not shown any of this

morbid appetite, and were in excellent condition.

On visiting Mr. Warby’s farm, the whole had the appearance of being

excellent pasturage, and affording excellent sheep-runs; but about the

pastures there were several pools of brackish water, to which the sheep

resorted, and from which it was found at last impossible to keep them.

At this place again, although so destructive to breeding-ewes, rams,

wethers, and ewes, not breeding, would fatten, and become in the finest

condition, upon the same pasturage.

The sheep at these places eagerly devour the _Azolla pinnata_, which

grows abundantly in the whole of the ponds and rivulets.

At _Guadarigby_ I remarked that the cattle, after they had been turned

out of the stock-yard, invariably came licking the ground about the huts.

After some doubt as to the cause, it was found that the water in which

salt-meat had been boiled, was thrown away about that place; and this it

was that attracted the cattle: they would even attack one another to get

at some places, which had been more impregnated with salt than another.

This inclination of animals for salt is by no means adduced as any thing

novel; it is not confined to those domesticated among the herbaceous, but

also among the wild in that class of animals; for at _Blowrin Flat_, in

the Tumat country, a water hole, nearly dry in some parts, and at others

perfectly so, and similar to those I had before seen frequented by sheep,

abounded in the tracks of the kangaroo; and, on a closer examination,

the earth (which glittered in the sun, as if impregnated with saline

particles) was licked and gnawed, as was done by sheep in other parts of

the country; but it would be difficult to know whether similar results

occurred with the breeding females of the kangaroos.

At _Lomebraes_, (about thirty miles from Goulburn Plains, on the road

to Yas Plains,) the farm of Mr. John Hume, I was also informed that

lambs and ewes had been lost, from similar causes to those I have been

relating. The water of the river which runs through his farm in the

summer season, when the stream is low, is _hard_, even so much so as to

curdle the soap, and prevent any washing with it; but in the winter

season, when the stream is increased, it becomes softer.

It is curious that Mr. Warby mentioned that a number of his cows had

“slipped their calves,” or miscarried, and thought it proceeded from

some poisonous herb they had eaten; but Mr. Hume mentioned that his

cows, which are accustomed when breeding to devour the earth impregnated

with saline particles, “slip their calves,” and he could attribute it

to no other cause. This occurred also at the farms of _Gonnong_, _Mut,

mut, billy_; and at all places where the same propensity of licking and

gnawing the saline earth, and devouring the lambs, occurred among the

ewes, “slipping the calves” occurred among the cows; but I heard nothing

of their devouring the young.

THE ALBATROSS.

(_See_ page 45, vol. i.)

The Albatrosses are the largest of the oceanic birds, and their generic

character (Diomedea) is thus defined:—Bill, very long, stout, edged,

compressed; upper mandible channelled on the sides, and much hooked at

the point; lower mandible smooth and truncated at the extremity; nostrils

lateral, like short rolls and open in front; feet short, with only three

very long toes, entirely webbed, but without any spur or toe behind, not

even the little nail that is seen in the Petrel tribe; wings very long

and narrow, with the primary quills short, and the secondaries long.

The known species are D. exulans, D. spadicea, D. chlororynchus,

D. fuliginosa; and Cuvier also enumerates D. brachyura, Temm., D.

melanophris, Temm.: for the two last species I have not had an

opportunity of referring either to drawings or descriptions. There is a

species found in Bass’s Straits, of which the description is as follows,

copied from my journal at the time: it was captured, during a voyage from

England to New South Wales:—

August 21st, 1832. Fine weather, wind from north to north-east, fresh

breezes. About one o’clock, P.M., land (King’s Island, at the entrance of

Bass’s Strait) was announced from the mast-head, and at the same time an

Albatross was captured with a hook and line from the stern; immediately

on seizing and swallowing the bait, it again rose into the air, and by

hauling on the line, it was safely brought down (as a boy would a kite)

on the deck. Several seized the bait, and flew up with it in a similar

manner, but this one alone was caught; the hook slipping from the

others, and the ship’s way being too great from the stormy state of the

weather, to allow them much line to enable them to hook themselves better

or swallow the bait. This one was the only specimen of the species we

captured.